THE SEED SECTOR IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES
A.P.M. Bay
Managing Director, Sementes de Moçambique, Lda (SEMOC), Maputo, Mozambique

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1. INTRODUCTION

The agriculture sector is of vital importance for the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It contributes about 20% to the Gross Domestic Product, is the major source of employment reaching about 68% of the active population and is a major source of foreign exchange earnings (World Bank, 1997).

The main feature of the agriculture sector in SSA is the low level of productivity, particularly of the predominant subsistence/traditional farming sector, thus agriculture is increasingly dependent on the quality of natural resources endowment. Increased population pressure is affecting traditional cropping systems, particularly shifting cultivation, hence reducing fallow periods and soil fertility.

Environmental degradation, particularly that with direct impact on soil fertility, is also a problem in SSA, which ultimately decreases the amount of available land for food production. Recurrent droughts and desertification are clear examples of consequences of environmental degradation and are becoming major problems in SSA.

The combined effects of increased population growth, reduced availability of arable land and low productivity of present farming systems are perfect ingredients to perpetuate present food insecurity and aid dependence for increasing numbers of SSA countries.

The use of good quality seeds of adapted and improved varieties is widely recognised as fundamental to ensure increased crop production and productivity. This is even more important in SSA in view of increasingly limited available arable lands, declining soil fertility and an ever-growing population. These facts increase the importance of promotion and use of good quality seeds as a means to intensify food production.

Most countries in SSA are experimenting with the transition to a market-oriented economy, which has impacted on most national seed programs. The seed sector as a whole (formal and informal) should be seen as a small part of this much larger macro-economic and policy change. This transition and transformation has implied, in many instances, privatisation of parastatal seed companies, liberalisation of seed prices and trade in general. These changes in the formal seed sector have not been enough to ensure an adequate access by the majority of small-scale farmers to seeds of improved varieties.

The objective of this paper is to review the experience, successes and failures in the seed sector development in SSA based on which ideas and propositions for which a Seed Policy and Programme can be drawn.

2. OVERVIEW OF SEED SUPPLY SYSTEMS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA (SSA)

2.1. Brief historical background

In the past 25 years, most countries in SSA have received some sort of donor support for the development of one or several of the seed chain components (breeding and variety development, seed production, seed processing, seed marketing and distribution, seed quality control and certification). The focus of this assistance has been on the establishment of a formal seed sector by and large similar to, or at least with the same characteristics, of those in countries with a well established commercial farming sector.

Table 1 presents a summary of the main seed program components in SSA as revealed by a survey carried out in the late 1980s (Delhove, 1991). Although many changes have occurred in several SSA countries since this survey was carried out, it still remains as a valid reference for the achievements of about two decades of development support to the seed sector.

Table 1: Status of Seed Programs in SSA

National seed policies were present in relatively few countries. Policies adopted have been found to be inappropriate to address the needs of most African small-scale farmers. Lack of a coherent policy associated with weak seed sector coordination, has been an important weakness in the past two decades. This has been manifested more seriously with a slow flow of improved varieties from breeding programmes to seed producers and thence to farmers.

Likewise, the legal framework has experienced weak development. Seed laws were only found in 10 countries (Table 1). Associated with this, the variety release programmes are also weak, while legislation relative to Plant Breeder’s Rights are only found in three countries, namely Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Seed security arrangements were present in only three countries (Ethiopia, Zambia and Zimbabwe). South Africa has a system whereby seed companies maintain carry over stocks of about 20% of maize seed.

It can be said that in many SSA countries the "hardware" has been put in place, including production and processing infrastructure and equipment, seed testing and quality control, and trained national staff. These are the easiest to achieve by development projects.

Part of the "software", like awareness of the importance and advantages of improved seed use, can be said to be partially in place as well.

Nevertheless, all these development efforts to strengthen the seed systems in SSA have not been able to significantly increase the access of small-scale farmers to improved seeds. Reasons for this as well as a more detailed review are elaborated in other sections of this paper.

When assessing the performance of the formal seed sector, it is important to consider the fact that seed systems in SSA have been greatly strained in the last two decades due to natural disasters, mainly droughts, and due to political instability in several parts of the subcontinent. These have resulted in delays in the overall development of the agriculture sector in SSA. It is in this context that new seed policies and programmes should be designed.

2.2. Review of formal and informal seed supply systems

Farm-saved seed is a common feature of agricultural systems worldwide, particularly in self-pollinated crops and/or those systems where hybrids are not used. estimated that in the mid-1980s, more than 35% of seeds planted were farm-saved. In the USA, about 75% of seeds of crops like wheat, barley and oats are farm-saved, while in Europe similar figures can be found.

In SSA, the seed sector is dominated by informal supply systems, where farm-saved seeds are estimated to represent about 90% of planted seeds .

The formal seed sector comprises all seed programme components, namely plant breeding, seed production, processing, marketing, extension, quality control and certification, that interact among themselves and are usually regulated by laws and regulations.

The existing formal sector can be divided into the private and public sector. The former is more developed in the SADC region, in particular in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia which are the countries with the most diversified and complex formal seed supply system. In other parts of SSA, very close and integrated seed supply systems can be found for export/industrial commodities like cotton and groundnuts. This is also the case in some countries in west Africa. The public sector is either associated with parastatal companies or projects. The latter is the predominant form of organisation in most of the SSA countries, although in some countries seed projects had evolved into joint venture companies (Bay, 1997; Moberg, 1994).

The formal seed sector in SSA generally lacks the presence of small- to medium-size enterprises producing and distributing seeds of improved varieties. This is crucial to guarantee supply of all types of seeds of all crops to the different types of farmers.

The informal seed sector, for the purpose of this paper, has the same meaning as local or community seed systems.

The informal seed sector comprises all those operators that produce and market seeds, without interacting with government institutions that regulate commerce or seed activities. These include farmers, communities and NGOs. However, a distinction should be made for the latter wherever they operate as seed distributors on a large scale (beyond the local community). The main feature of informal seed supply systems is on-farm seed selection and production by individual farmers for their own use, barter or for sale to the neighbours in local markets. They usually do not interact with research or quality control institutions.

Predominance, relevance and importance of the informal seed sector is related to the level of agriculture (commercial versus subsistence) market development and producers integration in it. Countries in SSA that can be referred to as examples are South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya. These countries have a well established and predominantly commercial agriculture sector, thus they have a stronger and diversified seed industry. The role and importance of the informal seed sector is relatively smaller when compared with countries with predominantly subsistence agriculture as is the case of the majority of the countries in SSA.

However, it should be recognised that subsistence/traditional agriculture will not disappear in the short term in SSA, hence it is of utmost importance to count on strengthening this sector for seed supply in the years to come.

The knowledge about local seed systems in SSA is at best scarce, incomplete and inconsistent.

2.3. Developmental role of the formal seed system

Governments frequently overstated the importance of the seed sector so that it was given a developmental role. Indeed, expectations were in many cases that a well functioning seed parastatal would be the driving force for rural development. This perception has led Governments to over regulate the seed sector and underestimate factors like farmers’ needs, market infrastructure and credit facilities, among others.

It is common to find seed programs in SSA countries with advanced seed production and processing facilities, but lacking an operational research sector to support it with an adequate flow of improved varieties.

This top-down approach implied that seed policies emphasised the supply side, neglecting therefore the generation of demand.

2.4. Seed sector policies and legal framework

Many countries in SSA, in the 1970s and 1980s, adopted agricultural policies that favoured collective farming, state farms, large commercial private or joint venture farming enterprises, thus overlooking by and large the needs of small-scale and subsistence farmers. This meant that public sector investments in the agriculture services like research and extension were geared towards the needs of the commercial farming sector. Therefore, policy measures and guidelines emanated by Governments concerning the seed sector did not address the needs and problems of the small-scale or subsistence farmer.

With the advent of structural adjustment programs and shifts towards a market-oriented economy, the formal seed sectors have been shaken by reduced demand, by the need to face more competition and by deregulation and market liberalisation.

Seed policies

As revealed by Table 1 above, relatively few countries in SSA have effective seed policies in place. Some countries do have a policy but frequently lack proper articulation with other sectors directly related to seed sector development, notably research (variety development), markets and extension. This indicates that most countries embarked upon establishing seed programs without a clear and coherent seed policy and strategy.

Past seed sector policies have emphasised the supply side and not paid enough attention to the generation of demand.

Present seed polices are generally inadequate to address problems related to seed supply to all farmers at all times, particularly in the following aspects:

Lack of coordination of all seed sector activities is a common feature in SSA. Some countries have established National Seed Committees or Boards, but they are generally not operational, or lack the participation of important stakeholders like farmers. Establishment and operationalization of such coordinating bodies is very crucial, particularly in defining policy issues.

Seed Regulatory Framework

For the purpose of this paper, a seed regulatory framework includes:

Existing seed laws and regulations are generally very complex, difficult to enforce and inadequate to address the issues and needs related to informal seed supply. However, it is acknowledged that informal sector regulation is difficult to attain and probably undesirable. Therefore, new approaches are required to ensure participation of this sector in a more comprehensive and proactive way to strengthen seed supply in the informal sector.

The seed legal framework, wherever it exists, has not in the majority of cases suffered any changes as a result of the implementation of structural adjustment programmes.

Two main critical areas can be highlighted in the context of seed legislation:

Variety registration

Variety registration presently applied in some SSA countries is very complex and rigid, while National Variety Lists are not updated regularly, therefore presenting an obstacle for new improved varieties to be commercialised.

Considering that open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) are the predominant type of seed presently used in SSA, the registration system needs to be simplified in order to allow quick entrance of new varieties to the benefit of farmers. This is one area where regional cooperation could play a crucial role. Organisations like FAO and international agricultural research centers (IARCs) could facilitate the establishment of regional or inter-country screening for the purpose of creating common variety catalogues. This can only be achieved if there is political will among countries involved, to be able to accommodate such catalogues in the existing legal framework. Existing Regional Organisations (SADC, ASARECA, CORAF) may be good fora to achieve this.

Compulsory registration for countries with small seed markets and uncertain commercial environments may be an obstacle for the introduction of improved varieties. This applies also to minor crops or even OPVs.

Seed quality control

Seed testing, wherever it exists, is very centralised and suffers budgetary constraints, which in many cases put their reliability at stake. A decentralised seed testing system where private sector and farmers’ associations are allowed to carry out this type of activity can be a way to minimise present problems. Government should only retain core activities related to seed testing, monitoring and training of the private sector seed testing analysts. Referee testing is one of the activities that Government seed testing stations should undertake.

Statutory seed standards adopted by most SSA countries are relatively high and thus difficult to attain, particularly by most small seed producers.

2.5. Research and extension

Research and extension will have a key role to play in the drive to reduce by half the present levels of food insecure populations by the year 2015, as established by the World Food Summit, held in Rome in 1996.

Seeds are, by nature, a vehicle for research results to reach farmers. Plant breeding and variety screening need to adopt a more decentralised approach and involve more directly their clientele, the smallholder farmers. On-farm research and participatory plant breeding/variety screening are approaches that have proven to increase chances of adoption and spreading of improved varieties.

Plant breeding and variety screening is an activity found in most SSA countries. A great deal of effort and resources have been spent in this area, including in staff development. As far as its relationship with the seed sector, it can be said that it lacked focus and a more applied approach. National agriculture research systems (NARS) in SSA are experiencing tremendous difficulties in having their results, particularly improved varieties, extended beyond the research stations.

Extension services are present in most of SSA countries, but lack focus on seed issues, hence their contribution to spreading seeds of improved varieties has been very limited.

3. SEED DEMAND AND SUPPLY AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS IN THE SEED SECTOR IN SSA

3.1. Seed demand and consumption

The world seed market, including farm-saved seed, was estimated to be around 127 million MT in 1994, of which Africa consumes about 10% . The commercial fraction of the world seed market is estimated to be valued at US$30 billion. In SSA, the largest commercial seed market is in South Africa with about US$170 million, followed by Zimbabwe with about US$40 million . In general, the seed markets in the remaining SSA countries are fragmented and relatively small.

Heffer (1997) has also concluded that in the period 1980-1994, as illustrated in Table 2, the seed market in SSA is expanding.

Table 2: World Consumption of Seeds by Continent or Region (mill. MT)

Figures presented in Table 2 for Africa are mostly based on planted area and not necessarily based on real demand and consumption, nevertheless it is a useful reference.

Real seed demand, under present farming conditions in most SSA countries, is difficult to determine. Reasons contributing to this are mainly:

Seed supply and availability in many countries is regarded as a public service, therefore seed shortages, particularly of main food crops, are politically very sensitive and governments tend to be blamed for them. This explains why Governments expect seed companies (private and/or parastatal) to be ready to respond to demand at any time, regardless of whether this is due to abnormal conditions (emergency) or are commercially motivated.

Based on crop's reproductive system , there is less justification for small holder farmers to purchase self-pollinated crops such as rice, beans and groundnut seeds, while for sorghum, an open-pollinated crop, there may be more justification.

All the above mentioned factors have influenced both the seed market and the private sector development in SSA.

and Wiggins and Cromwell (1995) argue that seed demand from the formal sector is due to four reasons:

In SSA, emergency-driven demand has been predominant in the last decade, while poverty-driven demand is considered to be chronic and widespread . These two types of demand are clear cases that call for Government intervention through free or subsidised seed handouts, seed vouchers, or credit schemes for seed purchases.

Prediction of emergency and failed crop types of demand is difficult due to its temporary nature of disaster-related demand, while poverty-related demand is difficult to factor in due to absence or limited purchasing power of affected farmers.

The formal seed sector normally addresses demand derived by emergency and commercial farmers, while the informal supply systems usually deals, on a local basis, with the poverty and failed crop derived demand.

3.2. Availability of seeds

Seeds supplied by the informal sector are generally available, assuming that no natural disaster occurs. However, due to the delicate nature of the agro-ecological conditions under which small farmers cultivate, this supply is frequently disrupted due to weather or other factors. Hence, seed availability under these conditions can not be taken for granted and several countries in SSA have indeed experienced seed shortages due to disruptions in this system.

The availability of improved seed supplied by the formal sector in SSA is difficult to quantify. However, availability of improved varieties is relatively limited for sorghum, millet, beans and groundnuts, while for rice and open-pollinated varieties of maize there are plenty of varieties available .

3.3. Adoption of improved varieties and seeds

Improved varieties and quality seeds to be adopted by the subsistence and/or traditional farmers need to present a clear cut advantage to them, either being strictly economic or other characteristics like better storability, resistance to pests and/or diseases, etc. Hence the advantages have to be obvious and attractive.

Considering the high level of seed retention (90%) in SSA, as mentioned above, this clearly represents a great potential for expansion and consequently a major challenge to the seed sector. Nevertheless, spread and adoption of improved varieties in SSA has been very limited.

Constraints to the adoption of improved varieties include, but are not limited to:

As a result of the weak flow of improved varieties, the market life of new varieties in the developing world could well be around 7 years or even longer.

The degree of improved varieties spread and adoption depends greatly on an efficient and strong seed supply system.

3.4. Linkages between input and output markets

The economic advantages of the use of good quality seeds of improved varieties are not immediately perceived or appreciated by subsistence/smallholder farmers in SSA due to the poor prices paid for their commodities at the market place. Price controls in the past have contributed to this. However, presently, poor roads, weak or non-existent marketing facilities, and high transport costs contribute to poor rewards for the small farmer.

In areas with low agro-ecological potential and with poorly developed infrastructure, the introduction of a free market mechanism does not automatically increase farm gate prices and will not necessarily serve as a production incentive, nor will it increase demand for improved seed.

Development of input markets, particularly for seeds, should be accompanied with the development of produce markets able to move surplus production to deficit areas. Without this, farmers’ efforts spent on increasing production will not be rewarded and hence will prevent them from using improved seeds.

Seed companies could be a good mechanism to establish links between input and output markets. This can be achieved by having seed companies, large or small seed firms, directly or indirectly linked to output marketing. In most cases, there are synergies, a clear example being that of seed depots or seed retailers could serve as outposts for produce purchases and simultaneously function as an input credit system. Processing plants can also be used for upgrading grain for the markets, thus commanding better prices to benefit farmers. These mechanisms may be more appropriate and attractive for small and/or local seed firms, which enjoy much more flexibility and lower overhead costs.

Ultimately, the driving force for supply improvements (demand driven) will be the development of markets for food, industrial and other crops.

4. RECENT TRENDS RELATED TO SEED SUPPLY SYSTEMS IN SSA

4.1. Formal seed sector

In the 1970s and 1980s, most emphasis was placed, by both donors and national Governments, in the development of public sector seed programs. During this stage in most developing countries, the influence of socialist policies did not encourage private sector development. However, with the introduction of structural adjustment and liberalisation programs, policies have moved to the opposite extreme, promoting private sector involvement.

As a result of implementation of these policies, some seed parastatals were closed down while others were sold to, or transformed into joint ventures with, multinational seed companies. The privatisation process succeeded in significantly reducing or even replacing entirely government involvement in seed production, processing and marketing. However, in most cases, this process has proved insufficient to respond to the needs of small holders and subsistence farmers .

No transition mechanisms have been put in place to assist in the change from a heavily subsidised market with deeply entrenched government intervention, to a pure free and commercial seed market. This has been the case in most countries that embraced structural adjustment programs since the 1980s. Pressures to privatise have implied that governments did not consider the specific nature of seed markets and the needs and capacity of subsistence farmers to access good quality seeds to sustain increased production and productivity.

The privatisation route followed implied that most of the parastatals and/or projects have been handed over to big corporations and/or multinationals. Governments in SSA, in general, underestimated the potential role of small firms and the indigenous dimension of it. The need for these types of players is supported by the nature of subsistence farming and the paramount problems derived by poorly developed markets, poor road infrastructure and communications, implying high transport cost for seeds.

In the present trend to reduce Government role, in general by increasing private sector involvement, there is a trend to have the research and extension public sectors "outsourcing". This may present an opportunity for the formal seed sector to develop seed restocking schemes for small holders.

4.2. Informal seed sector

In the last few years, the informal seed sector has drawn a lot of attention from governments, NGOs and development agencies alike. It was believed that support to this sector alone could be the solution for the seed supply problems faced by the subsistence farmers. As a result, several initiatives have been undertaken, most of them assuming the form of small-scale seed production schemes established and heavily influenced or directly managed by projects involving either government agencies or NGOs. These presented the same sustainability problem experienced for the large seed projects, only at a smaller scale. It is common for those initiatives to cease as soon as the external support stops.

After about a decade of efforts with several initiatives to promote local seed systems, several authors concluded that these schemes have achieved limited success .

Small seed supply schemes (community-based or otherwise) in order to succeed will need to be closely linked with the public and private sectors, as sources of improved materials.

In countries where there is no, or limited, commercial agriculture, the formal seed sector, particularly the private sector, regards the informal or small-scale seed production as a threat. Although in some cases there may be good reasons for these fears, the informal sector can, if and when made part of a concerted strategy to increase the access and use of improved seeds, open business opportunities for the formal sector. Such a strategy may consider periodic refreshment of smallholder farmers’ seeds supplied by the commercial sector.

Presently it is common wisdom, that only a proper balance of both public and private sector involvement, and a combination of these with the informal sector can contribute to adequately address the seed supply problems faced by farmers of all kinds and sizes .

The advantages and disadvantages of the informal seed sector are briefly presented below as well as a reference for this analysis.

Advantages of informal seed supply systems:

Disadvantages:

5. A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SEED SECTOR SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Jaffee and Srivastava (1994) argue that government intervention is needed whenever "the investment falls below social optimum, in order to induce greater private investment or to undertake the activity itself." This is indeed relevant in many parts of SSA where markets are small, under developed, with no basic infrastructure and are disaster prone (drought).

When attempting to identify comparative advantages between public and private seed sectors, it may be useful to bear in mind this argument.

The following comparison will be carried out for the main seed components and then summarised in Table 3.

Sources of breeding materials and improved varieties

The public sector is better equipped to embrace a larger range of crops and types of seed and varieties. The need for profit returns limits the choices of crops by the private sector.

Seed production

Both public and private sectors can have their seeds produced under contract by individual farmers, therefore reducing their overhead costs and risks. However, small seed firms operating at the local level have the advantage of being more efficient in catering for small quantities and small niche markets.

Seed processing and storage

Due to the capital investment required for these operations, the public sector has options to source financing. This is particularly true in the financial and economic environment in most SSA countries.

Returns on investments in seed operations are usually long-term and low.

Seed marketing and distribution

The private sector has the advantage of flexibility and quickness in response to clients’ demands, but may be much more limited in the scope of coverage (limited outlets).

In a monopoly situation, the public sector is in a much better position to offer cheaper prices than the private sector.

Seed testing and quality control

This is a typical area where the public sector has an advantage. The private sector only invests in this type of activity if justified by the economies of scale, or when public sector services becomes a bottleneck to business operations, and even so, this may not be attractive for them.

Table 3: Summary of Comparative Advantages and Disadvantages between Public and Private Sector Supply Systems

6. SEED SECURITY FOR RURAL FARMING COMMUNITIES

6.1. Relevance

The need to have some sort of seed security arrangements appeared during the last decade and only after major disasters had occurred. The awareness for a seed security strategy is presently a priority issue in an increasing number of countries in SSA.

The relevance of seed security is underlined by the fact that a large proportion of SSA farmers live in fragile environments characterised by relatively infertile soils, with low or erratic rainfall and are exposed to soil erosion. Crop losses for these farmers tend to be more recurrent. They normally live in remote areas, with little or no infrastructure, difficult access to markets and to alternative sources of income, other than farming. These factors aggravate the impact of drought or other types of disasters.

6.2. Issues

A major issue concerning seed security is to determine if it is a public or individual/private responsibility. In view of the role that seeds play in the subsistence and well being of millions of farmers, it appears appropriate to consider it a public sector responsibility. It is the government’s task at least to lead the process, to create the necessary conditions to attain seed security and also to bear the cost of at least part of it, whenever required.

A major constraint for establishing seed security stocks nationally or regionally is financial. This constraint will remain in SSA for the foreseeable future.

6.3. Approaches

Sikora (1997) presents presents a comprehensive summary of FAO approaches to seed security.
Approaches complementary to those presented by Sikora include among others the following:

The trend of some seed companies in SSA to make investments beyond their borders, thus becoming more regional in their operations (e.g. SADC region), presents an opportunity that can help diversify the options for seed security, particularly at the regional level.

A major obstacle for this approach may be posed by present seed trade barriers, including variety registration, phytosanitary requirements, stringent quality standards, lack of plant breeder’s rights protection and other red tape obstacles (e.g. government restrictions on imports, export controls).

When establishing a seed security system in SSA, the approaches should be as diversified as possible and involve all major stakeholders.

7. ANALYSIS OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS/ RISKS OF THE SEED SECTOR IN SSA

For the purpose of this paper, strengths and weaknesses are considered to be internal to the agricultural sector and the seed sector in particular, while opportunities and constraints/risks are more external to them.

The following analysis of strengths and weaknesses of the seed sector in SSA provides the necessary basis for the formulation of policies and strategies, which shall take advantage of the strengths and mitigate the weaknesses of the sector.

7.1. Strengths and opportunities

Plant breeding

Several countries in SSA have long-established research and breeding institutions that have accumulated experience and trained staff. This represents strength to build upon.

It is considered an opportunity that plant breeding programmes which are part of the CGIAR system are well established in SSA and have advanced breeding materials that can be used by national plant breeding programmes.

Seed production, processing, marketing and distribution

There are facilities for seed production and processing relatively well established in the formal seed sector in SSA, and with enough capacity to process seeds of most important food crops. The processing facilities are presently mostly under-utilised.

Multinational seed companies are established in several SSA countries which presents a potential for expansion as the market conditions and the necessary incentives are created. Further development in this direction will strengthen the seed production and supply system in SSA.

The restructuring of the formal seed sector, particularly of production, processing and marketing activities previously undertaken by parastatals in SSA, presents an opportunity for the public sector in these countries, to embrace more decentralised and cost-effective seed activities directed to small holders’ needs.

Experiences accumulated over the years with several types of initiatives to support local seed systems in several countries in SSA represents a strength that can be built upon in the future.

Seed quality control and certification

The quality control and seed testing facilities in several SSA countries are relatively well established and equipped with trained staff able to cope with existing quantities of certified seed produced. In most cases the capacity is under-utilised.

The publication of FAO’s "Quality Declared Seed" guidelines presents an opportunity to embrace some form of simplified seed quality control that can be implemented with relatively limited resources.

Seed security

There is a good wealth of knowledge about seed security approaches, options and some experience gained with several types of initiatives, particularly those at the local level.

The existing seed storage infrastructure in several countries can be considered an advantage for seed distribution and marketing, as well as the establishment of seed security stocks.

Other factors

The introduction of a free market for grains will be an incentive to the subsistence farming sector to produce more, thus contributing towards a potential growth of improved seed demand.

7.2. Weaknesses and Constraints/Risks

Related to the public sector in general

For the tasks expected to be undertaken by the public sector (from breeding to extension), the main constraints are related to the employment conditions of civil servants. The prevailing difficult financial situation of most governments in SSA leaves very little incentive to retain the most qualified and trained personnel. This results in trained staff moving to posts with better remuneration. The inevitable entrance of the private sector, particularly multinationals, and foreign NGOs will only accentuate the competition for the best trained staff.

This implies risks for the seed sector, especially concerning maintenance of key staff of research, extension and quality control.

Overall sector coordination

A major weakness of the seed sector in SSA is an overall lack of coordination and cohesive strategy to develop the entire sector.

Plant breeding

Most countries in SSA have not yet addressed the issues concerning plant breeders’ and farmers legal rights to exploit new varieties and incentives for plant breeding. A major weakness is the absence of conditions under which publicly bred varieties can be accessed and used by the private sector. This prevents the public sector research institution from generating dividends from its breeding work.

Financial constraints are the main limiting factor for plant breeding programs in SSA. The plant breeding sector is still small and incentives for plant breeding activities by the private sector are insufficient to allow for further investments or establishment of indigenous and/or foreign plant breeding companies.

Absence or very limited work to collect and register valuable indigenous germplasm is a common problem in most countries in SSA.

Seed production, processing, marketing and distribution

As the result of the restructuring process facing seed parastatals, there is the potential risk of a break down of the formal sector breeding and seed production capability. This part of the seed sector carries out a number of activities which are necessary to successfully implement on-farm seed production schemes. The cessation of these activities may seriously affect these schemes.

It is a general weakness of the production and processing activities that generally only very few companies, indeed in most countries only a single company is involved, hence reducing competition which is of vital importance in a demand driven environment.

The costs of seed production and distribution by the formal sector result in prices that render certified seed largely non-affordable for the small holder farming sector at present.

The commercial sector does not have the capacity nor the incentive to produce vegetative propagating material, with the exception of potatoes (Irish). Production of improved vegetative planting materials of cassava and sweet potatoes is presently carried out on a very limited scale.

The recurrent disaster situations in SSA, calling for seed relief operations, constitute a major risk for the development and normalisation of an improved seed market.

Marketing and distribution is hampered by a number of constraints, of which the most important are the high transport costs, lack of farmer organisations, low purchasing power of the majority of small holders and lack of credit facilities for farm inputs.

The determination of real seed demand for different crops cultivated by the subsistence farmers at distinct agro-ecological conditions is a complex and difficult task.

On-farm seed production systems suffer from considerable weaknesses, namely:

Seed legislation, quality control and certification

The necessary legislative framework and regulations for seed issues are weak and need to be more flexible in their approach.

Variety approval and release mechanisms, where they exist, are complex and National Lists of approved varieties are not updated on a regular basis. This reduces farmers’ chances to assess new improved materials.

The lack of common variety catalogues or variety approval mechanisms on a regional basis in SSA, also forms a barrier for spreading the use of improved varieties across borders and limits the scope of cover by IARC networks.

The seed certification schemes, wherever present, are complex and difficult to enforce. In all cases, they do not contemplate quality control measures for seeds produced and supplied by the informal sector.

Improved seed promotion

The extension systems in most of SSA countries face the following weaknesses related to seed matters:

Other important limiting factors relevant to seed sector development

Several countries in SSA will continue to be particularly vulnerable to natural disasters due to large proportions of small holder farmers living in disaster-prone areas and their prevailing limited resources and capacity to alleviate the effects of such disasters. These natural disasters present risks, particularly to the subsistence farmers, of losing their own seed stocks, resulting in increased poverty and food insecurity.

The weak agriculture marketing infrastructure, as well as the lack of alternatives for the small holder farmers to sell their products, constitute a major constraint to increased production and hence of improved seeds demand.

8. POLICY AND STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE SMALL-SCALE FARMERS ACCESS TO PLANT MATERIALS AND SEEDS OF IMPROVED VARIETIES

8.1. Policy framework

The overall policy framework is set by the following documents endorsed and approved by most countries in SSA:

The "World Food Summit Plan of Action" has established as a target the reduction of the number of undernourished people to half their present level by the year 2015.

The "Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilisation of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture" has established as a priority "supporting seed production and distribution".

A general policy should be geared to facilitate and encourage the use of quality seed in agriculture with the objective of improving yields, diversity, and quality of agricultural products, for the benefit of farmers and society at large.

The promotion of quality seed will address all sectors of agriculture, with special emphasis on the needs for food crops in the smallholder agriculture sector, without prejudice for the generation of improved varieties and seed to satisfy the needs of the commercial sector of agriculture.

8.2. Strategies

The public sector will play the main role in policy formulation, planning, programming, technical orientation and as facilitator for seed sector development.

These objectives can be achieved through several strategies for each seed sector component outlined below.

Overall sector coordination and legal framework

It is the public sector’s responsibility for the overall coordination, supervision and regulation of seed matters through relevant agencies.

The public sector should undertake to ensure the participation of representatives of all major seed sector stakeholders in the national and/or regional sector coordination bodies.

It is recommended that SSA countries adopt flexible and simple seed legislation enabling the establishment of a diversified seed supply system and conducive to increased regional seed trade.

Research and plant breeding

The need for stronger research and plant breeding as a fundamental support for agricultural development in general and the seed sector in particular is widely recognised.

Resources available should be directed with priority to applied research and plant breeding programmes.

The public sector should undertake to engage itself directly in research and plant breeding activities and create an enabling environment for the participation of the private sector in these activities.

Basic research needs should be out-sourced through:

Special attention should be given to improving vegetative planting material of important crops, which are not met by the private sector. This includes, but shall not be limited to, screening and selection programmes of cassava, yams and sweet potatoes, and the upgrading of programmes for multiplication and dissemination of improved planting materials.

Variety testing and release

The public sector should facilitate the establishment of a system for variety evaluation with consumers’ participation (farmers’ organisation, extension, etc.) and wherever feasible the evaluation system should be regional or across countries. This shall lead to a common catalogue of improved varieties to be updated regularly.

Seed quality control and certification

Provision of necessary services for seed certification and quality control such that it ensures farmers’ protection and promotes the use of improved seeds by all farmers.

In the area of seed certification, a decentralised approach should be adopted by establishing a system for accrediting field inspectors and official seed samplers, who may be employed by farmers’ associations, private as well as public entities.

Seed production and processing

The public sector should promote and facilitate cost-effective seed production systems, and shall encourage and facilitate the introduction and development of new seed enterprises, particularly small to medium size, in order to create a more competitive environment and broaden the base of seed production and supply.

The public sector should restrict its involvement to seed production and processing activities only in those crops, varieties and types of seeds that are of major importance for agriculture, but not attractive enough for the private sector (small, medium or large) at its present state of development. Particular attention should be given to early generation seeds (basic/registered) necessary to support small-scale seed production.

The public sector should undertake the responsibility to initiate the establishment of centers for vegetatively propagated crops, promoting the participation of the private sector in these activities, whenever feasible.

NGOs should be encouraged to reinforce rural community assistance for the development of local capacity enabling farmers to solve problems of seed deficits with local seed production activities.

Marketing and distribution

The public sector should support and facilitate private trading and entrepreneurship, for dissemination of seeds to all sectors of the farming community, while direct intervention will be targeted only for those types of seeds which are of major importance for agriculture but are not addressed by the private sector.

The public sector should undertake the necessary measures to support and encourage private sector efforts to improve the farm input supply systems and the establishment of credit facilities.

The distribution of seeds, free of charge or subsidised, should be restricted as much as possible to areas affected by natural calamities.

Establishment of an enabling environment for seed import and export activities by the private sector should be made a priority for national legislation.

Improved seed promotion

Promotion of good quality seeds of adapted varieties used by all farming sectors should be the primary responsibility of the public sector. This shall be carried out mainly through the extension services, addressing the issue of new improved varieties as well as the physical quality of seeds.

The public sector should actively support dissemination of information about varieties and seed issues to farmers by making such information available for all interested parties, e.g. NGOs, commercial companies, and development agencies;

The extension services should furthermore:

Informal seed production and supply

In order to ensure an adequate flow of good quality seeds to the subsistence farmer, the public sector must recognise the importance of the informal seed supply systems in SSA countries and that this sector will have to rely and depend upon seed production activities conducted in the formal seed sector. Therefore, the public sector should embrace such policies and strategies conducive to:

These measures aim at improving the quality of farm-saved seed used by the subsistence farmers and those seeds bartered within the rural communities.

Seed security

The establishment of a seed security system should be undertaken by the public sector ensuring the adoption of the most flexible system possible, and involving the private sector and the rural communities wherever feasible and necessary.

9. CONCLUDING REMARKS

In most SSA countries, the low level of agricultural development (subsistence farming) discourages the use of hybrids or even certified seeds. In the absence of a hybrid maize seed market or even for certified seed of OPVs, there will be no incentives for the private sector to get involved in such countries. Farmers are left without the possibility of having access to improved seeds hence they will be prevented from benefiting from plant breeding. In this case, subsistence farmers have limited chances to increase production and productivity and thus reduced chances to accumulate capital to overcome the subsistence level of farming. This is the vicious circle that millions of SSA farmers are presently subject to.

This may justify consideration for a "third way" or transitional phase between heavily subsidised seed supply and a pure free market supply. The justification of this "third way" is given by the non-commercial nature of the agriculture sector in most of the SSA countries. This approach is called for, particularly to address the needs of farmers in marginal areas (poor agro-ecological conditions, low soil fertility, etc.), or in areas where markets are not yet fully operational due to lack of infrastructure, or crops that are not attractive enough for the formal sector.

The recommended seed policies and strategies outlined in this paper are based on what has been assumed as common characteristics of the seed sector in the vast SSA region. It is acknowledged that these are general and will need to be adjusted to the different political and economic scenarios prevailing in each country.

10. REFERENCES

Moberg, S. 1994. The research and seed project in Zambia. IDR Currents, 7, April, 22-24.

 

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