SEED PRODUCTION AND IMPROVEMENT:
ASSESSMENT FOR THE NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
(SEED SECURITY FOR FOOD SECURITY)
Seed and Plant Genetic Resources Service (AGPS),
FAO, Rome, Italy

1. INTRODUCTION

Achieving national food security while reducing environmental degradation and the depletion of natural resources is one of the important challenges facing most countries in the Near East and North Africa. Most governments in the region have invested significant resources into strengthening their agricultural capacities. In addition, the region has received assistance from bilateral and multilateral development agencies to attain food security. However, despite these efforts, the food self-sufficiency ratio in the Near East and North Africa has been falling by 1% each year mainly due to high population growth. As a result, the 1996 World Food Summit concluded that more assistance and realistic approaches in the agricultural sector are needed if food security is to be achieved and sustained in the region. In response, the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action has established the foundation for diverse paths to guaranteeing food security. The strengthening of the seed supply sector is one of the main strategies for the Near East and North Africa (FAO, 1997a).

Guaranteeing farmers ongoing access to quality seed can only be achieved if there is a viable seed supply system to multiply and distribute the seeds of plant varieties that have been produced or preserved and if mechanisms to assist farmers in emergency situations have been established. Agricultural policies aimed at achieving food security in a country must emphasize seed system strategies that will ensure the availability of quality and locally-appropriate seed varieties to men and women farmers in a timely and affordable fashion.

An in-depth assessment of the seed supply sector in the Near East and North Africa is essential before any realistic strategies for future development of the seed sector in the region is designed. In this document, the seed supply sectors of 22 countries in the Near East and North Africa are examined and issues relevant to the seed production and distribution in the region are also evaluated. Furthermore, the document analyzes important linkages between the seed supply systems and other services offered to farmers in the region. Alternative strategies for policy makers that can be adapted according to the prevailing conditions in each country are also explored.

The document is comprised of five chapters. The first chapter briefly describes climatic and agro-ecological features of the Near East and North Africa, socio-economic conditions, and natural resource conservation and management. The agricultural sector of the region is assessed in the second chapter. Seed and food security in the Near East and North Africa is evaluated in the third chapter. The fourth chapter entails an analysis of the seed supply sector, and final chapter discusses opportunities for future improvements, actions to strengthen the seed sector in the region, and a brief conclusion. A summary data of the agricultural and seed supply sectors in the Near East and North Africa is attached as an annex to this report.

1.1 Agro-ecological and Socio-economic Setting

1.1.1 Agro-ecological zones in the Near East and North Africa

Rafiq (1982) described ten agro-ecological zones in the Near East and North Africa. However, for the purpose of this document, only the three most important will be described. The hot sub-tropical desert, which dominates the landmasses of most countries in the region, extends through Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria. Agriculturally, these countries have very low potential except for a few areas where irrigation projects have been developed or oasis agriculture is practiced. The area under perennial crops and forest is negligible in this ecosystem, as 70% of the land is desert or semi-desert. It is estimated that desertification in the region, is progressing at 0.5% annually, and most countries are well aware of the implications of the deserts rapid encroachment.

Next in landmass is the arid sub-tropical Mediterranean region which covers most of Pakistan, southern Afghanistan and Iran, and the coastal areas of Egypt and Libya. Throughout most of these zones cropping is only possible with irrigation. However, there are areas, some quite small, where water sources have been exploited for agriculture. In a few rare instances, like the irrigation projects developed in Libya, vast sources of underground fossil water have been exploited for agriculture. These areas support nomadic tribes that survive on livestock farming. The rangelands have a very fragile natural resource base, and as in most parts of the region, rangelands have been over-grazed and over-exploited to the limit of irreversible degradation. Sustainable agricultural production in these rangelands could only be attained with careful handling of the resources to conserve the fragile environment.

The semi-arid Continental Mediterranean region, which covers northern Afghanistan and Iran, and most of Turkey, is characterized by winters and low winter rainfall suitable for winter wheat. With an annual precipitation of 400- 800-mm, this region is assured at least one good cropping season. Arable lands in such areas are predominantly used for cereal cropping of wheat, barley, maize and sorghum. A short rainy season also occurs in the spring when a growing season of about 60 days is sufficient for short-season crops like grain legumes (chickpea, cowpea, faba bean, sesame, common bean, etc.) and small millets. Irrigated agriculture and orchard cropping is also carried out in cool semi-arid mid-elevations in several countries. This area also has a high potential for quality seed production.

In the agro-ecological zones of the rest of the region, rain-fed crops are grown, but yields are usually low. In addition to rainfed agriculture, major irrigation projects have been successfully carried out in Egypt, Morocco, Turkey, Algeria, Iran and Iraq.

1.1.2 Economic status of the countries in the Region

The economies of most countries in the region are dominated by the oil industry. However, depressed oil prices, and rises in non-oil commodity prices, have seriously hurt the region’s economies, particularly those of the major oil exporters. For instance, in 1994 oil prices reached their lowest levels since 1973 and prospects for significant increases in prices, at least in the short-term, do not appear encouraging. These problems have resulted in economic reforms focused on improving economic efficiency and reducing external debt. As a result, most governments have recognized agriculture as critical for the overall development of the region.

Although there are large variations among countries, the agricultural sector plays an important role in the economy of many Near East and North African countries. It employs on average 25.7% of the working population, ranging from 1.3% in Kuwait to 56.1% in Yemen and shares on average 15.1% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), ranging from 3.1 to 41.4% (FAO, 1996; Le Buanec, 1997).

In regard to food export, several countries on the Mediterranean rim in the Near East and North Africa export agricultural products such as olives, dates, citrus fruits, and cotton to lucrative markets in Europe and thus obtain valuable foreign exchange earnings. For example, Iraq produces 80% of the world’ dates. Saudi Arabia and, more recently, Syria are exporters of wheat. Countries such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Jordan, Libya, Tunisia, and Morocco have made remarkable advances in controlled environment farming of horticultural products for both domestic consumption and the export market. These efforts have generated foreign exchange as well as seasonal employment opportunities.

1.2 Natural Resource Conservation and Management

The Near East and North Africa region is the center of genetic diversity of some of the world’s major food crops such as wheat, barley, oat, rye, lentil, pea, oats, beet, artichoke, olive, grape, onion, garlic and date palm (FAO, 1996b). However, most countries in the region have reported the extinction of some plants from their center of origin. Genetic erosion is generally caused by the replacement of local varieties by "improved" or exotic varieties, in addition to population pressure and urbanization. Overgrazing and environmental effects are mentioned as important factors contributing to the decrease in natural genetic variability in Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen.

The natural resource base on which agriculture in the Near East and North Africa depends is under extreme stress. Land resources are scarce and poor, and the situation is being exacerbated by rapid desertification. Only a small percentage of the region’s area is arable and the area under perennial crops and forests is small. Much of the land has steep slopes and/or shallow, rocky or saline soils that are unsuitable for cultivation without extensive and expensive reclaimation work. Much soil is lost annually to erosion by wind and water, and rangeland vegetation is degrading under the pressure of overgrazing. Due to the rising demand for food, continuous cereals are replacing the traditional cereal-fallow rotation, which further depletes land and increases the virulence of diseases, undermining the sustainability of production. The conservation and maintenance of land and its productivity are, therefore, of crucial concern.

Given these conditions, new technologies to increase system productivity must take into account the fragile environment on which they will depend over the short- and long-term.

 

2. THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

The agricultural performance in the region is characterized by pronounced fluctuation over time. In fact, the Near East and North Africa region has the highest year-to-year variability in crop production than any other developing region. For example, compared to the previous year, the region’s agricultural production increased by 3.3% in 1992, 1.5% in 1993, 2% in 1994, and slowed to 1.7% in 1995 (FAO, 1995, 1996). Furthermore, higher population growth rates largely outpaced increases in food production registered in the past four years, resulting in reduced levels of per caput food production.

Although the agricultural potential also varies widely among countries, the region’s agricultural resource base in general is subject to a number of common constraints (FAO, 1994c). The most pressing is low and erratic rainfall, which severely limits food crop production. Fragmented landholdings, a scarcity of arable land and a lack of adequate infrastructures, such as transport, communication, research extension services and marketing systems are additional constraints in rural areas. The serious degradation of natural resources caused by soil erosion, desertification, waterlogging and salinity are other factors that inhibit agricultural growth and threaten sustainable food production.

Crop and livestock farming are the main agricultural pursuits of most small farmers in the region and wheat and barley dominate the agricultural production. Wheat is the staple food crop and barley is the major feed source and, to a lesser extent, a human food in practically every country where it is grown. There has been rapid progress in genetic improvement of these two crops, especially in more favorable agricultural areas. However, the new varieties have generally not been adapted or accepted by the farmers who generally work under adverse conditions.

Wheat and barley have registered a steady increase in production since the last two decades. This increase was mainly due to expansion into new farming areas, improvement of productivity in favorable areas mainly by the use of improved varieties, and appropriate management practices in certain countries. However, despite this increase the region is still a net importer of wheat and barley (FAO, 1995). To further raise the production, agricultural policies that promote crop productivity in marginal land areas should be encouraged. The development of varieties that are adapted and accepted by most farmers working under agricultural constrained conditions and the strengthening of on-farm seed production appears crucial throughout the region.

The most important food legumes are faba bean, chickpea, lentil, and, to a lesser extent, dry pea. Faba bean is grown extensively in the wetter coastal zones and is produced under irrigation in North Africa. Chickpea is adapted to areas receiving 350-450 mm annual rainfall and lentil is cultivated in drier zones in the Near East. These three crops account for nearly 73% of the total area cultivated to cool-season food legumes in the region. Within the last few years, several national projects for legume improvement have been developed; most of which are supported by the International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA). While legume breeding is now receiving more attention, there is still lack of good legume cultivars and seed production of food legumes is relatively undeveloped in many countries in the region.

2.1 Dependence on Food Imports

Most countries in the Near East and North Africa region rely heavily on food imports to meet their increasing food demands. The region is the largest food-importing region in the developing world, with its food self-sufficiency ratio falling by 1% each year. Agricultural importation now accounts for 25% of its total imports. In the past decade, the import of important staples such as cereal, livestock products, vegetable oils and sugar have increased substantially.

In monetary terms, ICARDA (1993) estimates that the value of total food imports into the region increased more than four-fold from approximately US$ 3.6 billion in 1969-71 to about $ 16.6 billion in 1988-90. For instance, cereal imports increased from 8.1 million tones between 1969-71 to 44.3 million tones between 1988-90. Cereal imports are being projected to reach 78.7 million tones by the year 2010, with wheat as the largest single cereal commodity imported (wheat represented 65% of all cereal imports in 1988-90) estimated to reach 44 tones by the year 2010. Furthermore, due to the rapid degradation of native pastures, livestock production is currently depending almost entirely on imported cereal grain and straw, increasing coarse grain imports faster than wheat or rice. For instance, between 1969-71 and 1988-90, coarse grain imports increased 13-fold to 13.3 million tones and are projected to reach 20.3 million tones by the year 2010.

These large increases in imported agricultural products have led to a sharp rise in foreign exchange expenditures on food imports. The projected increases in food imports may not constrain the oil-producing countries, but would certainly aggravate the balance of payment in other countries in the region, especially the Low-Income Food Deficit Countries (LIFDC) such as Afghanistan, Mauritania, Egypt, Morocco, Pakistan, and Yemen. Most of the LIFDCs in the region spent on average over 25% of their merchandise export earnings on food imports.

It has been estimated that food production increases would have to be sustained at over 5% a year to keep pace with the projected food and feed gap. However, efforts to increase domestic food production in the region have been mainly hampered by the scarcity of arable land.

2.2 National Agricultural Policies

Most Near East and North Africa governments recognize the importance of agriculture in the economy. Therefore food security, economical reform and sustainable agricultural development are high priorities in national development plans. A primary objective of agricultural policies in most countries in the region is to achieve self-sufficiency in strategic crops.

In general, due to structural adjustment programs, the general targets of economic liberalization and market-oriented reforms have dominated the policy environment for agriculture. However, the efficiency of operations has been constrained by technical, financial, social, and infrastructure limitations and agricultural markets are still, in many cases, heavily regulated in the region. In some countries, prices of basic food items have been controlled to keep the cost of living down, and others have subsidized producer prices for wheat, barley and agricultural inputs. These policies have presented difficulties for privatization, and as a result, major policy shifts have been required in most countries to promote agricultural liberalization. For instance, Algeria made a policy change in April 1994 by liberalizing its agricultural policies through a reduction in the producer price support for cereals, pulses and other selected crops, an increase in interest rates, and a reduction in or the complete elimination of direct and indirect input subsidies.

2.3 Agricultural Research

While agriculture is the major user of land, water and biological resources (Bonte-Friendheim et al., 1994), and the rise in population and animal pressure in the region has increased competition for these resources. The rapid growth in urban population and industrialization is putting added demands on the fresh water supply and further limiting the possibilities of expanding cultivable land. Efficient agricultural research systems are therefore critical if sustainable food security is to be achieved in the Near East and North Africa region.

Given the agro-ecological diversity of the region, the constraints faced, and the location specificity of small-farmers production problems, the expertise research institutions can offer appears critical to increasing food production. The National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), which work to increase agricultural productivity and profitability in the Near East and North Africa, will continue to play a major role in national and regional development. Most NARS in the Near East and North Africa are composed of various national agricultural research institutes, agricultural universities, private sector firms, NGOs and farmers’ organizations. However, the role each institution plays in agricultural research varies from country to country. Furthermore, since the major agro-ecological zones in the Near East and North Africa are diverse, the type of crops grown, the technological input requirements and the major research objectives also differ within the region.

The International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) and their sub-regional centers also contribute to the development effort of the region. IARCs and their regional networks supply training facilities, information, technological packages and valuable seeds of newly developed varieties through their crop development networks. For instance, Turkey is collaborating on variety development with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) for wheat and maize, the International Potato Center (CIP) for potato, the International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) for wheat, chickpea, and lentil, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) for rice, and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) for dry bean. Libya receives germplasm mainly from CIMMYT, ICARDA, and the Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD) for evaluation. Governments in the region also receive strategic and policy advice from FAO to strengthen their research systems.

The major problem confronted by most NARS and IARCs in the region, especially in the 1990s, has been declining and unstable funding levels. Growing uncertainty regarding the stability of donor funding was highlighted at the World Food Summit and is recognized as one of the major constraints to future food security in the region and throughout the world. In this regard, national and regional political and financial commitments to investment in agricultural research have been recommended (FAO, 1996c). Another constraint has been that many of the national and international agricultural research programs in the region lack participatory approaches to incorporate indigenous knowledge of traditional production systems.

2.4 Agricultural Extension Services

Agricultural production has close linkages with extension. It is the responsibility of the extension services to provide advice to farmers regarding seed selection, treatment and storage, and to share information regarding the release of new varieties and to demonstrate their characteristics. Without an effective extension system responsive to farmers’ needs, it would be difficult to develop a seed supply system, particularly an on-farm improved seed production system, which requires extension services. Extension can also serve as a feedback mechanism as agents are exposed firsthand to farmers’ impressions on seed of improved varieties or technology.

In the Near East and North Africa, reports from 22 countries have shown that most countries have operating extension services that are carried out by both the public and private sectors. However, most of services offered by the public sector are less efficient mainly due to financial constraints, deficient transportation, lack of incentives to motivate extension agents, and lack of appropriate varieties that farmers find acceptable. Due to these constraints, many countries have limited the number of services provided by the public sector. For instance, in Jordan extension is limited to promotion of the use of good quality seed, whereas in Yemen extension services strictly offer technical assistance. In the private sector, NGOs are also active in agricultural extension.

The lack of efficient national extension services was mentioned by the majority of governments at the twenty-second FAO regional conference for the Near East as one of the major constraints to agricultural development in the region (FAO, 1994c). Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Morocco, Mauritania, Turkey, Afghanistan, and Pakistan specifically expressed the need to strengthen their agricultural extension services.

2.5 Availability of Agricultural Inputs

To maximize their genetic potential, improved seeds often require purchased inputs such as fertilizers, pesticide, herbicide, and irrigation water. In the Near East and North Africa, these commodities are generally imported, and therefore require substantial foreign exchange, the demand for seed is likely to be affected by their availability and price. In most cases, the public sector is responsible for agricultural development programs including the provision of agricultural inputs to farmers. Many governments in the region such as Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey have adopted the policy of subsidies for some agricultural inputs, thus reducing the cost of improved seed production and increasing its use for higher productivity (Bishaw et al., 1997). However, the move towards a market-oriented economy in most Near East and North Africa countries is diminishing the role of public sector in agricultural development.

Changes in agricultural policies will inevitably impact the cost of crop production and may further reduce the number of farmers capable of affording the required agricultural inputs to maximize crop yields. Even now, the majority of farmers in the region, especially those working under marginal conditions have been unable to purchase inputs even when subsidized by the governments. However, it has been argued that the supply of inputs such as fertilizers is less critical than the benefits small farmers derive from improved seed, as long as the seed varieties offered are well-adapted to small farm environment and low input crop management practices of traditional production systems.

2.6 Quality Seed and Agricultural Development of the Near East and North Africa

The availability of quality seeds of a wide range of varieties and crops to farmers is one of the major keys for achieving food security in Near East and North Africa. Some of the direct benefits accrued to farmers from the distribution and use of good quality seed of improved varieties include enhanced productivity, higher harvest index, reduced risks from pest and disease pressure, and higher profits. Seed is also critical to the optimum use of natural resources and, according to its provenance and the breeding goal, seed determines the requirements for inputs such as pesticides, fertilizer and agricultural technology. When production increases through use of improved varieties in a given area, self-employment potential through processing, marketing, and related activities can bring about a general improvement in the quality of life.

3. SEED FOR FOOD SECURITY

3.1 Seed and Emergency Situations

Seed is mostly supplied in the Near East and North Africa by the informal seed supply systems whereby the farmer saves part of the harvest or exchanges with the farmers in the community. To a lesser extend, the formal seed supply systems delivers certified seed to some farmers on a regular basis.

There are situations where the supply of seed is interrupted, such as during ecological or large scale civil disturbance. In recent times, some countries in the Near East and North Africa have undergone frequent food shortages brought about by natural calamities as well as complex internal strife such as in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Iran, forcing the governments to spend their foreign resources to purchase food. Such situations place additional strains on economies and can cause tremendous economic setbacks. This situation has received the attention of several governments, donor community, and regional networks such as the West Asia and North Africa network (WANA).

Seed is one of the primary needs of farmers displaced because of war and natural calamities. In the past, most affected countries received seed aid based mainly on humanitarian grounds, often with little consideration of the seed variety and its quality aspects. While such assistance has benefited some countries in the short-term, especially in easing food shortages, the poor performance of untested seed material, severe genetic contamination or complete displacement of local landraces and farmers’ varieties, can cause disruption of the informal seed sector and damage the traditional production systems of a country. In some instances, non-government organizations (NGO) and other donors have purchased food grain from neighboring countries and distributed the grain to farmers. This practice may introduce new problems of pests, diseases and weeds. Seeds brought in by relief operations continue to be distributed in disaster areas with little attention paid to the greater danger of genetic contamination and/or displacement of traditional varieties. Since most farmers in the Near East and North Africa save portion of their harvest as seed for the following year, this problem may continue long after the emergency and jeopardize the future national agricultural development and food security. Clearly, coordination is needed between emergency relief and long-term development assistance programs to avoid problems such as introduction of inappropriate crop varieties and pests.

Furthermore, national, regional, and global strategies are necessary to cope with emergency situations. If a region in a country is affected, as in the case of the civil war in Eritrea and Ethiopia, the rest of the country can supply the required seed, provided that national seed programs are well established. On the other hand, if the whole country is affected, the crop varieties can be supplied by other countries in the region or from the regional IARCs and international development agencies such as FAO, the World Food Programme (WFP) and UNDP, and NGOs. Such assistance can help the country resume its seed production without serious threat to the production program. However, as it has been the case in most emergency interventions, responses have been ad hoc and voluntary. There has been no standing capacity to respond appropriately to such disasters; no clear description of responsibilities, no co-ordinating mechanism to bring the various agencies and organizations together for planning and implementation of emergency seed supply during and following disasters. This increases the risk of supplying inappropriate seed and planting materials and jeopardizes the sustainability of future agricultural systems.

In response to these difficulties, the intergovernmental Leipzig Conference has given FAO the mandate to coordinate, in collaboration with the World Food Programme (WFP), the United Nations High Commission for the Refugees (UNHCR), the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief (UNDRO), the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), NARS, IARCs, regional plant genetic resources networks, governments of the countries affected, donor countries, and NGOs, programmes for rapid acquisition and multiplication, restoration and provision of seed to countries in need. The efficiency of this type of co-operation has been recently demonstrated in Afghanistan (Tunwar, 1996).

To become food self-sufficient, farmers should have on-going access to quality seed in normal and crisis situations. Viable seed supply systems to multiply and distribute the seeds or plant materials that have been developed or preserved are critical for the success of food security programs in the Near East and North Africa. Countries in the region should therefore develop seed security policies that assure a ready seed supply in the quantity and quality needed of acceptable/suitable varieties and which are affordable to farmers.

3.2 Irrigation and Infrastructure Improvement for Food Security

The rapidly growing populations in the Near East and North Africa are exerting immense pressure on the agriculture sector to expand and provide more food. However, rain-fed farming has already been pushed in most areas to the driest limits, and there are already difficulties in maintaining production in the existing agricultural area. The uncertainty of rainfall is one of the major causes for crop failures in most countries of the region. Therefore, to ensure stability in agricultural systems, it is imperative that countries develop land use management policies that promote soil and water conservation and other natural resource management practices. In addition, conservation programs are needed to harvest water from seasonal rains and exploit ground aquifers for small farmers.

Other alternatives include the development of irrigation systems. While Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan, and Qatar have over 80% of their arable land under irrigation, there are still many countries in the region such as Algeria, Mauritania, and Tunisia that have only under 10% of their total arable land irrigated (FAO, 1996). The FAO is well placed to use its technical and advisory services to help countries negotiate for water rights and assist countries in developing small, medium and large-scale irrigation programs, which could increase sustainable food production levels.

Without investment in water infrastructure supported by reformed institutions, the prospects for improving seed and food production are dim in the Near East and North Africa. Water control infrastructure should not be developed in isolation, but should be part of wide-ranging area development programs. At the design level, public authorities should be responsible for the construction and operation of dams, headworks and main irrigation and drainage canals, while farmers’ associations or the private sector should be responsible for managing, and, when possible, building the on-farm distribution system. Obviously such schemes require large sums of money and innovative ways to finance irrigation.

The success of irrigated agriculture also hinges on appropriate technology. Inadequacies in market systems, storage facilities, management of agricultural produce and credit sources have contributed to failures in the past. These constraints can be overcome through sound government micro-economic policies designed to facilitate increases in production and to ensure the economic viability of projects. Furthermore, costs of irrigation development can be reduced by employing national engineering and construction firms for the design and construction of projects and by contracting local manufactures to produce the irrigation material. Policies should encourage the development of a local irrigation industry, including a manufacturing base and servicing sector.

3.3 Plant Genetic Resources and Food Security

Crop development has for centuries depended on the utilization of gene pools that have evolved through natural selection in a multitude of diverse eco-systems. However, the genetic diversity of plant resources is rapidly being reduced in certain regions including the Near East and North Africa due to natural and human activity. Without a global effort to preserve biodiversity, there will be little that plant breeders can do to extract genes for incorporation into new varieties needed to withstand stresses and ultimately enhance the quantity and quality of food crops over the long-term.

Many international, regional, and national organizations have developed a global mandate to conserve genetic resources and minimize genetic erosion. The role played by the farming communities, including those in the Near East and North Africa, in the utilization and conservation of heterogeneous traditional varieties has been recently recognized by the world scientific communities as critical to the future of agriculture. Although many of these landraces have been lost through replacement of modern varieties in various agricultural systems, there are still ecological niches and remote areas in the Near East and North Africa where indigenous germplasm is nurtured and utilized.

In regard to the collection and conservation of plant genetic resources, apart from Turkey, few countries in the Near East and North Africa have well-functioning medium and long-term storage facilities. Pakistan and Iran have good long-term facilities while Egypt and Morocco have facilities with limited capacities. For instance, only forage and pasture species can be stored under long-term conditions (-18° C) in Morocco. Both Egypt and Morocco store accessions of other species in active collections and have proposed to create national genebanks. Active national collections are also found in Iraq and Yemen. In Cyprus, Syria and Tunisia efforts have been made by various institutions during the last decade to build medium-term storage facilities for the conservation of national collections. However, these facilities are hampered by maintenance problems that reduce their efficiency. In the other countries, ex-situ conservation activities are either poor-existent or in the process of being developed.

Field genebanks are also found in different parts of the Near East and North Africa, and are especially used to maintain collections of fruits, nuts, olives, garlic, and onion. The accessions stored in field genebanks throughout the region have been reported to be approximately 10,000 (FAO, 1996). Turkey has reported to have 12 genebanks for fruit trees at various institutions. However, lack of funds for maintaining collections is cited by many countries as the most common constraint to in-situ collections. In addition, most of the conserved materials are rarely distributed for use. Of the nine countries with national field genebanks, only Pakistan has a significant distribution of about 10% of material a year to national breeding programs. The IARCs are also contributing to the preservation and utilization of germplasm in the region. CIMMYT maintains 13% of most of the wheat ex-situ collection, and ICARDA holds 33% of the faba bean, 30% of the lentil, 15% of the chickpea, and 5% of the barley collections.

4. SEED SUPPLY SECTOR

The seed supply sector in the Near East and North Africa is mainly comprised of the formal and informal seed supply systems. The formal seed supply systems include public and private seed sectors. Seed certification and quality control services are generally provided by the public sector throughout the region. The informal seed supply systems include indigenous strategies used by farmers to improve the quality and quantity of seed.

Most of the countries in the region are involved in international seed trade. Wheat, barley, potato, and vegetable crops are the most important crops for the seed market. Cotton and sugar beet seed trade is also significant in Egypt, Turkey, and Morocco. In all, seed exports are annually estimated to be around $ 20 to 30 million. However, seed imports are far larger than exports. The total value of imported seeds is estimated to be nearly $ 200 million, which represents roughly 7% of the total international seed trade (ICARDA and GTZ,1997).

4.1 Current Status of the Near East and North Africa Seed Supply Sector

The status of the formal seed supply system in the region varies from country to country. With regard to seed supply sector development, three distinct groups have been formed in the region (van Gastel, 1993). Morocco, Turkey, and Pakistan are examples of countries with well-developed formal seed supply systems, particularly in regard to cereals and to a lesser extent legumes and forages. These countries have seed laws and an operating certification system for the main crops, and varieties are carefully evaluated before release. Egypt, Jordan, Tunisia, and Syria are examples of a second group that includes countries with reasonably well-developed infrastructures for a few cereal crops such as wheat and barley. However, the production of seeds of other cereals and pasture and forage crops is limited. In these countries, seed quality control activities are considered weak and are only partially or not at all covered by official regulations. The last group comprises countries with virtually no formal seed supply system development. In this group, only a very small amount of seed of the most important crops is produced, and seed quality control activities are essentially absent. The seeds produced are highly subsidized and no seed laws and certification systems exist. In these countries, which include Yemen, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman and United Arab Emirates, often the quality seed only reaches the more developed, larger farmers.

Despite initiatives by a few countries such as Pakistan to launch on-farm seed production projects in the region, the informal seed supply systems have been generally left out of development efforts throughout Near East and North Africa. As a result, lack of quality seed of improved adapted varieties at the farmer-level is one of the most important constraints faced by the formal sector to increase productivity.

4.2 National Seed Policies

Many governments in the Near East and North Africa have recognized the importance of quality seed in contributing to increased agricultural productivity and production. The main seed policies of most governments in the region is to ensure the wider use of quality seeds. In the 1980’s, efforts in improving the national seed supply systems focused on the public sector and relied heavily on subsidies for seed and agricultural inputs. However, due to the structural adjustment programs initiated over the past decade, the focus has switched to the private sector as governments’ subsidies have been removed to encourage private sector involvement. Nonetheless, the high frequency of droughts and other environmental constraints have required continuing public involvement in the seed sector. Morocco, Egypt, and Israel, all have a comprehensive, well-defined seed policy. Cyprus and Turkey are countries which have a seed policy, but which does not cover all the components of the seed supply sector. There are also countries such as Iraq, Syria, Yemen, and Jordan, which lack a defined seed policy, but have seed plans within the national agricultural policy. Although these countries do not have clear seed policies, they do have special committees responsible for advising governments on general policy issues such as determining seed requirements, seed regulations, technical standards and control of seed trade. In Iraq and Jordan this organ is called the "Committee for seed of Agricultural Crops".

All countries in the region have some form of seed legislation. Generally, this is presented in two forms; seed laws or legislative acts and seed regulations or ministerial decrees. For example, Morocco, Egypt, Pakistan have a separate seed law with associated regulations, while Jordan, Cyprus, and Syria have seed legislation as part of the general agricultural law.

In those countries where a seed policy exists, it is generally designed to promote the formal seed supply systems. Although Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Syria, and Yemen have claimed that their seed policies support the informal seed sector, only Pakistan has a clear policy on the development of the informal sector.

4.3 Seed Supply Systems

4.3.1. Formal seed supply systems

The formal seed supply systems in the Near East and North Africa are carried out for the most part by the public sector, but private companies are also involved especially in Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Tunisia, and Turkey. It is also common that seed supply systems are assisted by donor agencies in the region.

However, despite substantial assistance, the formal seed supply systems are currently not meeting more than an average of 10% of seed needs of farmers in the region. This is illustrated by the Seed Replacement Rate (Table 1), which is the ratio of the quantity of seed supplied by the formal seed supply systems over the total amount of seed required to plant the crop in a country for a given cropping season.

Table 1 - Seed replacement rate of main cereal crops in some countries in the Near East and North Africa

Country		Crop		Theoretical seed Requirement (t)		Seed Supplied by the Formal Seed Sector (t)		Seed Replacement Rate (SRR)
Algeria		Wheat		204,000		130,000		63.7
		Barley		165,000		31,400		19
Jordan		Wheat		7,680		5,442		70.86
		Barley		9,150		1,583		17.3
Mauritania		Maize		225		3		1.33
		Rice		18,400		54		0.29
Morocco		Wheat		366,000		73,790		20.1
		Barley		387,300		431		0.1
Pakistan		Wheat		966,960		77,697		8
		Rice		210,700		2,662		1.3
Syria		Wheat		186,360		162,665		87.2
		Barley		284,100		13,812		4.8
Turkey		Wheat		1,152,000		113,152		9.8
		Barley		510,000		10,839		2.1
Yemen		Wheat		12,000		992.4		8.2
		Sorghum		4,480		37.8		0.08

Source: FAO, 1995. Yearbook Production; Ahmad, 1995, Balikcioglu, 1996; Zentani, 1995; Hussein, 1996; Country Reports; Madaratti and Sayed, 1995.

The figures presented in Table 1 show that only a small portion of the seed required is produced by the formal seed supply systems. Furthermore, the low rates highlighted in the table include only the main cereal crops, as few initiatives have been undertaken in other food crops such as legumes, arid and semi-arid crops, and vegetatively-propagated planting materials. In addition, the figures do not include seed export, which would further reduce the estimation of seed covered by the formal seed supply systems.

Seed research and variety development. Although programs vary widely in essence and content, the primary agricultural research activities in most countries in the Near East and North Africa involve variety development, testing throughout the country, release and registration, variety maintenance and breeder seed production. Plant breeding, the source of modern varieties, is the backbone of the formal seed sector and is exclusively a government undertaking in almost all countries in the region. As a result, there has been little demand in the past for Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBRs), except in countries such as Morocco, Turkey, and to a lesser extent Pakistan and Jordan where the private seed sector has been involved in plant breeding. However, due to the recent need to involve the private sector in most activities of the seed supply sector, there has been a growing demand for the introduction of PBRs throughout the region. As a result, most countries have been either preparing or re-enforcing their Plant Variety Protection Acts despite the fact that many countries have objected to the privatization of some activities including the breeding of strategic crops and variety testing and release for all crops (Bishaw, et al., 1997).

The IARCs and their regional networks are also major contributors to all aspects of variety development research, training, and information dissemination on improved genetic material. Most national breeding programs utilize advanced breeding lines provided by the IARCs and their regional programs. Syria, Morocco, Qatar, and Libya have also mentioned the Arab Center for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD) as one of their sources of advanced breeding lines. Technical advice, infrastructure development, and research management skills are also provided by international agencies.

The problems that face most national seed research and variety development programs can be summarized as follows:

(i) as reported by 41% of countries in the region, there is a limited level of technical competence and lack of trained technical staff in areas vital to plant breeding. As a result, the public sector strongly rely on expatriate technical assistance in plant breeding;

(ii) variety evaluation procedures used in many countries in the region except for Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia are considered to hamper the release of superior varieties; and

(iii) despite the efforts made by most NARS and IARCs to provide improved varieties to farmers, there is a general lack of good seed varieties adapted to marginal land areas in the region.

Hybrid seed development. The public seed supply sector still plays a significant role in hybrid maize breeding, producing 49% of all the hybrid maize seed sold in the region. In particular, Turkey and Morocco have relatively effective formal seed supply systems for maize hybrid seed production. CIMMYT has trained plant breeders and provided several countries in the region with germplasm required starting maize hybrid seed production programs.

The use of hybrid seeds have increased in recent years. For example, in 1993, 87% of commercial maize seed sold in the Near East and North Africa was hybrid seeds (CIMMYT, 1993). Hybrid vegetable crops are also being used in many production systems in the Near East and North Africa (FAO, 1995). In the case of vegetables, however, multi-national seed companies produce and supply hybrid seed from Europe. Only Jordan has a substantial production of its own vegetable hybrid varieties in the region.

Biotechnology application. Resources such as arable land and water are limiting factors in the Near East and North Africa and extreme climate and land degradation put severe constraints on agricultural systems. Every possible avenue to increase crop productivity and food availability has to be sought. In this context, the use of recent advances in biotechnology could be helpful in increasing food production in some situations. There is already much interest in biotechnology and public sector programs are at various levels of development. Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey have been applying some biotechnological methods (mainly tissue culture) within the last 5 years. However, except for a few countries that have commercial applications such as Morocco, Turkey, and Israel, most of these programs are still at the experimental stages, and programs are already plagued with serious funding limitations and a lack of trained staff.

Without external assistance, efforts in biotechnology may not be sustainable. Some international organizations have been offering assistance in the application of advanced plant biotechnological techniques. For instance, FAO has been working in Iraq, ICARDA is assisting Syria, and the UNDP has been assisting Egypt and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) has been working with the countries of Egypt and Kuwait. Japan has been active in improving the biotechnology capacities of the United Arab Emirates and Qatar.

Most biotechnological research carried out at universities and through research centers are confined to the country itself. Interaction and regional cooperation between institutions and private industry dealing with biotechnology could maximize resources and reduce costs. Furthermore, most institutions involved in the application of plant biotechnology have not been involved in formulating national policies, and only a few countries have national plans for biotechnology development.

The adoption of improved varieties in the region. While the adoption of improved varieties varies from country to country and from one crop to another, few farmers living in marginal land areas of the Near East and North Africa have adopted improved varieties produced by the NARS and the IARCs in the region. Despite substantial efforts by governments to produce improved crops, especially cereals, the regional average of areas grown with improved cereal varieties is estimated at 60% for wheat, 38% for barley, 48% for rice, and 25% for maize (Sgaier, 1993). The percentage is even lower for vegetables and pulse and feed crops. For instance, Turkey has 10% of the total vegetable crop area under improved varieties, and Afghanistan has only 3.9% cultivated under improved varieties. Concentrated efforts at the national and cultural, regional and international levels to increase the use of quality seed are therefore essential.

The adaptation of new technologies including improved crop varieties is usually influenced by socio-economic factors. In the Near East and North Africa, these factors can include among others, size and grouping of families (extended or single family system), financial status of households, access to inputs, credit and markets, price ratios, and land tenure systems as well as farmers’ traditional preferences and labor requirements of the new variety. Due to the economic status of resource-poor farmers in the Near East and North Africa, the high cost of seeds of improved varieties often discourages their use. In addition, seed traders in the region usually increase prices to avoid losses incurred when seed lots retained by traders cannot be sold. Therefore, economic policies that are favorable to farmers should be carefully designed to promote the use of improved varieties by farmers. These policies include realistic exchange rates, remunerative prices to farmers for their produce (the risk element of producing a particular crop must be taken into account), and a set of other policies, which reduce the risks associated with farming.

The availability of credit to farmers has been considered by many governments in the region to be critical for the adoption of improved varieties by small farmers. However, results from a survey conducted in Pakistan found that the availability of credit is not a significant factor affecting the adoption of improved seed by small farmers. The study concluded that the agro-climatic adaptation of the variety, including yield superiority and sensitivity to planting date, and socio-economical factors such as farm size were more critical variables (Heisey, 1990).

A need assessment of limited resource farmers is necessary before new varieties are developed and introduced. Such a study could provide information on the needs and resources of the farmer and the climatic and edaphic conditions of a particular target area. The survey could also guide policy makers in their decisions that would favor the on-farm production and utilization of improved varieties by farmers.

Seed production systems. While seed production in the formal seed supply systems of the Near East and North Africa differ from country to country, many systems follow similar principals. In general, seed production requires a stepwise process, which is vertically organized. It starts with pre-basic seed developed from a national or international research system. The pre-basic seed is increased to basic seed, which in turn is multiplied into registered seed from which certified or uncertified commercial seed is produced and sold to farmers. There are a series of regulations and procedures to be followed from one multiplication cycle to the other, and technical competence of the seed industry staff is important throughout the production cycle. Seed producers are required to have a good knowledge of the crop and its phenotypic and genotypic traits.

Improved seed is required to go through a series of seed handling processes before it reaches the growers. These processes which include seed processing, distribution, and marketing require a certain level of seed standards.

There are few countries of the Near East and North Africa that have developed good seed processing facilities. In most countries, seed processing facilities are distributed throughout the country, but in Libya the most important of the cereal seed processing plants are in the desert (Zentani, 1995, Mission Reports). Seed packaging is usually done in bags of 25, 40, 50, and 100 Kg. For instance, Morocco uses 100-Kg bags for wheat and barley, 50 Kg for potatoes, and 25 Kg for maize (Mission Reports). Common problems in seed processing and distribution are related to the malfunction of the processing plants, contamination from different source seeds, and a break down in the seed supply system due to transport problems. Adequate management is needed to successfully operate processing plants, and training of technicians is crucial across the region if the seed produced by the formal sector is to reach the standards expected (Sgaier, 1993).

Another vital aspect of the seed industry is the function of conditioning and storage, which must be adequate to preserve the physical characteristics of the seed specified by regulatory standards. For storing certified and lower grade seed, less rigid principles need to be followed. Seeds should be naturally or artificially dried to the moisture content recommended for each variety and stored in well-ventilated, low humidity facilities. These parameters, if met properly, are adequate for short-term storage. Egypt, Turkey, Morocco, Israel, and Jordan where there is a strong presence of private seed industry, have good storage facilities. However, the storage facilities in other countries of the Near East and North Africa are generally inadequate. To enhance storage conditions, Libya stores its surplus seed in desert areas, and Yemen stores all its wheat seed and some other cereal seed in the highlands where humidity is lower (Zetani, 1995; Hussein, 1996). On the other hand, due to problems in transporting the seed from storage facilities to arable farming areas, these decentralized schemes are causing an increase in distribution costs. However, despite a favorable climate for storage and good storage facilities, Egypt has estimated losses of up to 20% of seed in some crops under the Principal Bank for Development and Agricultural Credit (PBDAC) storage facilities (El-Wanis, 1995).

Most seed companies in the formal seed supply systems have their own channels of seed distribution. The public sector usually has outlets in areas where they are most active. Seed should be supplied to these outlets before the beginning of the growing season. Village cooperatives and commission agents are used for seed distribution and are paid a certain percentage for handling charges.

The major problems confronted by seed distribution systems in the formal seed supply sector are related to transport and handling of the seed. In many countries of the region, seed marketing is also a weak link in the seed-production chain, limiting farmers’ access to seed. On the other hand, private seed industries, which have a business approach to seed production and distribution, have improved the seed marketing network in some countries such as Egypt, Turkey, Morocco, Israel, Pakistan and Jordan. Marketing of imported vegetable seed is a well organized operation of the private sector in Jordan and has been marginally successful in a few countries such as Turkey and Egypt.

It may be beneficial for countries that are striving to increase their activities in the international seed trade to be effectively involved in the international seed organizations including ISTA, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the International Seed Trade Federation (FIS), and Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV). However, in the Near East and North Africa only Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey, and to a lesser extent, Cyprus and Iran, are considered to be members of the international seed organizations. The remaining countries are partially or not at all involved with these organizations. Lack of cooperation with international seed organizations may decrease countries opportunities for export of seeds, thereby limiting the needed private sector involvement in the seed supply sector.

Government investments in rural infrastructure and general agricultural policies, which are generally determined in most the Near East and North Africa countries independently from the needs of the seed supply sector, can indirectly exercise a profound influence on the growth and structure of the seed supply sector. Investments in rural roads, markets, and storage facilities can substantially reduce the cost of producing improved seed by decreasing the transportation, processing and distributing costs.

4.3.2 Informal seed supply systems

The informal seed supply systems is comprised of farmer managed seed production activities and is based on indigenous knowledge and local diffusion mechanisms. It includes methods such as retaining seed on-farm from previous harvests to plant the following season and farmer-to-farmer seed exchange network (Cromwell et al., 1992).

There has been little or no emphasis on the informal seed supply sector and little is known about its operation in the region. As a result, documentation with regard to the informal seed sector is scarce. For the purpose of this assessment, the information was collected through reports generated by experts who visited the region and documentation from some countries such as Pakistan, Mauritania, Afghanistan, Morocco, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia and Turkey.

Despite more than three decade of investment in agricultural research and formal seed supply systems by bilateral and multilateral organizations, more than 90% of seeds used by farmers in the Near East and North Africa are still being supplied through the informal systems. The reasons for high this reliance on the informal systems by farmers for their seed supply are multiple and varied and depend upon country, farming community, and crop. However, some major reasons can be summarized as follows;

(i) it is difficult, under the prevailing conditions of most countries of the Near East and North Africa, for the formal seed sector to reach every farmer in the region; and

(ii) most improved varieties produced by the formal seed supply systems are targeted at the few better endowed farmers living in areas where rainfall, irrigation and other means of production are easily available. The varied needs of the majority of farmers working in marginal land and those living in more remote areas and not easily reached are seldom met.

Due to prevailing farming practices, specific requirements of the macro- and micro-ecosystems, and the socio-economic situation in most rural areas, most farmers must act as plant breeders and select their own traditional varieties. In the informal seed supply systems, seeds and planting material are either shared or sold to neighbors at low prices. Although the seed quality, both genetically and physically, may not be as high as those in the formal seed supply systems, the advantages of low price, adaptability and easy access to seeds of traditional varieties substantially offset the difference in quality. Therefore, the informal seed supply system remains the most important source of seeds for most farmers throughout the region.

It should be noted that although farmers’ varieties usually have better adaptability and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses compared to many of the available improved varieties, these qualities tend to degrade with time. It is therefore clear that unless action is taken to strengthen the informal sector in on-farm seed production, handling and storage, the majority of farmers in the Near East and North Africa will continue to be denied the benefits of modern crop improvement programs.

Due to the prevailing conditions in most of the Near East and North Africa countries, farmer-based seed production efforts appear to be critical for developing effective seed supply systems. Advantages to this model are its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. An effective on-farm seed production system would require that:

(i) surveys be conducted to identify the biological, social, and economic factors of the varieties important to farmers;

(ii) breeders collaborate closely with farmers on such seed production programs;

(iii) local germplasm be collected for long-term storage in genebanks for future multiplication and use in production; and

(iv) seed legislation take into account the low level of technology and minimum quality control procedures that are practiced at the farmer-level. Assistance by the FAO to governments in the region may be needed for the development of legislation.

When seed program initiatives are implemented in harsh environments it may be difficult to reach target population if unexpected calamities occur. Adequate safeguard measures often cannot be made in time to protect the seed and planting material. In order to avoid these risks, some remedial measures should be taken:

(i) areas with some assurance of irrigation or adequate rainfall should be selected and farmers from such areas trained to produce seed;

(ii) the quest for short-season and drought resistant varieties should be the focus of plant breeders, using the genetic material from already existing landraces and other appropriate sources of (disease and pest resistant) germplasm;

(iii) as has been done in some Asian countries, farmers should be kept informed through radio and other mass communication systems of early warning of sudden weather fluctuations. Mass media can also provide advice on crop management;

(iv) with investments and support from rural development organizations, every possible water source should be developed;

(v) farmer groups should receive training on a regular basis, to assure the sustainable on-farm production of high quality seeds; and

(vi) local banks and other lending organizations should be approached to provide credit as an incentive to farmer groups interested in on-farm seed production.

In the informal seed supply systems in the Near East and North Africa, seed distribution operate mainly, but not exclusively, between households within communities. However, lines of supply have been observed in some countries to be extended over a relatively wide geographical area (Cromwell and Wiggins, 1993). Under this type of seed distribution scheme, a wide variety of exchange mechanisms are commonly used to transfer seed between individuals and households including cash sales, barter and transfers based on social obligations. The quantities of seed exchanged in the informal seed supply systems are often very small compared to amounts traded in the formal sector organizations.

In the formal and informal sectors, seed promotion and extension is an important component of the marketing system. To sell a product, it must first be preferred by the users, attractively displayed, available at times the farmer requires, available in quantities needed, and correctly priced. Critical to marketing are programs to educate farmers about quality seed. Demonstrations, field days, and farmer-to-farmer field visits can be used to raise awareness among farmers. It is encouraging to note that countries in the region are increasingly realizing the advantages of a good distribution and marketing strategy.

A system of improved on-farm seed production has been described and adapted in some Near East and North African countries. In this system, the researcher’s involvement terminates at the foundation seed stage. The seed is sold to farmers who take over the function of multiplication, harvesting, drying, processing, storage and marketing. The seed processing is usually done manually at farm-level, and the commercial seed is sold as ‘truthfully labeled seed" to other farmers. Such seed normally conforms to all the technical standards required in the notification of a variety, although it is not certified. A farmer-based model of this type is especially suitable for the production of vegetatively-propagated planting material for root and tuber crops. Farmers could also improve the management of open-pollinated crops once some training is given on the various aspects of on-farm seed production.

4.4 Integrating the Formal and Informal Seed Supply Systems

Integration of the public and private seed sectors has been essential for the successful development of the seed industry in several countries of the Near East and North Africa. A similar integration of informal and the formal seed supply systems is critical to the development of sustainable seed supplies necessary for the level of agricultural productivity needed to feed the growing population in the region.

Due to poor performances by most formal seed supply systems and to demands of structural adjustment programs, most Near East and North Africa governments are presently cutting subsidies to the seed sector. As a result, government involvement in providing agricultural inputs, marketing, and research and extension services is being reduced. These changes have led to a greater emphasis on privatization of the seed supply sector (van Gastel et al., 1997). However, because it is not economically viable, private seed companies do not produce seeds for subsistence crops or for farmers living in marginal land areas.

In response, some NGOs have engaged in seed projects to enhance the ability of traditional communities to produce and distribute on-farm seeds, especially in Pakistan, Egypt, and Mauritania. Such initiative should be promoted and the formal seed supply sector, which has technical expertise in seed production, should also be involved in strengthening the effectiveness of NGO activities by improving their technical seed production capacities and providing logistical support to on-farm seed production programs (Cromwell et al., 1993).

Without collaboration between the formal and informal systems it will be difficult to achieve substantial improvement in seed production in most countries in the Near East and North Africa. Collaboration is also fundamental to the preservation of farmers’ traditional varieties and protection of indigenous germplasm from genetic erosion.

4.5 Linkages in the Near East and North Africa Seed Supply Systems

Research, extension, input supply services, distribution and marketing are some of the major component that determine the effectiveness of any seed supply system. The neglect of any one component in the seed development chain affects the entire seed supply system. Furthermore, changes in policies of one component may have adverse effects on the performance of others and jeopardize the development of an emerging seed supply system. Some examples of what may result when linkages are not adequate are:

(i) new varieties may be produced by agricultural research institutions, but do not have the attributes required by farmers;

(ii) distribution channels for improved seed may have suitable varieties available but fail to reach small farmers in a timely manner, at affordable costs, or at accessible locations;

(iii) distribution channels for complementary inputs may be ineffective; and

(iv) extension services or agricultural credit institutions may fail to provide the necessary support to farmers.

All the above points could lead to low adoption of improved seeds, thus affecting the development of a seed supply sector.

The majority of seed programs in Near East and North Africa have been promoting seed system development independently to research capabilities, extension services, rural infrastructure, and farmers’ socio-economical conditions. It is also paramount that linkages in seed supply systems be considered when defining seed strategies that are best suited for a country. In addition, it is important to be aware of potential negative repercussions to the seed supply sector if changes in other policies concerning services offered to farmers occur.

5. THE WAY FORWARD: OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT

The seed production and supply systems in Near East and North Africa are at various levels of development. Since the informal seed supply systems have been generally excluded from development initiatives, variations among countries are mainly in the formal seed supply systems. The majority of countries have reasonably functional formal seed supply systems for the most important cereal crops, but only few could claim well-operating formal seed supply systems. However, in all countries seed production of other cereals, vegetable crops and pasture and forage species is underdeveloped. Initiatives in on-farm seed production are underway in some countries, but progress in this area remains generally modest.

Issues related to seed have in recent years become increasingly more important and more complex and multidimensional. Seed supply systems cover not only seed, but also plant genetic resources. In most countries of the Region, seed related issues are the subject of ongoing debate among policy-makers, professionals, farmers, farmers' organizations and investors.

Production and food security dimension. Seeds are the single most important input in crop production. They carry the genetic potential of the variety and determine the ultimate productivity of other inputs. The main role of other inputs in crop production is to exploit to a maximum the genetic potential of seeds. Therefore, seeds are and should always be the basic element of any food security scheme.

Trade and legislation dimension. It is estimated that the value of seed import in the Near East and North Africa alone is about US$ 200million, with hardly any export. With the advent of the Uruguay Round Agreements and their impact on the international trading system, countries are obliged to review their national regulatory legislation in the relevant sectors. A number of these agreements have direct impact on the seed systems.

Liberalization reforms dimension. Privatization is touching practically all sectors in the Region with agriculture and the seed sector being no exception. In many countries it is no longer a question of whether or not to privatize the sector, it is rather a question of when and to what extent. The move towards privatization will require wide-ranging reforms and policy adjustments on the part of governments.

Emergency rehabilitation of disaster areas dimension. Provision of seed in emergency situations constitutes a major first step in the rehabilitation of agriculture in most of the stricken areas. Due to a lack of seed stocks and poor infrastructures, countries rely on donations of seed from outside the country. In many cases this can bring many problems including - pests, diseases, and unsuitable varieties.

In collaboration with other organizations and donor agencies (e.g. DANIDA) FAO has spearheaded efforts to build viable national seed systems in developing countries to develop international guidelines needed to regulate production and movement of seeds (Kelly, 1989). While some of the factors and problems, which have hampered seed sectors development in the past, still persist, the situation now is compounded by the emergence of new concerns, discussed above. Policy makers are facing new challenges and problems that require changes in policies and strategies.

5.1 Constraints to Seed Sector Development

Factors impeding development of the seed sector in the Near East and North Africa are all inter related and therefore demand attention if high quality seed production and utilization is to be achieved. Instability of climatic conditions, particularly fluctuation in rainfall, is among the chief factors seriously affecting seed production in the Region. Other factors contributing to poor seed production include weaknesses in the agricultural research and extension systems, outmoded production and processing facilities and lack of trained personnel. Furthermore, the use of farmer-saved seed and farmer-to-farmer seed exchange has considerably reduced the actual demand for certified quality seeds.

While some of these constraints are directly affecting the productivity of the seed sector, other limiting factors are related to policy measures. The following sections divided into production- and policy -related constraints outline limitations in the Near East and North Africa seed supply systems.

5.1.1 Production and supply-related constraints

Variety development. Variety development is the foundation of any seed supply program. Based on country data and findings reported by experts who visited the Region, constraints in variety development can be summarized as follows:

(i) Lack of organized programs for breeding and release of new varieties in several countries. Even in countries with good crop improvement programs, there still exists a shortage of good varieties adapted to marginal and rain-fed farming areas;

(ii) Imbalance in variety development as a result of plant breeding and variety development programs being limited to a few crops, principally wheat and barley. Despite their importance in the local diet, grain legumes, vegetables, and forage crops receive less attention, if any, compared to cereals;

(iii) Prolonged variety evaluation procedures commonly used in the region often limit the release of superior varieties; and

(iv) Poor maintenance of varieties after they are released often leads to rapid deterioration and a sharp decline in farmer confidence.

Low adoption of improved varieties. To date, the adoption by farmers of most improved varieties produced in the region has been low, thus slowing the development process of the seed sector. Adoption of new varieties in the Near East and North Africa has been constrained by:

(i) Lack of breeding objectives, which correspond with the needs of farmers. The major breeding strategies have in the past concentrated on increasing yield potential through fertilization, crop protection, and the development of resistance characteristics. Variety adaptation to the cropping systems of the farmers, their storage methods, and the biotic and abiotic stresses (this often has high priority for small farmers in the region) are seldom addressed. Furthermore, farmers often have specific culinary, organoleptic, and other culturally specific requirements that have rarely been taken into consideration by breeders;

(ii) Low adaptation of the new varieties to most farmers’ conditions. The selection process for these new varieties is carried out under high input conditions and is, in many cases, outperformed by the traditional varieties under low-input management systems common to most farmers; and

(iii) Lack of on-farm variety testing for farmer evaluation.

Rural infrastructure. Rural road networks and irrigation projects are critical for the development of seed supply systems of the Near East and North Africa. There is an insufficient rural road network in many countries of the region and, as a result, it is difficult to transport seed from processing plants to farmers. On the other hand, poor road conditions also prevent farmers from marketing their produce, which adds to food insecurity.

Low availability and high value of land. Arable land is scarce in most countries in the region and the value of land and labor is high. Land scarcity, which increases the cost of seed production, was indicated by several countries as being the most restricting factor to seed development. The lack of land has also been one of the major constraints to private involvement in seed production and has prevented many farmers and private companies from getting involved in on-farm seed production in these countries.

Erosion of plant genetic resources. Nearly all countries recognized in their Country Reports that plant genetic erosion is a serious problem in the Near East and North Africa. According to these reports, plant genetic erosion is caused by the replacement of local varieties by genetically uniform high-yielding varieties, by population pressure; by overgrazing, and by environmental degradation. The loss of traditional varieties, which have diverse characteristics, is reducing the gene pool available to breeders. Therefore, governments must institute strategies for the conservation of plant genetic resources. However, it should be recognized that the conservation of germplasm by itself is of no value if it is not used to develop new products and varieties, which will increase the yield of crops.

Lack of seed security stocks. Most countries of the region lack strategic reserves for use in emergency situations. In some countries, the storage of seed reserves is carried out in central locations by parastatal seed agencies, but only for wheat and barley and for a small percentage of the total seed requirements of farmers. Infrastructure for the storage of seed security stocks at a centralized and decentralized level should be established. This can help to avoid the disruption of agricultural production and loss of local genetic material due to natural and man-made calamities.

5.1.2 Institutional and policy-related constraints

National seed policies are institutionally rather than farmer based. As is the case in most developing countries, national seed policies in most countries in the Near East and North Africa have been designed to promote national seed industries. Seed policies seldom focus on the informal seed supply systems developed by rural farmers who are often only considered as end users rather than producers.

Seed policies are outdated in most countries. Although agricultural conditions in the region have changed considerably in the past decades, national seed policies remain the same. As agricultural sectors of a country or region develop, seed policies should be modified to reflect these changes. Changes may be related to policies in other areas of agricultural production, services in the seed sector, the infrastructure system and other factors affecting seed systems.

Poor linkages between the sectors involved in seed production. Most seed programs and donor interventions in the region have concentrated on promoting a seed production component. In addition, the long-term effectiveness of seed programs depends on the coordination of the various sectors involved including research, extension, seed production, the infrastructure systems, as well as farmers’ participation. While in the past little attention has been given to ensure the cohesiveness of these various components, efforts must be made to strengthen seed production activities

Lack of or inefficient structures responsible for the planning and production of seeds. Most countries either lack a national structure responsible for the planning and production of seeds or have different units in relevant ministries to carry out seed activities. In situations where multiple institutions are involved in the planning and production of seeds, effective coordination of the various institutions and activities becomes a major undertaking.

Inefficient extension services in most countries. Due to financial constraints, poor transportation, and lack of incentives to motivate extension agents, extension services are relatively ineffective. Lack of adequate extension information is one of the main reasons for the low adoption rates of improved varieties. Extension should play a crucial role in training farmers in on-farm seed production and is therefore a prerequisite to the improvement of the informal seed system. Extension could raise awareness among farmers regarding the merits of the improved seed being introduced and work towards improving the ability of farmers to control the quality of seeds. A study conducted in Pakistan among farmers who adopted a new wheat variety revealed that 58% of farmers learned about the variety from other farmers, 24% from extension services, 8% from seed depot, 8% from radio, and 2% from other sources (Heisey, 1990).

Lack of trained personnel. In the country reports, most countries in the Region viewed the lack of trained technicians as one of the major constraints to the development of their seed supply sector. This situation is attributed to a lack of resources and funds; in suitable facilities and institutions; a high attrition rate of trained staff; poor training materials; and technical staff in the region involved in seed production, testing, processing and storage often have inadequate training.

Absent or inadequate seed laws and regulations in many countries. Seed legislation is non-existent in many countries while in others it is either outdated or not enforced. For example, seed quality control is operational in a number of countries although only for some crops and for a small percentage of the total seed production. In the rest of countries the seed control system is inadequate or non-existent.

Deficient pricing and marketing policies in some countries. In many countries of the Region, seed marketing remains one of the weakest links in the seed supply chain, thus limiting farmers access to seed. Most countries support the involvement of private seed dealers to distribute certified seed including seed for important food crops. However, there are many countries in the region where seed prices are fixed and subsidized by the state. This approach to seed sales has made seed production financially unattractive to the private industries. There are still varying opinions within seed sectors and among countries on whether seed of important food crops should be subsidized.

Inefficient seed distribution by the public sector. Despite efforts by NGOs to supply seeds to farmers in remote areas, the poor transportation infrastructures in most of the countries in the Near East and North Africa has been a major obstacle to the distribution of seeds. Farmers and local distributors participating in seed distribution have been observed to improve the availability of seeds to farmers. However, in the majority of countries where farmers are involved in seed multiplication, they are generally involved as contract farmers not as seed producer-sellers.

Lack or weak collaboration within seed sectors and between countries. Communication among institutions involved in seed sector development within a country and between neighboring countries is crucial for the development of seed industries. There is a strong need for information transfer and sharing of lessons learned between institutions involved in the seed sector, which can be achieved through national and international networking. Activities may include the organization of conferences, workshops, and seminars. These activities may facilitate the establishment of linkages within and among countries of the region for the future exchange of information and research collaboration. With communication channels formulated, countries can learn from each other’s experiences and adapt strategies according to their specific country's' conditions. Furthermore, these networks can contribute to the formulation policies relating to the seed sector for the benefit of each and every participating country. In this regard, WANA has been established. Additional information may be obtained from the FAO Seed Review (FAO, 1994a) and other sources (FAO, 1996d).

Low involvement in international seed trade organizations. For countries that wish to be involved in international seed trade, it is important to establish ties with international organizations such as ISTA, FIS, UPOV and OECD dealing, respectively, with seed testing, seed trade, variety protection and seed certification. Most countries in the region are not members of these organizations.

5.2 A Call for Action

Given the present status of the seed sector in the region, it is clear that a major effort is needed to strengthen national capacities for improved seed production. Action is required at different fronts with the full participation of all stakeholders both in the public and private sectors and especially farmers and their organizations. The development of a national seed sector, which is primarily the responsibility of governments, would require co-operation based on comparative advantages among countries in the region.

To guide future development of seed supply systems in a country, it is first necessary to evaluate their existing systems. An evaluation should focus on the general socio-economic status of the farming community, the level of development of the seed supply systems, and the existing infrastructure. The outcome of such a study, along with the consideration of major seed policy issues such as those elaborated in this document, could provide important guidelines when formulating policies and strategies for the development of national and regional seed supply systems.

5.2.1 Guiding principles

It is of paramount importance for countries in the Near East and North Africa to create conditions conducive to the development of both the formal (public and private) and informal seed supply systems. Most governments have invested significant resources in the development of their formal seed supply systems. For instance, the public sector has been extensively involved in variety development and seed production. However, the informal seed supply systems remain grossly neglected. It is, therefore, imperative that governments improve the linkages between the formal public and private sectors, variety development and seed production, and the informal on-farm and community-based seed systems (Jaffee and Srivastava, 1992).

It is generally accepted that some degree of privatization in the seed sector is inevitable, but there are issues and questions that should be carefully considered by national authorities prior to privatization. These include the protection of the interests of small farmers, especially those living in harsh environment areas, as their main subsistence commodities are unlikely to generate effective demand to warrant private investors' interest. In areas where the private sector has a comparative advantage in relation to the public sector, any change in responsibility from the public to the private sector should proceed gradually. It should also be recognized that privatization requires administrative and legislative adjustments as well as different professional talents and managerial skills.

There is relatively little known about the informal on-farm seed production systems throughout the region. Despite the fact that they are responsible for providing more than 80% of the seed produced in most countries of the region, the informal seed supply systems have been left out of government or donor efforts geared towards improving the seed sector in general. Governments should recognize the importance of the informal seed systems and introduce policies and necessary actions to stimulate their growth.

Policy makers responsible for seed development in the region recognize the advantages of regional co-operation in achieving the development of national seed sector. In this regard, the on-going efforts carried out to enhance regional co-operation in seed production by ICARDA, FAO, and others are highly appreciated in the region. Nonetheless, additional opportunities for collaboration should be explored at both regional and sub-regional levels. For instance, a number of areas in seed supply systems that require regional collaboration have already been identified by policy makers.

Promoting seed systems development requires the establishment of legal and economic environments that attract a broad range of stakeholders in seed supply systems. Therefore, policy makers in the region have an important and complex task to identify rules and regulations that promote the development of seed supply systems (Tripp and Louwaars, 1998).

There is a considerable need and to expand the production of high quality seed for major crops for which current national capacities are generally limited. For example, breeding work for food legumes in the region has received less attention than cereal. This has resulted in a lack of good food legume cultivars. The same also applies to pasture and forage species. It is reported that very few countries in the region are able to meet 10% of seed requirements of pasture and forage species. Also, despite favorable soil and climatic conditions for vegetable crop production in some countries, the availability of quality vegetable seeds are limited. This availability of vegetable seeds varies with species and cultivation systems.

5.2.2 Elements for a Plan of Action

Countries vary in their farming systems, market-state of development, research capacity, and political organization. There is no uniform direction for seed system development for the entire region (Tripp and Louwaars, 1998).

In the following section, a wide range of actions and measures to improve the performance of the seed sector are recommended. Obviously, these actions and measures do not necessarily apply equally to all countries in the region. It is therefore up to each country to adapt these recommendations and develop policies, reforms, and actions appropriate to their specific conditions.

Facilitate a greater private sector involvement in areas where it has comparative advantage. In dealing with privatization and the question of how to proceed, three points need to be considered. First, the liberalization of the seed sector should be a carefully staged process. Any change in the public sector involvement in activities such as variety development, seed production, seed processing and marketing should be gradual and selective. Second, it should be recognized that on the part of government, privatization requires, considerable adjustments in administration and legislation. Third, privatization requires different skills and managerial approaches.

Define clearly the respective roles of the public and private sectors and strengthen coordination between them. While the public sector in the Near East and North Africa has been extensively involved in variety development, most governments how recognize the critical need for the participation of the private sector involvement in plant breeding. In an effort to increase private sector activities, it is essential to;

(i) develop legislation encouraging private seed sector involvement in plant breeding and guiding seed production. This should include the revision of legislation related to variety release and notification, quality control and seed certification, and the establishment of Plant Breeders’ Rights. Unless there is a variety protection law put in place and observed by the government, it is unlikely for private companies to become involved in variety development;

(ii) provide private seed producers with access to the lines and varieties developed by the NARS, including access to breeder and/or foundation seed;

(iii) facilitate the importation of germplasm and certified seed when needed; and

(iv) improve the seed market by developing varieties that fit farmers’ needs and strengthening extension services. This requires a good variety development program, farmer participation throughout the development process, intensive involvement of the national extension service, and effective distribution.

Enhance efforts to increase the rate of adoption by farmers of improved varieties. The formal seed supply systems in the Near East and North Africa have a mutually dependent relationship with the research sector in the variety development phase. However, until varieties that correspond with farmers' needs, are produced and on-farm improved seed production is strengthened, the research system will continue to have little relevance to the informal seed supply systems in the region. Plant breeding efforts should be integrated into farming communities that possess the knowledge and genetic material in landraces that have been used and preserved for generations. In addition, farmers’ specific requirements and their reactions to newly released varieties should be integrated to the on-going selection process if on-farm testing is part of the program.

Ensure balanced variety development and seed production of major commodity crops. There is a need to enhance national capabilities in plant breeding and seed production and supply for a number of major groups of crops, which are currently underdeveloped in almost all countries of the Near East and North Africa. These include certain cereal crops, most of vegetable crops, food legumes and pasture and forage species. I addition, greater attention needs to be given to crops used by small farmers and those adapted to harsher environments. The number of scientists and technicians working on these crops is presently very small.

Maintain an efficient extension system. Extension should play a crucial role in training farmers in on-farm seed production and is therefore a prerequisite to the improvement of the informal seed systems. Extension work could focus on raising awareness among farmers regarding the merits of the improved seed being introduced and work towards improving the ability of farmers to control the quality of seeds. While the importance of extension services in the Near East and North Africa seed production is clear, maintaining an effective extension system requires significant ongoing resources. Therefore, all attempts should be made to make efficient use of extension services when it is most needed. To this end it is necessary that:

(i) countries in the region recognize the critical role of extension services in the development of the seed sector and agricultural in general;

(ii) development agencies and NGOs in agricultural extension be encouraged to participate; and

(iii) the role of research in agricultural extension, which can lead to an increase in the efficiency of extension services, be strengthened.

Enhance professional and technical capabilities. Well-planned and effectively executed training programs can considerably improve the skills and competence of technicians in different aspects of seed technology. Trained staff can then act as a vehicle for the transfer of technologies to farmers. This can be accomplished by:

(i) launching graduate and postgraduate degree course programs in seed science and technology in collaboration with local universities;

(ii) initiating national and regional training centers;

(iii) developing cost-effective local training programs;

(iv) seeking international collaboration in the development of training modules;

(v) providing domestic funds where available and seeking international financial support;

(vi) launching in-service training courses on seed technology; and

(vii) after assessing the needs and existing infrastructure in each country, provide fellowships for short- and long-term courses in developed countries.

Ensure cost-effective use of high value land. The use of appropriate cropping systems and high seed production return are key strategies in situations with limited land availability. These can be accomplished if the following approaches are adopted:

(i) produce varieties responding to most farmers’ needs. This will increase the seed market if appropriate seed distribution and marketing strategies are taken;

(ii) develop price policies promoting seed production;

(iii) encourage the use of quality seed and intensification of cropping systems through extension services; and

(iv) develop policies promoting the availability of agricultural inputs including irrigation water to farmers.

Introduce measures for more efficient seed distribution by the public sector. Despite substantial effort by NGOs to supply seeds to farmers in remote areas, the poor condition of the transport infrastructure in most of the countries in the region has been a major obstacle to the distribution of seeds. Farmers and local distributors participating in seed distribution have been observed to improve the availability of seeds to farmers. However, in the majority of countries where farmers are involved in seed multiplication they are generally involved as contract farmers not as seed producer-sellers.

Easy control and low production costs have been the major advantages of centralized seed multiplication systems in the Near East and North Africa. However, due to the problem of accessibility to rural farmers, major costs have increased in seed handling and transport. It appears that by establishing seed outlets and markets in the proximity of farming communities, a decentralized system for seed multiplication would reduce these costs. Therefore, governments should develop decentralized strategies for seed multiplication and storage. Decentralized seed production systems can also play a major role in producing seeds of improved varieties, which require less intensive management.

Another reason that storage has been established in centralized facilities is because sophisticated equipment and highly trained staff are readily available. Efforts should be made to provide appropriate equipment and technical assistance at a decentralized level, thus improving seed availability to farmers.

Develop strategies for the conservation of plant genetic resources. Nearly all countries recognized in their WANA Country Reports that plant genetic erosion is a serious problem in the Near East and North Africa. According to these reports, plant genetic erosion is caused by the replacement of local varieties by genetically uniform high-yielding varieties, population pressure, overgrazing, and environmental degradation. The loss of traditional varieties, which have diverse characteristics, is reducing the gene pool available to breeders. Therefore, governments must institute strategies that ensure the conservation of plant genetic resources. However, it should also be recognized that the conservation of germplasm by itself is of no value if it is not used to develop new products and varieties, which will increase the yield of crops. As elaborated in FAO Global Plan of Action (FAO, 1996), governments should focus on:

(i) in-situ conservation and development, which include surveying and inventorying plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, supporting on-farm management and improvement of plant genetic resources, assisting farmers in disaster situations to restore agricultural systems, and promoting in-situ conservation of wild crop relatives and wild plants for food production;

(ii) ex-situ conservation including sustaining existing ex-situ collections;

(iii) the use of plant genetic resources to promote sustainable agriculture and to develop new markets for local varieties and diverse plant products; and

(iv) promoting networks for plant genetic resources, developing early warning systems to monitor the loss of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, expanding and improving education and training, and raising public awareness on the value of plant genetic resources.

Take measures to institute seed strategic reserves. In most of the countries in the region, there is no storage of strategic reserves for use in emergency situations. In some countries, the storage of seed reserves is carried out in central locations by parastatal seed agencies, but only for wheat and barley and for a small percentage of the total seed requirements of farmers. Infrastructure for the storage of seed security stocks at a centralized and decentralized level should be established. This can help to avoid the disruption of agricultural production and loss of local genetic material due to natural and man-made calamities.

Strengthen linkages between research, extension, and seed production. Most seed programs and donor interventions in the Near East and North Africa have been concentrated in promoting seed production. However, the long-term effectiveness of seed programs depends, to a large extent, on the coordination of the various sectors involved including research, extension, seed production, the infrastructure systems, as well as farmers’ participation. These factors should be treated as sub-systems in a holistic approach to technology generation and transfer in agriculture. Therefore, more attention should be paid at the planning stage to ensure the cohesiveness of these various components. External assistance should be designed t strengthen and compliment seed production activities.

Explore opportunities for inter-country collaboration at both the regional and sub-regional levels. Opportunity may include the development of databases and common registries of farmers’ varieties and improved cultivars; harmonization of seed regulatory measures; and joint ventures in seed development and production, particularly of vegetable and forage crops. Other collaborative efforts may include the formulation of regional seed associations, possibly with sub-regional chapters and the establishment of a Regional Seed Council/Board or similar executive or consultative bodies to oversee and promote such regional endeavors.

Participate actively in international seed related organizations. For countries wishing to be actively involved in global seed trade, it is important for them to establish ties with international seed organizations such as ISTA, FIS, UPOV and OECD working respectively on seed quality testing, seed trade, variety protection and seed certification.

6. CONCLUSION

National seed supply sectors of the Near East and North Africa are at various levels of development. Despite efforts by governments in the region, with assistance from private and international institutions, the seed supply sectors are currently far from meeting the seed needs of farmers. In order to address the constraints affecting the development of the national and regional seed supply that are presented in this document requires integrated efforts by all national and international stakeholders and institutions involved in seed supply and plant genetic resource management. This also requires that appropriate policies are established at all levels to facilitate seed investments in the region.

In the Near East and North Africa, various regional seed and plant genetic resource networks have been established and are currently functioning in the region. These networks are playing an important role in the development of the seed and plant genetic resource sectors. However, based on the analysis presented in this document, a mechanism or an advisory body appears essential to link national, regional, and global efforts and to guide investments for the sustainable development of the seed sectors.

7. REFERENCES

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Cromwell, E., E. Friis-Hansen, and M. Turner. 1992. The seed sector in developing countries: A framework for performance analysis. ODI Working Paper 65, London.

Cromwell, E., S. Wiggins, and S. Wentzel. 1993. Sowing beyond the State: NGOs and seed supply in developing countries, ODI: London, pp.142.

Cromwell, E., and B. Zambezi. 1990. The performance of the seed sector in Malawi: farmer survey preliminary analysis. Report of the Rockefeller Foundation, Lilongwe, Malawi.

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El-Wanis, M.S.A. 1995. The Seed Industry in Egypt. ICARDA, Focus on Seed Programs. Giza, Egypt.

FAO, 1997. Report of the World Food Summit. 13-17 November, 1996. FAO, Rome, Italy

FAO, 1996a. Global Plan of Action. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO, 1996b. The state of the World of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO, 1996c. World Food Summit, Technical Background Document. Vol. 2. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO, 1996d. World List of Seed Sources. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO, 1995a. The State of Food and Agriculture. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO, 1995b. FAO yearbook. Production. vol. 48. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO, 1994a. FAO Seed Review 1989-1990. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO, 1994b. Twenty-second FAO Regional Conference for the Near East. Report, Amman, Jordan. 3-6 July. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO, 1990. Production yearbook, 1990. vol. 44. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO, 1987. Evaluation of the Seed Improvement and Development Programme. Rapport of the 24th Session. Rome, Italy.

Heisey, P. 1990. Accelerating the transfer of wheat breeding gains to farmers: a study of the dynamics of variety replacement in Pakistan, CIMMYT Research Report. No. 1, Mexico, D.F. CIMMYT.

Hussein, K.M. 1996. The Yemen Seed Industry. ICARDA, Focus on Seed Programs. Dhamar, Yemen.

ICARDA, 1993a. Medium-term Plan (1994-1998). pp.121. Aleppo, Syria

ICARDA, 1993b. Annual Report. Aleppo, Syria.

ICARDA and GTZ, 1997. Privatization of the seed industry in the West Asia and North Africa. Proceedings of Workshop on Privatization of the seed Industry in the WANA Region. Tunis, Tunisia ( 16 to 20 November, 1995).

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Madaratti, A, and I Sayed 1995. The Syrian Seed Industry. ICARDA, Focus on Seed Programs. Aleppo, Syria.

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Srivastava, J.P. 1986. Status of seed production in the ICARDA region. In J.P. Srivastava and L.T. Simarski (ed.) Seed production Technology. pp. 1-14. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria.

Tourkmani, M. 1994. Seed production and seed quality control in Morocco. Focus on Seed Programs. Rabat Morocco.

Tunwar, N.S. Emergency seed supply in Afghanistan with emphasis on policy and legal issues, activities and constraints. Project Report.

Tripp, R. and N. Louwaars. 1997. Seed regulation: choices on the road to reform. Food Policy, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp. 433-446, 1997.

Umali, D., and L. Schwartz. 1994. Public and private agricultural extension: Beyond traditional frontiers. World Bank. Discussion paper No. 236. Washington, DC.

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Zentani, A. 1995. The Libyan Seed Program. ICARDA, Focus on Seed Program, Tripoli, Libya.

 

ANNEX

SUMMARY DATA OF THE SEED SECTORS IN THE NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA

In the following pages the countries have been grouped as follows: Algeria, Egypt, Libya Morocco, Tunisia, Afghanistan, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen

For each country, when available, data are reported with respect to: the land, development of the seed sector, institutions involved in the application of plant biotechnology and plant genetic resources preservation. Data on the seed sectors countries have been obtained mainly from the FAO Seed Review 1989-90, FAO yearbook Production, WANA Country Reports. Data on biotechnology from data available at FAO, World Bank, GTZ, ICARDA. Data on germplasm collections from the FAO State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources and Directories of Germplasm collection, IPGRI.

The land

South of the fertile lands on the Mediterranean coast lie the Tellian and Saharan Atlas mountain ranges, with a plateau extending between them. Further south is the Sahara desert, rich in oil, natural gas and iron deposits. Different altitudes and climates in the north make for agricultural diversity, with Mediterranean-type crops (vines, citrus fruits, olives etc.) predominating.

Land use: arable 3%, forest 2%, pasture 13% other 82%

Active Population employed in agriculture: 31.1%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 95 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 94 (1990)

Food import dependency: 71%

Seed sector

Plant breeding: Plant breeding research is performed at IDGC (Institut de Développement des Grandes Cultures) on cereals, grain legumes and fodder plants. Improved varieties are tested by the IDGC, but there is no Seed Release Committee or Registration Service.

Seed production is performed at the IDGC stations, pilot farms and by independent growers.

Seed quality control: Seed quality control is performed for cereal and legume seeds by IDGC and by the Organisation Algérienne Interprofessionnelle des Céréales (OAIC).

Seed marketing and distribution: Controlled cereal and pulse seed is marketed by OAIC, while fodder and vegetable seed is marketed by ONAPSA.

Application of plant biotechnology

At the National Institute for Agricultural Research breeding programs are carried out on anther culture of durum and soft wheat and barley and on somatic embryogenesis in artichoke. At the Institute for the Development of Vegetable Crops, biotechnology focuses on in-vitro propagation of potato. At the National Agricultural Institute (INA, El Harrach, Algiers) tissue culture of potato, wheat and barley have been developed together with studies on nitrogen fixation and assimilation by chickpea and on the isolation of highly effective Rhizobium strains. At the "Houari Boumedienne" University of Science, research in molecular genetics (on Bacillus thuringensis and on yeast mitochondrial DNA) are performed in the laboratory of Microbiology. At the National Agricultural Institute, biological nitrogen fixation in beans, broad beans, lentils and chickpea are being studied.

Plant genetic resources

The following Institutions are involved in germplasm collection: Institut de Développement des Grandes Cultures (IDGC) in El Harrach, dealing with: Hordeum vulgare, Sorghum bicolor, Aegilops spp., Triticum spp.

The land

99% of the population live in the Nile valley and delta although this constitutes only 30% of the land. The remaining land is covered by deserts except for a few isolated oases. The floods of the Nile set a pattern for the country’s economic life thousands of years ago. There are several dams, the major one being the Aswan dam in the south. This has enabled farmers to add new crops such as cotton and sugar cane to the traditional cops; wheat, rice and corn.

Land use: arable 3%, forest 0%, pasture 0% other 97%

Population employed in agriculture: 38.6%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 114 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 123(1990)

Food import dependency: 45%

Seed sector

Plant breeding. Plant breeding is carried out mainly by the Agricultural Research Center (ARC)b with additional limited contributions from the Food and Agriculture Council of the Academy of Scientific Research and technology, the Faculties of Agriculture of the numerous universities and more recently the private sector.

Variety release. Variety release is the responsibility of the Agricultural Research Center (ARC) and the Central Administration for Seed (CAS).

Seed production. The major seed producing organizations are:

Public: Agricultural Research Center: cereals, grain legumes and vegetables. Central Administration for Seed: cereals, legumes, groundnut, and cotton. Egyptian Agricultural Authority: vegetable and clover. Nobaria Seed Company: vegetables.

Private: Egyptian Agricultural Seed Co. (Giza): maize, sorghum; National Seed Company (Giza): maize and sorghum; Pioneer Seed Company (Cairo): maize and sorghum.

Seed quality control: At present the law No. 53 of 1966 is cooperative and regulates production and distribution of all field and vegetable crops. The Central Administration for Seed is in charge of seed law enforcement. Three testing laboratory of CAS, at Giza, Tanta and Minia perform laboratory analysis in accordance with ISTA Rules.

Seed marketing and distribution: the Credit Bank in Cairo markets Most of the cereal seeds through co-operatives. Part of the vegetable seeds are imported and marketed by private merchants.

Extension. Extension and promotion are tasks of the Ministry of Agriculture

Application of plant biotechnology

Plant biotechnology research is carried out in the Cell Research Section of the Agriculture Research Center (ARC) in Giza, which is the Biotechnology Center in the Ministry of Agriculture. The main objective of the Cell Research Section is to transfer agronomically desirable traits, such as tolerance to salt, drought and pests, between species or genera, utilizing the embryo rescue and tissue culture techniques. In spite of equipment and chemical supply limitations, some progress has been made. Callus initiation and generation ere started in commercial varieties of wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, rice, alfalfa and faba beans. Micropropagation was initiated in alfalfa and faba beans to produce mutants that are difficult to obtain somatically or sexually. Future research plans include the use of protoplast fusion for interspecific or intergeneric crosses that are impossible to achieve by conventional breeding methods, and work on drought and salinity resistance for wheat, rice and alfalfa, using callus, cell suspension and protoplast culture.

Research activities at the Department of Genetics, Cairo University, include cloning of the Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxin gene. Other research projects include cloning o nitrogen-fixation genes and protein engineering of soybean and faba beans. Research of the Department of Horticulture at Zagazig University includes tissue culture techniques for the micropropagation of ornamentals, such as carnation and gladiolus. Future plans include the propagation of woody trees by tissue cultures and the development of virus-free, salt and drought tolerant plants. The Botany Department at Zagazig University is conducting research on cytogenetic in wheat, determining some important traits and protein fraction in wheat varieties by electrophoresis techniques. Planned projects include the induction of haploid plants in wheat and barley from culturing anthers and pollen grain.

At Assiut University research by the Horticulture Department includes utilization of tissue culture techniques for hardening vegetable crops; and selection of salt and/or drought tolerance in the callus culture in garlic, followed by regeneration of the plantlets. At Assiut University, the Department of Genetics focuses mainly on Genetic systems governing the variability in a number of plant attributes that contribute to success under dry conditions. Another tissue culture laboratory for mass propagation of plants has been established at the Faculty of Agriculture in Al-Azhar University and deals with differentiation problems of maize and wheat. Tissue culture laboratories have also been established at the Desert Institute, Ain Shams University, and Al-Swiss University. The Egyptian Academy of Science and Technology signed an agreement with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) for establishing a laboratory affiliated with the International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology based at Trieste. In 1985 a Division of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology was established at the National Research Center comprising six departments among which: molecular biology, microbial genetics, cell biology and plant tissue culture.

Plant genetic resources

There are some financial and technical but no legal restrictions access to samples of genetic resources. The responsible organization is: Field Crops Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center (ARC) Giza, dealing mainly with maize, but also with wheat, rice, barley, lentils, soybean, cotton, onion, clover.

The land

Most of the country is covered by desert: The only fertile lands are located along the temperate Mediterranean coast, where most of the population lives. There are no perennial rivers and rain is scarce. The country has major oil reserves.

Population employed in agriculture: 12.6%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 102 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 102(1990)

Food import dependency: 73%

Seed sector

Plant breeding: The main plant breeding institution is the Agricultural Research Center (ARC) with headquarters in Tripoli and a number of well distributed Regional Centers situated in the major agricultural areas. The major plant breeding activities are mainly for wheat and barley and some legume and vegetables crops.

Variety release: Variety release is the joint responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Agricultural Research Center (ARC).

Seed production: A number of organizations were in the past responsible for seed production including para-statal companies. Following a recent major reform of the seed sector, the prime responsibility for seed production has been vested on a newly established organization, namely: the National Center for Production and Propagation of Improved Seeds (NCPPIS). The production and propagation activities are carried out in the Center's facilities as well by contracts with farmers.

Seed quality control: This will be the responsibility of NCPPIS in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and the IRC.

Seed processing: This will be the responsibility of NCPPIS.

Seed storage: This will be the responsibility of NCPPIS.

Seed marketing and distribution: This is the responsibility of NCPPIS with some activities carried out by private sector particularly in marketing vegetable seeds.

Extension: Extension and promotion is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture with increased involvement of the newly established NCPPIS.

Application of plant biotechnology.

A tissue culture laboratory was established in 1985 in the Regional Agricultural Research Center in the Fazan District. This laboratory is involved mainly in date propagation to obtain drought- and disease-resistant varieties. Explants have been produced and prepared for transfer to soil.

Plant genetic resources

Plant genetic resources collection and conservation activities go back to 1972 when collection expeditions were formed in collaboration with the then IBPGR and FAO. Accessions are kept in Regional Genebanks such the one in Bari, Italy. Plans are underway for constructing a Genebank in the Agricultural Research Center (ARC).

The land

The country has a long, 800-km coastline influenced by the ocean. In the eastern part there are two mountain ranges (Atlas e Rif) covered with a barren steppe and inhabited by nomadic Berbers. In the foothhills lie irrigated plains where citrus fruit, vegetables and grain are cultivated. On the western slopes of the Atlas Mountains (grand Atlas and Anti-Atlas), cattle are raised and there are phosphate, zinc and lead mines. Along the coastal plains grapes and citrus fruit are grown.

In Morocco more than 57% of the population lives in rural areas where 68% of the population derives their income from agriculture. Drought affect more than 60% of the arable land and an increasing acreage is affected by salinization, mainly in the coastal and semi-arid zones, as well as in the oases.

Population employed in agriculture: 33.1%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 125 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 124 (1990)

Food import dependency: 28%

Seed sector

Variety release: New varieties are registered by decree of the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform on the proposal of the National Committee for Seed and Planting Materials Selection. Before release, the new varieties are tested in field for D.U.S. (Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability) and V.C.U. (Value for Cultivation and Use). Monitoring of the trials is assured by multi-disciplinary technical units in the various departments of the Ministry of Agriculture.

The official Institution in charge of variety release and registration in the Official Catalog is Direction de la Protection des Végétaux, des Contrôle des Semences et des Plants (DPVTRF/scsp) in Rabat.

Seed quality control. The Institution in charge of seed quality control is: Service du Contrôle des Semences et des Plants in Rabat. Production, monitoring and marketing of seeds and planting materials are organized by Dahir (decree) N° 1.76.472 of 19 September 1977. The Seed and Planting Materials Monitoring Service is responsible for enforcing and updating regulations regarding production, control and certification of seeds and planting materials. Laboratory checks on seed quality are conforming to ISTA rules. Technical regulations governing control and certification are in accordance with OECD rules.

Seed processing. Seed processing is performed by the SONACOS (Société Nationale de Commercialisation des Semences) in its 13 processing centers. The main packaging material used is the 100-kg bag for cereals, 25 kg for maize and 50 kg or potatoes.

Seed storage. Seeds are stored at the processing plant points and at the 340 sales points and 13 SONACOS centers.

Seed marketing and distribution. Marketing and distribution are carried out by SONACOS.

Extension. Extension is carried out by SONACOS

Application of plant biotechnology

Several tissue culture laboratories have been established during the past 15 years. Among the most important are the following: Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, which includes the tissue culture laboratory in Agadir. Main activities are clonal mass propagation, recovery of pathogen-free plants, variety improvement using haploid plants, somatic embryogenesis and callus and cell suspension cultures for selecting stress tolerant genotypes. Other research activities concern drought tolerance in barley, Hordeum vulgare, using conventional and tissue culture techniques, including crosses between different genotypes, screening in vitro for drought tolerance, creation of haploid by crossing cultivars with H. bulbosum, and haploid embryo rescue.

Faculty of Science at Mohammed V University in Rabat. Is concerned mainly with cereal and vegetable crop improvement through plant biotechnology techniques. Wheat plants are being produced through pollen, anther culture and somatic embryogenesis. Training courses in tissue culture are conducted at various research laboratories in Morocco in collaboration with regional and international organizations such as the Arab Union for Scientific Research Council, the Tissue Culture for Crops Project (TCCP), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the FAO. Collaboration between Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia has resulted in a joint research effort concerned with propagating the date palm by in vitro techniques.

Plant genetic resources

The following Institutions are involved in germplasm collection: Station Centrale des Plantes Fourragères, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), in Rabat, dealing with: Arachis hypogaea, Cajanus cajan, Cicer arietinum, Lens culinaris, Vicia faba, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Vigna unguicolata, Sorghum and Millet Section, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Guich, Rabat, dealing with: Zea mays.

The land:

Irrigated agriculture dominates the northern region of the Sudan and mainly confined to lands close to the River Nile and its tributaries. The Northern region is sparsely populated and intensively cultivated with wheat, date palm, citrus, mangoes and legumes.

The central clay plains are densely populated. Farming systems include mechanized rainfed, traditional rainfed and irrigated agriculture. Crops include sorghum, sesame, groundnuts, vegetables and fruits.

The western region is dominated by sandy soils and is sparsely populated. Crops include sesame, millet, groundnuts, sorghum, watermelon seeds and livestock raising.

The Southern region is sparsely populated. Crops include tea, coffee, cocoa some fruits and livestock raising.

Land Use: The main farming systems include pastures (32.5%), forests (53.3%), mechanized rainfed (5%) traditional rainfed (7.5%) and irrigated (1.7%).

Population employed in agriculture 70%.

Agricultural Production Index: 100 (1970/80-1981/82), 113 (1995/96)

Food Production per capita: 100 (1979/80-1981/82), 73 (1995/96)

Food Import Dependency: 26%

Seed sector:

Plant breeding: The plant breeding program for release of improved varieties is an old research program spread over the experimental stations of the Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC). Crops include wheat, groundnuts, sorghum, cotton and vegetables. The faculties of Agriculture of the University of Khartoum (crops include field crops and vegetables) and the University of Gezira (field and vegetable crops) also participate in this program.

Variety release: Variety releases involve several steps starting with the breeder, the variety release committee, etc. The variety releases require that an official catalogue be kept by the Seed Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (SAMAF). The variety release committee (membership of which is determined by the Minister of Agriculture) comes under the seed council and is headed by the Director of ARC. The breeder requesting the release of the new variety prepares a technical report. The variety must be superior to the currently produced varieties in at least one attribute and distinguishable from similar varieties.

Seed production: Seed production has already been privatized. Organizations involved in seed production are private companies (7), business names and individuals (13) and governmental schemes (5).

Seed quality control: Seed quality control is the responsibility of the SAMAF. Seed testing is carried out in three laboratories at Sennar, Hudieba and Gezira. Seeds are certified in accordance with the seed ACT (1990) and testing is done according to ISTA rules.

Seed processing: Sixteen seed processing plants are available in Sudan (for all crops).

Seed marketing and distribution: About twenty-four private companies, business names and individuals deal with seed importation, distribution and marketing.

Extension: The national extension program is the responsibility of the Central Extension Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (head office in Khartoum).

Extension Administrations are available in almost all states and are administratively part of the State governments.

Application of plant biotechnology:

Four tissue culture laboratories are available. Two laboratories belong to the ARC (one in Wad Medani in the Central region and the other in Merawi in the northern region). One laboratory belongs to the Islamic Development Company in Khartoum and the fourth belongs to the Gezira University in the Central Region.

Plant genetic resources:

There is a gene bank in ARC for the collection, preservation, description and distribution of the genetic resources.

The land

The eastern coastal plains are heavily populated and intensively cultivated: olives, citrus fruit and vineyards. The interior is dominated by the mountainous Tell and Aures regions populated by nomadic shepherds. The Sahara desert, in the south, gas phosphate and iron deposits, while dates are cultivated in the oases.

Land use: arable 30 %, forest 4 %, pasture 19 % other 47 %

Population employed in agriculture: 20,6

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 102(1990) Food production per capital: 100 (1997-81), 96 (1990)

Food import dependency: 59 %

Seed sector

Plant breeding: The development of new varieties is performed at: INRAT in Ariana, lnstitut National Agronomique de Tunis in Tunis, Ecole Supérieure d'Horticulture in Chott-Mariem, Ecole Supérieure d'Agriculture du Kef in le Kef and Institut de l'Olivier in Sfax.

Variety release. The Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique de Tunis, as considered by the law 76-113 of 25 November 1976, keeps an official catalogue. The registration and acceptance of a new variety is registered by the Director of INRAT and on the advice of the Comité National Consultatif de Semences et Plant after D.U.S. (Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability) and VCU (Value for Cultivation and Use) trials.

Seed production. The organizations involved in seed production are: CCSPS, COSEM, and GIL which deal with wheat, barley. triticale, vegetables and potatoes.

Seed quality control. The organizations responsible for seed quality are: Laboratoire de Contrôle et de Certification des Semences et Plants in Tunis, Laboratoire de Contrôle des Semences, le Krib Siliana. Seeds are tested in laboratories in accordance to ISTA rules.

Seed processing, There are three private seed treatment plants in the country: COSEM (cereals) CCSPS (cereals, legumes, forage and vegetables) GRAFOUPAST (forage).

Seed marketing and distribution. Many organizations (about 48) import seeds. The main methods of transport used for seed marketing and distribution are trucks and trains. Jute bags, kraft paper and metal boxes are the principal packaging materials used.

Extension. Extension is limited to field days organized by: Agence de la Vulgarisation et la Formation Agricole, Centre Technique des Céréales, and Centre Technique de la pomme de terre.

During the field days the participants are asked to attend lectures, information sessions and to visit demonstration plots.

Application of plant biotechnolgy

Active research into plant tissue culture for date-palm propagation is being conducted at the University of Tunis and at the Biotechnology Center in the National Institute for Scientific Research and Technology. Micropropagation of virus-free potato, vinegrapes strawberries and citrus is being conducted at the National Institute for Agricultural Research.

Tissue culture techniques are used in cereal breeding at the Laboratoire de Génétique et d'Amélioration des plants de l'INAT to select for drought tolerance, Disease resistance and protein quality. (Calli induced from immature embryos and Double haploids are being used).

Plant genetic resources

The following Institutions are involved in germplasm collection: Laboratoire de Genétique, Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie (INAT), Ministère de l'Agriculture, Belvédère, Tunis, dealing with: Hordum vulgare, Pennisetum glaucum, Triticum spp. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique de Tunisie (INRAT), Ariana, dealing with: Capsicum annuum, 1-fordeum vulgare, Triticum sp.

The land

The country consists of a system of highland plains and plateaus, separated by east-west mountain ranges, which converge, on the Himalayan Pamir. The main cities are located in the eastern valleys. The country is dry and rocky though there are many fertile lowlands and valleys where cotton, fruit and grain grown.

Land use: arable 12%, forest 3%, pasture 46% other 39%

Population employed in agriculture: 52.1%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 95 (1987)

Land use: arable 0%, forest 0%, pasture 8% other 92%

Population employed in agriculture: 2,5%

Seed sector

Plant breeding. Plant breeding is carried out at the Agricultural Research Institute of Afghanistan (ARIA) of the Ministry of Agriculture in Kabul. This institute works with wheat, cotton, chickpea, sunflower, rice, maize, forage crops, vegetables and fruit crops. Most of the varieties recommended for cultivation have been selected abroad or at ICARDA.

Variety release. Cultivars, including introductions, are tested in multilocational yield trials. They are released after superior performance has been identified. The Official Release Committee consists of the President of ARIA, breeders and representatives from the Seed Agency and Agricultural Extension. ARIA is responsible for variety registration.

Seed quality control. There is no seed legislation or seed law in force. The Certification Unit of the Agricultural Extension Department, in Kabul, is the Seed Certification Agency. Laboratory tests are performed according to ISTA rules. The Seed testing of wheat, cotton, maize, alfalfa, potato and vegetable crops is done by the Seed Quality Control Institution: Improved Seed Enterprise (ISE), in its four testing laboratories. The ISE purchases the seed from government research farms and contract seed growers if the seed lots meet the minimum standards.

Seed production. ISE produces seed of wheat, cotton, maize, forage crops, potato, oilseed crops, vegetables and fruit planting materials at its own farms. The other major seed producing organization is the Agriculture Research Institute in Kabul.

Seed processing. The main processing plant in the public sector is the ISE, Badam Bagh seed Processing Plant in Kabul. The main processing plant for foundation whet seed is ISE, Dural Aman Wheat Seed Processing Plant in Kabul.

Seed storage. Seed storage is mainly performed by the public sector in 11 stores. On-farm storage of potato, garlic and other root crops, using earth built storehouses is carried out.

Seed marketing and distribution. Seeds are mostly sold through the Finance and Store Section of ISE. The most common seed packages are jute bags (50-kg capacity) for wheat and plastic bags (100 to 500 g capacity) for vegetables. Credit supply is through the Agriculture Bank.

Extension. There are no policy measures to affect foreign trade in seeds. Seed is promoted by ISE, Agricultural Extension Department and ARIA through radio and television bulletins and demonstrations of new improved varieties on farmers’ fields and research stations.

Plant genetic resources

The following Institutions are involved in germplasm collection: Crop Germplasm Unit, Crop Improvement Division, Plant Research and Soil Science Department, Darul Aman Agriculture Research Station, Ministry of Agriculture, Kabul, dealing with: Cicer arietinum, Vicia faba, Vicia sp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Vigna radiata. Plant Genetic Resources Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform, Darul Aman Research Station, Kabul, dealing with: Hordeum vulgare, Oryza sativa, Triticum spp., Zea mays, Brassica juncea.

The land

Once a part of continental Europe, the highland of Cyprus is located in the eastern Mediterranean, close to Turkey. Two mountain ranges - the Troodos in the southwestern region, and the Kyrenia in northern Cyprus - enclose a fertile central plain. The temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot and dry summers and mild rainy winters, is good for agriculture.

Land use: arable 17%, forest 13%, pasture 1% other 69%

Population employed in agriculture: 18.8%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 103 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 103(1990)

Seed sector

Plant breeding. The Institution in charge of plant breeding is the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI), in Nicosia, dealing with cereals, grain legumes, vegetables, potato. There are no laws or regulations regarding Plant Breeding Rights.

Variety release. The present seed law does not include any regulation for variety registration. However within the Department of Agriculture there is a Seed Committee, which decides on the release of a new variety, selected by the ARI. A new seed law has been drafted which includes administrative and technical procedures for the registration of new varieties. This draft law is expected to be passed in the near future. At present there is no agency for variety registration.

Seed quality control. The Department of Agriculture administers the seed law, in force since 1947 and updated in 1954. Seed certification schemes are currently in operation for cereals, forage crops and vegetables, but are not regulated by seed laws. These schemes follow the normal procedures, with inspection of the seed crops, control plots and seed testing. The Seed Certification Agency is the Agronomy Section (Seed Testing Laboratory) of the Department of Agriculture, which is a member of ISTA since 1976

Seed processing. Seed processing is carried out by the following organizations: Seed Production Center, Department of Agriculture, Nicosia; Co-operative Carob Marketing Federation Paphos Ltd, Paphos; P. Samaras Import-Export Ltd., Nicosia; Frixos Constantinou and Son Ltd., Paphos; Andreas I Kostekoglou, Nicosia.

Seed marketing and distribution: The organization involved in seed marketing control is the Department of Agriculture in Nicosia. Seed Marketing Organizations include the following: Seed Production Center, Department of Agriculture, Nicosia; Co-operative Carob Marketing Federation Paphos Ltd., Paphos; P. Samaras Import-Export Ltd., Nicosia; N.K. Shacolas Ltd., Nicosia; Spyros Stavrinides Chemicals Ltd., Nicosia; Central Co-operative Bank, Nicosia; Demetres Soukiouroglou Ltd., Nicosia; Lambrou and Zorlakis, Nicosia; Petros G. Mavrikios, Limassol; Seed packaging material used are jute bags (cereals) and polypropylene bags. Transportation of seeds during marketing and distribution is by trucks and cars.

Extension. Extension is performed by the public sector (Department of Agriculture) as well as by the private sector and includes organization of field days, establishment of demonstration plots, radio and TV programs, and advisory leaflets.

Plant genetic resources

The following Institutions are involved in germplasm collection: Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Athalassa, Nicosia, dealing with: Cicer arietinum, Lens culinaris, Vicia fabe, Vicia spp., Hordeum vulgare, Aegilops spp., Triticum durum.

The land

Central Iran is a steppe-like plateau with hostile climate, surrounded by desert and mountains (the Zagros on the western border and the Elburz to the north). Underground water

irrigates the oasis where many varieties of grain and fruit trees are cultivated. The shores of the Caspian Sea are more humid and suited to tropical and sub-tropical cops (cotton, sugar cane and rice).

Land use: arable 11.2%, forest 8.1%, pasture 54% other 26.7%

Population employed in agriculture: 23.5%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 97 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 97(1990)

Seed sector

Plant breeding. The major organization responsible for plant breeding is: Seed and Plant Improvement Institute (SPII) in Karaj

Variety release. The responsibility for variety evaluation, registration and introduction lies with the Seed and Plant Improvement Institute. There is an Official Release Committee composed of heads of research institutes.

Seed production. Seed research is carried out at the Seed and Plant improvement Institute in Karaj. This institute is the main public seed producing organization.

Seed quality control. There is a seed law in preparation, but no seed law currently in force. The responsible organization is the Seed Production and Control Division, Seed and Plant Improvement Institute in Karaj. ISTA rules are followed for seed testing; IRAN has been affiliated to ISTA since 1974.

Seed marketing and distribution. The main public marketing agency is the Agricultural Support Services Company in Teheran

Plant genetic resources

The Institutions involved in germplasm collection include: Plant Genetic Resource Division, Seed and Plant Improvement Institute (SPII), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, Ministry of Agriculture in Karadj dealing with Pisum spp, Lens spp, Cicer spp, Medicago spp, Trifolium spp, Vicia spp, Lotus spp, Aegilops spp, Aegilops spp, Triticum spp, Agropyron spp, Secale spp, Avena spp, Sorghum spp, Daucus spp, Solanum spp, Allium spp, Brassica spp, Pistacia spp, Amygdalus, Amygdalus spp, Pyrus spp, Prunus spp, Vitis spp, Ficus spp, Cucumis spp, Juglans regia

The land

The Mesopotamic Region, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates in the centre of the country, is suitable for agriculture and contains most of the population. In the mountainous areas in the north there are important oil deposits. In Lower Mesopotamia, on the Shatt-al-Arab channel, where the Tigris and the Euphrates merge, fifteen million palm trees produce 80% of the world’s date.

Population employed in agriculture: 17.7%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 91 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 92(1990)

Seed sector

Plant breeding. Agricultural research centers including SBAR, IPA, IAE, and Agricultural Universities have the responsibility to produce new varieties, test the imported varieties, maintain the parental materials of existing varieties and produce foundation seeds.

Variety release. The crop area under improved varieties is less than 1%. There are no formal arrangements on variety evaluation and registration.

Seed quality control. Regulations for seed production, testing and certification were issued by the Supreme Agricultural Council in 1974. A State Board for Seed Testing and Certification (SBSTC) was established in 1994 as the authorized organization responsible for seed quality control in the country. The seed testing and certification Centers include Abu Ghraib (Baghdad), Kut (Wassit), Mosul (Ninaveh). Seed testing is performed according to ISTA Rules.

Seed marketing and distribution. Seed industry is comprised of three companies, two of which are state owned and the third is partially owned by the state. Seed is distributed is through government stores network.

Application of plant biotechnology

In view of the importance of the date palm in Iraq, tissue culture laboratories were established in 1979 in the Agriculture and Water Resources Research Center and at the Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Scientific Research Center, for the purpose of improving plant production. Similar laboratories were set up at Basra and Musul Universities and at the Ministry of Agriculture, the later in collaboration with FAO, for the propagation of commercial crop species such as potatoes and fruit trees. Research at the Faculty of Agriculture and Biology in the Nuclear Research Center concerns the establishment of optimal conditions for the transfer of in vitro regenerated date palms to the soil. Date-palm propagation by tissue culture is being studied at research institutions and universities in Baghdad and Basra and lettuce has been propagated by tissue culture at the Department of Biology, Mosul University.

Plant genetic resources

Germplasm collections are responsibility of the Plant Genetic Resources Unit, Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian reform, Abu-Ghraib, Baghdad, dealing with: Cicer arietinum, Vicia faba, Vigna spp, Hordeum bulbosum, Hordeum vulgare, Hordeum spp., Oryza sativa, Sorghum bicolor, Aegilops spp., Zea mays, Brassica spp., Raphanus spp., Abelmoscus esculentus, Cucumis spp., Cucurbita spp., Lycopersicon lycopersicum, Solanum melongena, Daucus carota, Spinacia oleracea. There are no restrictions on access to samples of genetic resources.

The land

75% of the country is a plateau, which is part of the Arabian desert, 600 to 900 m in altitude. The western part of this plateau has a series of cleavages at the beginning of the great Rift Fault, which crosses the Red Sea and stretches into east Africa. In the past, these fissures widened the Jordan River valley and formed the steep depression, which is now the Dead Sea. The area is suitable for agriculture though the climate tough, except along the shores of the Red Sea. As most of the country is made up of dry steppes, farming is limited to cereals (wheat and rye) and citrus fruits. Sheep and goats are also bred.

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 108 (1990)

Population employed in agriculture: 4.6%

Land use: arable 4%, forest 1%, pasture 9%, other 86%.

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 108 1990)

Food import dependency: 85%

Seed sector

Plant breeding. Plant breeding is performed at the Research and Extension Department, Ministry of Agriculture (Amman) for wheat, barley and tomato. Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan (Amman) for wheat, barley, chickpea and lentil. Faculty of Biology, Yamrmouk University (Irbid) for wheat.

Variety release. Variety release and registration for wheat, barley, chickpea, lentil and vegetables is the responsibility of the Research and Extension Department, Ministry of Agriculture.

Seed quality control. Quality control is performed by the Development Department, Field Crop Section, Ministry of Agriculture (Amman)

Seed marketing and distribution. Seed is marketed trough the Ministry of Supply, through various private companies and the Jordan Co-operative Organization.

Application of plant biotechnology

The Higher Council of Science and Technology is making plans to establish a national council for biotechnology, responsible or all research and development in this field. A Committee has been set up for food and agriculture. Plant production research is related mainly to conventional breeding and collection and evaluation of cereal genetic resources, with emphasis on collating germplasm of barley and durum wheat for possible use in breeding for environmental stress tolerance. A collaborative research program evaluating wild emmer (Triticum dicoccoides) is planned, mainly to assess genetic variability for morphological and agronomic traits in the wild emmer wheat collection in Jordan and its range of tolerance to drought stress.

Plant genetic resources

Organizations involved in germplasm collections are Research and Extension Department, Ministry of Agriculture (Amman) for wheat and barley. Department of Forest and Ranges, Ministry of Agriculture (Amman) for grasses and legumes. Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant production, University of Jordan (Amman) for wheat, barley, chickpea and lentil. Faculty of Biology, Yarmouk University (Irbid) for wheat.

The land

The surface topography of Kuwait is generally from flat to gently rolling desert plain, broken by occasional low hills, scarps depressions and wadis. The land level rises from zero m at the shores of the Arabian Gulf to 300m at the southwest of the country. The soils of Kuwait are predominantly sandy of eolian and alluvial origin.

Climate: dryness and extremely high temperatures characterize the climate of Kuwait in summer and short mild winters. The average annual rainfall: The country receives a total of about 110mm, usually in winter between November and May, however occasional showers may fall in October.

Land Use: Based on the total lad area, the urban and industrial areas represent about 3.7%, Rangeland 70%, (Agriculture + Parks) 5.3% and other 20%. (Soil Survey for the State of Kuwait Project phase I, 1998) Population employed in Agriculture: 0.7% of total population

Food import dependency: about 90%

Seed sector

Plant breeding: Local plant breeding of tomato, melon, squash, pumpkins, water melon and okra is carried out by The Public Authority For Agriculture and Fish Resources (PAFF).

Variety release: There are no formal procedures for variety Release or registration testing and release of new varieties is performed by PAFF.

Seed production: No seed producing organizations are present.

Seed quality control: There are regulation of the agricultural quarantine and decision for the phytosanitary regulation for importing and manipulating seeds and seedlings.

Seed marketing and distribution: Seeds are imported and distributed through authorised establishments and companies after testing by PAFF.

Application of plant biotechnology

In Kuwait, agricultural research was pioneered by PAFF particularly concerning protected agriculture and hydroponics. Plans are underway for establishing tissue culture laboratory at the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research. A national plan for biotechnology and genetic engineering is being prepared in collaboration with UNIDO. This includes a plant biotechnology programme to develop drought-and salt resistant plants through genetic engineering techniques and micropropagate ornament plants, legumes and date palms through tissue culture and other advanced biotechniques.

Plant genetic resources

The institution involved in germplasm collection is (PAAF), dealing with melons, pumpkins and squash.

The land

One of the smallest Middle East countries, Lebanon has a fertile coastal plain with a mild Mediterranean climate, making it rainy in the winter, where most of the population lives. Between two parallel mountain ranges (Lebanon Mountains and Anti-Lebanon Mountains) with temperate forests on their slopes, lies the Bekaa Valley with a very fertile soil rich of alluvional deposits. Along the cost vineyards, wheat, cotton, olive and orange plantations provide food for the population and some of the raw materials for the country’s small-scale manufactures.

Land use: arable 29%, forest 8%, pasture 1%, other 62%.

Population employed in agriculture: 7%

Seed sector

Plant breeding. Plant breeding work is carried out at Agricultural Research Institute, Beirut; American University of Beirut, Beirut.

Variety release. The Ministry of Agriculture, the Agricultural Research Institute and the Cereals and Sugar Cane Office are responsible for evaluating and releasing new varieties. There are no restrictions in importing seed except for wheat and barley for which the public sector has its own seed production system.

Seed production. The Agricultural Research Institute produces pre-basic and basic seed of winter cereals and the Ministry of Agriculture controls production of registered and certified seeds.

Seed quality control. The Agricultural Research Institute and the Cereals and Sugar Cane Office have in charge seed testing, which is performed following ISTA Rules. Seed legislation was introduced in 1974 but is not fully implemented.

Seed marketing and distribution. The Cereals and Sugar Cane Office is the only official body responsible for cereal seed marketing. Seeds of other crops are imported by the private sector (about 30 importers are present).

Extension. Currently, the private sector is much more active in seed promotion than the official service.

Plant genetic resources

The following bodies are concerned with plant genetic resources: Agricultural Research Institute (Beirut) for cereals; American University of Beirut (Beirut) for pulses. There are no restriction on access to samples.

The land

Oman occupies a strategic position on the southeastern edge of the Arabian Peninsula and flanking the Gulf of Oman, where oil tankers leave the Persian Gulf. It is separated from the rest of the peninsula by the Rub and Khali desert, which stretches, into the center of the country. Nomadic local groups now co-exist with petroleum and natural gas exploitation. Favored by ocean currents, the coastal regions enjoy a better climate. Monsoon summer rains fall in the north.

Land use: arable 0%, forest 0%, pasture 5%, other 95%.

Population employed in agriculture: 36.3%

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 96(1990)

Seed sector

Plant breeding. Plant breeding of wheat, barley, and chickpea are performed at the Agricultural Research Center of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Muscat). Selection of local varieties is carried out in other crops such as cowpea, sorghum, and berseem.

Variety release. Material from international trials and nurseries, particularly ICARDA is tried at several locations including farmers’ fields. Following the trials, the Official Release Committee of the Department of Agricultural Research releases superior varieties.

Seed production and supply. The Government carries out seed production, particularly for wheat and barley. The seed is purchased from farmers at an incentive price and treated and stored in Government warehouses, ready for distribution to farmers, free of charge, in the following season.

Seed quality control. There is no specific seed legislation. The Department of Agricultural Research maintains a seed testing facility, mainly of germination tests, at the Rumais Research Station.

Seed storage. Two public seed store of 5 and 10 ton capacity are present in the country.

Application of plant biotechnology

No information is available.

Plant genetic resources

In collaboration with IPGRI, germplasm of local landraces were collected and stored in the country or in ICARDA. Wild relatives of wheat and barley were collected from the mountain areas. Collections of wheat, sorghum, millet, faba beans, chickpeas, cowpeas, lucerne and tobacco are held by the Department of Agricultural Research, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Ruwi, Muscat.

The land

Located between 23 & 37 North and 61 & 75 East. High mountains (Himalayas) in the north-east with heavy rainfall, mostly in summers, Hindu Kush Mountains in the west that are mostly dry and receive winter rainfall, irrigated Indus plain covering the provinces of Punjab and Sindh that is the mainstay of national agriculture. Mostly arid with hot dry deserts of Cholistan in Punjab and Thar. In Sindh there is extensive irrigation system with 4 large dams and numerous barrages.

Land use: Geographical area 79.6 mha, cropped area 22.2 mha (28%) of which 81% is irrigated, forests 4.5%. Main crops are wheat, rice, cotton and sugarcane. Agriculture sector 25% of GDP, 45% labour force employed in agriculture, main industries and exports agriculture based. Exports rice and cotton; imports wheat, edible oil and tea.

Seed sector

Plant breeding: Overall co-ordination of plant breeding research by PARC and PCCC (cotton only), Research undertaken by the provincial agricultural research institutes at Faisalabad (Punjab), Tando jam (Sindh), Sariab (Baluchistan) and Tarnab (NWFP), agricultural universities of Punjab, NWFP and Sindh, and the Atomic Energy Agricultural Research Centers. Main breeding effort on wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane and pulses. Close association with concerned CGIAR centers, which also supply germplasm. Little research in developing hybrids.

Variety release: Elaborate procedure. Breeders submit seed samples to National Seed Registration Department to determine distinctness, uniformity and stability (DUS). Simultaneously the variety evaluation committee determines value and cultivation use (VCU). Varieties meeting DUS and VCU requirements released by the provincial seed councils if limited to individual provinces or by the National Seed Council if intended for cultivation in several provinces.

Seed production: In the public sector, the Punjab Seed Corporation, Sindh Seed Corporation, and the Agriculture Development Authority in NWFP responsible for seed production. Seed multiplication of approved varieties done through contract growers and on government farms Seed quality control: Federal Seed Certification Department responsible for quality control. Genetic purity of the crop checked in the field and purity of seed in the laboratory. Research institutions are responsible for the quality of pre-basic and basic seed while FSCD is responsible for controlling the quality of certified and approved seed sold domestically and the exported and imported seed.

Seed processing: Mainly in the public sector plants at Sahiwal and Khanewal in Punjab and Sakrand in Sindh. Private sector seed producers mostly in cotton. Multinationals - Cargill and Pioneer produce hybrid maize and fodder and process in their plants.

Marketing and distribution: Punjab Seed Corporation distributes seed through 1064 outlets-827 seed dealers, 30cooperatives, 15 sale points and 192 sale depots of Punjab agriculture and supplies organization; Sindh Seed Corporation has 89 sale outlets, ADA in NWFP has 50 sale points throughout the province In Baluchistan, seed is sold directly to the farmers by the Extension wing and the research institutes. Multinationals and private sector seed companies sell their seed through their designated agents and directly from their outlets.

Extension: No special organization for dissemination of information in improved seed. Agriculture extension departments mostly promote the use of improved varieties. Virtually no research in seed physiology, processing and seed treatment. Extension wing lays out variety demonstration plots of important crops for farmer education.

Application of plant biotechnology

Research in plant biotechnology especially the use of tissue culture for propagation and variety improvement and genetic engineering is done at the Center of Excellence in Molecular Biology, Punjab University, Lahore and the nuclear Institute for Biotechnology and genetic engineering, Faisalabad. National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad also undertakes research in tissue culture to improve several crop species. Main emphasis in crop biotechnology on cotton, rice, sugarcane, chickpea, date palm, potato and other vegetable crops.

Plant genetic resources

Collection, preservation, evaluation and maintenance of plant genetic resources are the responsibility of the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources of the PARC, which has, elaborate facilities for seed preservation.

The land

The country consists of the Qatar peninsula, on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in the Persian Gulf. The land is flat and the climate is hot and dry. Farming is possible only along the coastal strip. The country’s main resource is its fabulous oil wealth on the western coast.

Land use: arable 0%, forest 0%, pasture 5%, other 95%.

Population employed in agriculture: 2.8%

Seed sector

Plant breeding. The local plant breeding Institution is the Department of Agricultural and Water Research in Doha. Imported material of wheat, barley, alfalfa, sorghum, millet and some vegetables is screened for local use.

Variety release. At the Department of Agricultural and Water Research a list of recommended varieties of wheat, barley, sorghum, pearl millet is present.

Seed quality control. There is no seed legislation in force

Seed storage. Seed storage facilities are limited due to the relatively low quantities of seed produced. In the country there are presently two public seed stores, one for wheat (10-t capacity) and one for barley (50-t capacity).

Seed marketing and distribution. Market is free and open.

Application of plant biotechnology

No information available)

Plant genetic resources

No programs on local genetic resources preservation are carried out. All genetic resources are imported from CIMMYT, ICARDA, and ACSAD as active collections for evaluation and multiplication under local conditions.

The land

The vast Arabian Peninsula has two major desert regions: the An Nefud in the north, and the Rub al-Khali in the south. Between the two lie the Nejd massif, of volcanic origin, and the plain of El Hasa, the country’s only fertile region, where wheat and dates are cultivated, thanks to a scanty rainy season. The country’s cultivated land amounts to less than 1%; about 90% of the agricultural products consumed are imported. Oil is the main source.

Land use: arable 1%, forest 1%, pasture 40%, other 58%.

Population employed in agriculture: 35.8%

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 236(1990)

Food import dependency: 87%

Seed sector

Plant breeding. Plant breeding work is carried out at: the Agricultural Research Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Water (Riyadh) on wheat, barley, sorghum, maize, soybean and potato. The National and Agriculture and Water Research Center (Riyadh) on melons and watermelons.

Variety release. New varieties of wheat and barley are selected by the Agricultural Research Department in the Ministry of Agriculture and Water (NAERC) and tested by the Grain Silos and Flour Mills Organizations (GOSFM). Import of wheat seeds is subject to regulations issued by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water after consultation with the Wheat Board of the NAERC and the GOSFM. For evaluation of new cultivars of melon and watermelon the regulations of the American Society for Horticultural Science are followed. Although no official release committee is present, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water makes recommendations concerning the cultivars more suited for the country.

Seed production. The main seed production organization for wheat and barley is the National Seed of Agriculture Service Co. (Riyadh).

Seed quality control. The competent organization for supervising seed quality control is the National Agriculture and Water Research Center (NAWRC) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Water in Riyadh. AOSA and ISTA Rules for testing seeds are followed.

Seed processing. The main seed processing plants are in the private sector under the National Seed of Agriculture Service Co.

Seed storage. Some stores of the public as well as the private sector are available for storage of wheat, barley and potato.

Seed marketing and distribution. The larger local seed marketing companies for wheat and barley are: National Seed and Agriculture Service Co. (Buther). Hail Agriculture Development Company (Hadco). The National Agriculture Development Company (Nadec). Tabuk Agriculture Development Company (Tadco). Al-Gasseem Agriculture Company (Al. Gasseem). Ash-Shariqiah Agriculture Development Company (Shadco). Al-Jouf Agriculture Company (Al-Jouf).

Extension. The main organization involved with seed promotion is the Agricultural Research Department and the Agricultural Extension Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, which organizes training courses.

Application of plant biotechnology

The Date-Palm Research Center at King Faisal University, Hofuf, conducts extensive advanced research into date-palm propagation through cell and tissue culture. Several reports dealing with date-palm tissue culture have been published in the ten years in national and international Conference and Symposium Proceedings. At King Saud University in Riyadh, experiments were carried out on in vitro micropropagation of plants such as pomegranate and on the propagation of medicinal plants. A tissue culture laboratory has been set up in the Ministry of Agriculture and Water in Riyadh. Its research will focus on micropropagation of major crops such as date palm, potato and wheat. At present a national biotechnology advisory group with the participation of government agencies, industry and universities, as well as the Arab Gulf University in Bahrain, is setting up. Its main tasks are to initiate and co-ordinate a biotechnology program, to develop a biotechnology information base for Saudi Arabia, to organize training programs and workshops on specific aspects of biotechnology, and to promote interaction between various disciplines and industry.

Plant genetic resources

No Institutions involved in programs on local genetic resources preservation are known.

The land

To the west, near the sea, lies the Lebanon mountain range. To the south there are semi-desert plateaus and to the north low plateaus along the basin of the Euphrates River. Farming - grains, grapes and fruits - is concentrated in the western lowlands that receive sufficient rainfall. In the south, the volcanic plateaus of the Djebel Druze are extremely fertile farmlands, some as the oases surrounding the desert, the main one being that of Damascus. Cotton and wool are exported.

Land use: arable 30%, forest 4%, pasture 43%, other 23%.

Population employed in agriculture: 21.8%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 83 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 82(1990)

Food import dependency: 29%

Seed sector

Plant breeding. Plant breeding is the responsibility of the Directorate of Agricultural Scientific Research (DASR), Douma, Damascus, and it is focused on the following crops: wheat and barley, maize, chickpea, lentil, groundnut, faba bean, sesame and sugar beet. Varieties are also developed by the Arab Center for Studies of the Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD, Damascus); the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA, Aleppo).

Variety release. Variety evaluation is performed by the Directorate of Agricultural Scientific Research (DASR) or through joint activities with ACSAD and ICARDA. The release of varieties is subject to scrutiny by the National Release Committee based on submissions by DASR.

Seed production. Seed production of wheat, barley, maize, broad beans, chickpea, lentil, groundnut, cotton and potato is performed by the staff of the General Organization for Seed Multiplication (GOSM) in Aleppo.

Seed quality control. There is no legislation specific to seeds matters, which are included in an old Ministerial Decision issued in 1963 dealing with all agricultural inputs. The responsibility for seed quality control is with the General Organization for Seed Multiplication (GOSM).

Seed marketing and distribution. Seed marketing is carried out through three main channels: GOSM, the Agricultural Credit Bank, and the General Organization for Livestock.

Application of plant biotechnology

Research is being conducted at the Faculty of Agriculture, Aleppo University, on the use of tissue culture to propagate broad bean from different tissues in various nutrient media. Virus-fee potato tubers were produced at the Ministry of Agriculture, Aleppo.

Plant genetic resources

The organization responsible for genetic resources are: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, dealing with: Cicer arietinum, and Cicer sp., Lens culinaris, Vica faba, Pisum sativum, Hordeum vulgare, Hordeum spp, Aegilops spp., Triticum aestivum, Triticum dicoccoides, Triticum durum, Zea mays. Genetic Resources Unit (GRU), Agriculture Research Directorate, Douma, Damascus, dealing with: Cicer arietinum, Lens culinaris, Vicia faba, Avena sativa, Hordeum vulgare, Hordeum spp, Oryza sativa, Sorghum bicolor, Allium spp. Cotton Bureau, Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform, Aleppo, dealing with: Gossypium spp.

The land

The European part, located in the extreme south-east of the Balkan Peninsula makes up less than one-thirtieth of the country’s total land area; it includes an arid steppe plateau, the mountains to the east, and a group of hills suitable for farming. Anatolia is a mountainous area with many lakes and swamps. The Ponticas range in the north and the Taurus range in the south from the natural boundaries for the Anatolian plateaus. The country is mainly agricultural. The lack of natural resources and absence of capital and appropriate infrastructure, have been major obstacles to industrialization.

Land use: arable 36%, forest 26%, pasture 11%, other 26%.

Population employed in agriculture: 44.5%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 97 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 98(1990)

Food import dependency: 5,2%

Seed sector

Plant breeding. Plant breeding is performed by public and private sector. Several Public Institutions are involved in plant breeding, among which: Çukurova Agricultural Research Institute (Adana); Mediterranean Agricultural Research Institute (Antalya); Aegen Agricultural Research Institute (Menemen-Izmir); Southern Anatolia Agricultural Research Institute (Diyarbakir); Eastern Anatolia Agricultural Research (Erzurum); Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute (Samsum); Trakya Agricultural Research Institute (Edirne); Geçit Kusagi Agricultural Research Institute (Eskinsehir); Forage Crops Research Institute (Yalova-Istambul); Vegetable Research Institute (Antalya); Agricultural Research Institute (Akçakale); Bahri Dagdas Winter Cereal International Research Institute (Konya); Maize Research Institute (Sakarya).

Variety release. The official body for variety release is the Variety Release Committee composed of members of research institutes of MAFRA, Faculty of Agriculture, and Variety Registration and Certification Institute. The agency responsible for variety registration is the Directorate of Seed Registration and Certification Center in Ankara.

Seed production. Public and private seed production organisations are present as well as multinationals (Pioneer, Cargill, CIBA-GEIGY, Sandoz etc.). Among the public organisations the most important are: TIGEM in Ankara (public; T.Z.D.K. in Ankara (public), Antbirlik in Antalya (public)

Seed quality control. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Affairs enforces seed law, since 1963. Seven official Seed Testing and Certification Stations are present in the country at Ankara, Gebze-Kocaeli, Izmir, Antalya, Içel, Diyarbakir, and Samsun. Seed testing is carried out conforming to ISTA Rules.

Seed processing. Seed processing is performed by public (TIGEM, T.Z.D.K.) as well as private sector.

Seed marketing and distribution. The seed producing organisations market their seeds through their own outlets and agencies. Seeds are transported mainly by trucks and other road vehicles. Seed production and marketing activities in the public and private sectors are based on a free market economy. Prices are not controlled. Trade in seed of foreign origin is subjected to law restrictions.

Extension. Demonstrations are conducted by the Provincial Seed Testing and Certification Stations and also the private organizations, in farming conditions, for the promotion of new seed varieties.

Application of plant biotechnology

Plant biotechnology research began in 1973 at the University of Ankara and there are now 18 plant tissue culture laboratories in various Turkish universities and research institutions. Research at the University of Ankara is concerned mainly with the use of tissue culture techniques for breeding vegetable crops and propagating fruit and vine. Other research concerns biological control of plant pests by Bacillus species. Research in the Horticulture and Plant Production Departments of the University of Çukurova concentrates mainly on in vitro propagation of plants such as banana, citrus, tea, artichoke and strawberry, but also on haploid plant production and the production of pathogen-free plants through somaclonal variation.

Other research includes: the use of anther and meristem cultures for propagating potatoes and tobacco (University of the Aegean); in vitro vegetative propagation of 13 crops (Institute of Aegean Agriculture Research); research related to early detection of plant pathogens using immunological technique (Institute of Tubitak Gebze Research for Basic Sciences); genetic variation in barley callus culture (University of Istanbul). Major advance have been made in the production of haploid lines via anther culture in pepper and tobacco, and in the commercial application of tissue culture technique in plant propagation and pathogen elimination by the Horticulture Research Center of the Ataturk Institute, where virus-free strawberry plants have been produced. Two private companies have commercialized in vitro propagation of ornamental plants. Co-operative arrangements between different Institutions in Turkey and International Organizations have resulted in collaborative projects on: virus-free citrus plants; establishing and promoting new biotechnological techniques; breeding through ginogenesis, performed by the University of Çukurova in co-operation with the French Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA).

Plant genetic resources

The Institution is involved in germplasm collection is: Plant Genetic Resources Research Institute, Aegean Agriculture Research Institute (AARI), Menemen, Izmir, dealing with: Cicer sp., Lens culinaris, Vicia faba, Phaseolus vulgaris, Phaseolus coccineus, Phaseoulus spp., Pisum, Vigna, Avena spp., Hordeum spp., Oryza sativa, Secale spp., Aegilops spp., Zea mays, Abelmoscus esculentus, Allium spp., Raphanus sativus, Brassica spp., Capsicum annuum, Citrullus spp., Cucumis spp., cucurbita spp., Lycopersicon lycopersicum, Solanum melongena, Daucus carota, Lactuca spp., Spinacia oleracea, Beta spp..

The land

Located on the strategic cape controlling the Arabian and Oman Gulfs, the country has seven emirates. The coastal areas are hilly lowlands with coral islands offshore and dunes. Most of the oil fields are located in these areas. Several oasis break up the desert.

Land use: arable 0%, forest 0%, pasture 3%, other 97%.

Food import dependency: 98%

Seed sector

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries reported in 1985 that no seed programmes in the country were present. No other more updated information is available.

Plant genetic resources

No Institutions are known to be involved in programs on local genetic resources preservation.

The land

North Yemen has the most fertile lands of the Arabian Peninsula. Beyond a semi-desert coastal strip along the Red Sea, lies a more humid mountainous region where the agricultural lands are found. The traditional coffee crop was replaced by qat, a narcotic herb. The climate is tropical with high temperatures especially in Tihmah and in the eastern region. The southern territory is dry, mountainous and lacks permanent rivers. Two thirds of its land area is either desert or semi-desert. The country’s agriculture (millet, cotton and coffee) is concentrated in the valleys and oases (1,2% of the territory) Fishing is an important commercial activity.

Land use: arable 3%, forest 8%, pasture 30%, other 59%.

Population employed in agriculture: 53.2%

Agricultural production index: 100 (1979-81), 79 (1990)

Food production per capita: 100 (1979-81), 79 (1990)

Seed sector

Variety development and Release: Variety development is the responsibility of the Agricultural Research and Extension Authority (AREA) and it's several regional centers. New varieties are released after review by the Variety Release Committee.

Seed production. A Seed Production Project (SPP) is carried out to obtain basic seeds of wheat, maize, sorghum and millet. Since 1986 a Seed Multiplication Farms operational for multiplication of first generation wheat and barley seeds. Seed production of potatoes is responsibility of the Seed Potato Distribution in Sana’a. No potato seed may be imported without the approval of this organization.

Seed quality control. There is no seed law. Quality control is developed according to international standards in the Seed Production Projects. A fully equipped testing laboratory is present in Taiz. Samples of seeds produced in the centers of the SPP are tested for moisture content, purity, germination and vigor.

Seed marketing and distribution. Seed marketing for the grain crops is by SPP and for potatoes by the Seed Potato Distribution. Some potato seed is distributed through private agents, the Rural Development project and credit banks.

Extension. An extension service is present which perform seed demonstration and marketing. Farmers receive credit from the Co-operative Agricultural Credit Bank

Plant genetic resources

The organization responsible for genetic resources is Department of Research & Extension, El-Kod Agricultural Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture & Agrarian Reform, Abyan Goy, dealing with: or, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays.

 

 

This document has been prepared by the Seed and Plant Genetic Resources Service (AGPS) of the Plant Production and Protection Division of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations to be used as a working paper to stimulate debate in the meeting on Seed Policy and Programmes in the Near East and North Africa.

The present document was developed based on 22 Country Reports by Member Governments, FAO expert consultation reports in the region, and national and regional workshop reports on issues related to seed production and distribution in the Near East and North Africa. This document is based on the work of Dr. Luciana Quagliotti and Dr. Sergio Lanteri of Plant Genetic Research Institute at the University of Turin, Italy. Dr. Edward Herath, former head of the Department of Agricultural Research in Sri Lanka also contributed. Comments and suggestions from Dr. N. Murthi Anishetty, and Dr. Ivan Sikora, were incorporated into the document. The technical analysis and elaboration of this technical document was accomplished by Dr. Victor N. Bushamuka, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.

The document received a major contribution from Dr. Mohamed S. Zehni, who made the final revision and the conclusive analysis of the document.

This work has been developed under the technical guidance and scientific coordination of Dr. U. G. Menini, Chief of Seed and Plant Genetic Resources Service.