Summary
Production and use of improved seed depends on the availability of improved, high yielding and well-adapted varieties. Plant breeding research in the NENA region is almost exclusively conducted in public sector research institutions. The major emphasis of breeding programs in the region is on cereal crops especially wheat, barley and maize. Variety improvement programs mainly use conventional cross breeding techniques. However, some countries in the region including Pakistan and Turkey have well-established mutation breeding programs. Genetic engineering techniques are also being used in some countries to improve specific characters. The CGIAR centers are an important source of improved germplasm of their mandated crops, which is freely shared with the national agricultural research systems to be released as improved varieties after local selection or as breeding materials to develop improved varieties.
With financial and technical assistance, several countries have developed large seed industry projects from the World Bank and other donors. These initiatives have helped to increase the availability of certified seeds of major crops. However, the supply of improved seeds through formal sources is still only a small fraction of the total demand. To bridge this huge gap in several countries, large multi-national companies have developed programs to market hybrid seed of selected crops. The domestic private sector is also involved in seed production in selected areas, but once again efforts are modest compared to demand. The private sector needs special incentives to get initiatives established. As a result, a major source of seed at the farmers' level still comes from the informal sector. The quality of farmer seeds can be significantly improved if farmers are given basic training in seed production, cleaning and storage.
The transfer of technology (TOT) to farmers promoting the adoption of improved seed is essential to ensure that farmers understand the importance of improved seed in achieving sustainable higher crop yields. Stakeholders in TOT need up-to-date information on improved varieties and sources of improved seeds to advise their clients. TOT also has to take into consideration the great diversity in the target group of farmers and the type of improved technology desired to be transferred. Various mechanisms for TOT used in the region have been described. It has been emphasized that different strategies and mechanisms for transfer of technology to farmers need to be devised according to the nature of the improved technology, target group and the area.
The main responsibility for TOT lies with the agriculture extension services within the provincial /state agriculture departments. However, despite the extensive infrastructure and sizable budget, the extension services are generally considered ineffective in TOT. The private sector should be encouraged to assume a more vigorous role in TOT. Research institutions, especially those devoted to individual crops (wheat, rice, maize, cotton etc.), can be effective in transferring information on these crops in areas where the crop is a predominant component of the farming system. This approach has been attempted successfully with several crops including rice and cotton in Pakistan. The private sector can be effective in TOT especially if information is supported by credit and inputs to ensure that improved technology will enhance on-farm production. Rural NGOs, farmers' organizations and entrepreneurs can also play an effective role in TOT.
1. INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the mainstay of most of the countries in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) region with the exception of the oil-rich countries. The agricultural sector constitutes more than 70% of the gross national product (GNP) of the non-oil producing countries and people living in rural areas of these countries depend primarily on agriculture for their livelihood. The agricultural sector also contributes directly to the priority national goal of achieving maximum food security in most developing countries of the NENA region.
Average yields of most crops are quite low compared to their yield potentials (30-40%). The yield gap for major crops in Pakistan1 is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Yield Gap (1994-95)
|
Crop |
Yield Potential |
National Yield |
Yield Gap |
Unachieved Potential (%) |
|
Wheat |
6425 |
2081 |
4344 |
68 |
|
Paddy |
9489 |
2433 |
7056 |
74 |
|
Sugarcane |
185000 |
47000 |
138000 |
75 |
|
Cotton (lint) |
1400 |
557 |
843 |
60 |
|
Potato |
38128 |
13942 |
24186 |
63 |
While factors responsible for the large yield gaps have been identified in several countries, remedial measures require a major effort due to the complexity of the agriculture sector. Due to widespread poverty and low incomes in the rural areas, improving production efficiency and increasing yields is considered of highest priority to improve the quality of life of rural population.
The agricultural sector consists of crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries, and the relative importance of these sub-sectors is different in various countries. However, crops are often the predominant component and most of farming families are directly involved in crop production. Any efforts designed to improve agricultural productivity, average family incomes, and the overall national economy must therefore focus on increased production of major crops. While a large number of factors are responsible for the ultimate crop yield, the characteristics of the crop varieties used and quality of seed are critical. It is therefore important to ensure that healthy seed of improved high yielding varieties, well-suited to local agro-ecological conditions and possessing the required characteristics of tolerance/resistance to the prevalent stresses, are used. This goal can only be achieved if:
- there is a sufficient supply of quality seed available through the public and private sectors to meet the requirements of the area to be planted to various crops; and
- farmers are aware of the value of improved seeds in achieving higher crop yields and net income.
Farmers also need timely information about improved varieties for their area and proper seeding rates and procedures for selected varieties. This requires vigorous and effective transfer of technology programs geared to different categories of farmers in various agro-ecological zones, which is the subject of this paper.
This paper reviews plant breeding research in the region to improve crop varieties, mechanisms used to multiply seed of improved varieties and efforts to educate and motivate farmers to use improved seeds. Since there is a great deal of diversity in the countries of the NENA region, it is difficult to comprehensively review the situation in all the countries. However some general patterns common to all countries have been described. Recommendations have been made based on the experience within the region (especially in Pakistan) and to improve plant breeding research, seed production and distribution, and efforts to educate farmers to use quality seed and improved agronomic practices.
2. PLANT BREEDING AND SEED SCIENCE RESEARCH
The objective of plant breeding research is to improve crop varieties that are high yielding, have desirable characteristics to meet the market and consumer requirements, and are well adapted to the local environmental conditions, especially the prevalent temperature, soil and pest stresses. All the countries in the region have plant breeding research programs, but the quality and extent of the programs vary widely depending on the size of the country, availability of expertise, and financial resources to undertake such research. Primary responsibility for plant breeding research lies with the state agriculture departments who entrust plant breeding efforts to state-run agriculture research institutes/stations and agriculture universities/colleges.
Most of the research on variety improvement has been concentrated on main cereal crops (wheat, barley and maize). The main reason for a strong emphasis on cereal crops has to do with the high national priorities to achieve food security through sustainable increased production of main cereal crops. As a result, wheat, the predominant cereal crop in the region, is assigned the highest priority in plant breeding and agronomic research. Several countries including Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan and Turkey have been able to increase their wheat production substantially, largely through well-organized research efforts and appropriate government policies to stimulate increased production. Several countries with well-developed national agricultural research systems (Pakistan, Egypt, Turkey, and Iran) also undertake plant breeding research on important cash crops including cotton, sugarcane, horticultural crops and rice. Private sector research in plant breeding is virtually non-existent in the region with the exception of some multinationals that undertake development of hybrid varieties of selected crops. Most of the plant breeding research carried out in the private sector involves classical hybridization of selected parents to evolve improved genotypes.
At the international level, the Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) has established sixteen international agricultural research centers (IARCs) to undertake research on crops, livestock, forestry, aquatic resources, water management, food policy and strengthening NARS2. The IARCs with a global or regional mandate for the sustainable improvement of the productivity of various crops are listed in Table 2.
These centers undertake massive plant breeding efforts in their mandated crops to produce improved genotypes suitable for a great variety of environmental conditions especially in the developing countries. The IARCs also have maintained close liaisons with scientists in the national agricultural research systems (NARS) for a two-way exchange of information on the need for new varieties and the availability of improved germplasm. Nurseries of improved germplasm of selected crops are distributed by the international centers to relevant plant breeders in developing countries. Plant breeders can then select varieties best suited to their environment for use either directly as commercial varieties or to improve breeding material for utilization in their research programs. This mechanism has greatly facilitated the evolution of improved varieties, especially in wheat, rice, maize, potato and beans. The improved germplasm of these crops has helped increase crop yields in most developing countries, resulting in greater food production and availability to the rapidly growing population 3.
Besides cross breeding, the other major technique used for variety improvement is mutation breeding, mainly through the use of ionizing radiation. This method supplements the conventional cross breeding techniques in most crops and has a distinct advantage in selected situations. Many improved varieties of several crops have been released for large scale sowing that has resulted in dramatic yield increases in several countries. One significant example is the release of a mutant variety of cotton -NIAB 78 in Pakistan, which resulted in an almost 300% increase in cotton production in the country within 3-4 years and a major improvement in the overall national economy 4.
Table 2: Crop Research in the IARCs
|
Center |
Main Crops |
|
CIAT- International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Cali, Colombia (Founded 1967). |
Beans, Cassava, Tropical Forages |
|
CIMMYT - International Center for the Improvement of Maize and Wheat, Mexico City, Mexico (Founded 1966). |
Wheat, Maize, Triticale |
|
CIP - International Potato Center, Lima, Peru (Founded 1971). |
Potato, Sweet potato |
|
ICARDA - International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria (Founded 1977). |
Wheat, Barley, Chickpea, Lentils, Pasteur legumes |
|
ICRISAT - International Crops Research Institute for The Semi-arid Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India (Founded1972). |
Sorghum, Millets, Chickpea, Pigeonpea, Groundnut |
|
IITA - International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria (Founded 1967). |
Maize, Cassava, Cowpea, Plantain, Soybean, Yam |
|
IRRI - International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, The Philippines (Founded 1960). |
Rice |
|
WARDA - West Africa Rice Development Association, Bouake, Côte D'Ivoire (Founded 1970). |
Rice in West Africa |
|
IPGRI - International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy (Founded 1974). |
Plant Genetic Resources |
Source: CGIAR Annual Report 1997.
A vast majority of the farmers in the NENA region are small holders who face many agro-ecological and economic constraints in achieving high crop yields from the available natural resources of land, water and climate. Main problems in achieving sustainable high yields are the prevalent and emerging biotic and environmental stresses and lack of financial resources to purchase the costly inputs and line up the necessary farm machinery recommended to achieve optimum crop yields. The challenge to the plant breeders, therefore, is to develop crop varieties that are well suited to the local agro-ecological conditions and give good yields even with low external inputs and use of family labor and animal power instead of costly and sophisticated farm machinery.
The requirements for improved technology of the large holders and corporate farmers are often quite different from those of the small farmers. While large holders require crop varieties that cope with the prevalent environmental stresses and are well adapted to the agro-ecological conditions, their preference is for high yielding, input responsive varieties that are amenable to mechanized farming. They view agriculture as an industry and try to maximize their net profits from the investment. Plant breeders must therefore develop varieties both for the resource poor small farmers and the well-endowed and highly mechanized large holders and corporate farmers.
In order to derive full economic benefits from the improved varieties, it is essential to develop a complete package of production technology for every new variety for different agro-ecological conditions and crop rotations. The objective of such agronomic-economic research should be to stabilize crop yields against various types of environmental risks and optimize farmers’ net profit from the use of family labor and purchased inputs. Agronomic research should aim at reducing the cost of production to enable the resource poor farmers to adopt the improved technology. Such agronomic research is not adequate in most countries and needs to be strengthened and better integrated with plant breeding research.
Well-organized and efficient NARS can be an important instrument in improving agricultural productivity and the net income of farmers. However, most of the NARS in the region suffer from a variety of constraints and their overall efficiency and effectiveness is quite low. One of the IARCs-International Services for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR) is exclusively devoted to assist NARS in achieving this goal. A regional organization of NARS, the Association of Agricultural Research Institutions in the Near East and North Africa (AARINENA) was also formed about 15 years ago to help exchange the experiences of various NARS in the region. Unfortunately, due to a lack of financial resources it has been relatively inactive. Recently, the Global Fund for Agricultural Research has established a NARS-Secretariat at FAO headquarters, which is providing the necessary financial and technical assistance to regional research organizations including AARINENA to make them more effective in supporting the regional NARS.
Although a modest base of plant breeding research exists in several countries in the region, there is an almost complete neglect of research in seed science per se. Similarly the subject of seed science is neglected in the curricula of most agricultural institutions, which needs to be rectified. Research in post harvest handling of seed, seed physiology and pre-sowing treatment can substantially enhance the performance of seed in terms of crop yield.
3. SEED MULTIPLICATION AND MARKETING
In order to benefit fully from breeding research, multiplication of seed of improved varieties must meet the requirements of maximum numbers of farmers. This has traditionally been performed by farmers, or in some cases, by farmer's co-operatives. With the advent of the Green Revolution, the importance of improved varieties and quality seed was fully realized by policy makers and international development agencies. Through development assistance from the World Bank, other regional banks and bilateral aid agencies including the USAID, determined efforts were made to organize the seed industry working on modern lines in the public sector. The development package in most cases included hardware for the seed processing industry and its installation, training of manpower for commercial seed production on government farms or through contract growers, and processing the selected seed lots for certified seed production and distribution.
Simultaneously, the private sector and NGOs also organized different sized operations to produce improved seed of selected crops and to distribute seed to growers after processing in their plants or through the public sector seed processing plants. These efforts greatly increased the availability of improved seed to ordinary farmers. However, there is still a large gap between supply and demand of improved seed in most developing countries including countries in the NENA region. This situation has led to adulteration in the production of certified seed, especially in Pakistan where farmers complain bitterly about the poor quality seed even from state approved outlets. As a result, most farmers in the NENA region have to rely on their low quality home grown seeds.
The requirements and availability of certified seed of selected crops in Pakistan5 is given in Table 3. Even with maximum capacity production by the public and private sector, only about 10.5% of wheat and 34.5% of cotton seed requirements were met in 1997-98. Judging from the persistent complaints of farmers, some of the improved seed sold to the farmers, especially in the case of cotton, is often of poor quality.
3.1 Strengthening the Private Sector in Seed Production
Despite the development of large seed industry projects, the availability of certified seeds of most crops is still far below requirements throughout the region. This gap in demand and supply can only be filled by developing a vigorous private seed sector and improving the quality of the informal seed sector. However, entrepreneurs in the private sector continue to face many constraints in their efforts to develop viable projects in the NENA region.
Table 3: Estimated Seed Requirement and Seed Distributed During Last Five Years.
|
Crop/Year |
Estimated seed |
Seed distributed (Mt.) |
% |
|
Wheat |
|||
|
1993-94 |
706824 |
56045 |
7.72 |
|
1994-95 |
733545 |
80840 |
11.02 |
|
1995-96 |
733545 |
85383 |
11.64 |
|
1996-97 |
739000 |
77023 |
10.42 |
|
1997-98 |
739000 |
78544 |
10.53 |
|
Cotton |
|||
|
1993-94 |
67806 |
26499 |
39.08 |
|
1994-95 |
58298 |
28453 |
48.80 |
|
1995-96 |
66000 |
31295 |
47.42 |
|
1996-97 |
66000 |
26635 |
40.35 |
|
1997-98 |
67000 |
23128 |
34.52 |
|
Rice |
|||
|
1993-94 |
44000 |
2170 |
4.93 |
|
1994-95 |
43000 |
2662 |
6.19 |
|
1995-96 |
49000 |
3517 |
7.18 |
|
1996-97 |
43000 |
1751 |
4.10 |
|
1997-98 |
43000 |
1734 |
4.03 |
|
Maize |
|||
|
1993-94 |
35900 |
1631 |
4.54 |
|
1994-95 |
35600 |
2201 |
6.18 |
|
1995-96 |
35000 |
2032 |
5.80 |
|
1996-97 |
35000 |
2011 |
5.74 |
|
1997-98 |
35000 |
1674 |
4.70 |
|
Sunflower |
|||
|
1993-94 |
410 |
271 |
66.09 |
|
1994-95 |
525 |
359 |
68.38 |
|
1995-96 |
808 |
586 |
72.52 |
|
1996-97 |
1750 |
807 |
46.11 |
|
1997-98 |
1000 |
571 |
57.10 |
|
Vegetables (excluding potatoes) |
|||
|
1993-94 |
4000 |
N.A. |
- |
|
1994-95 |
4000 |
N.A. |
- |
|
1995-96 |
4900 |
4052 |
82.69 |
|
1996-97 |
5000 |
4603 |
92.06 |
|
1997-98 |
5000 |
3181 |
63.62 |
All vegetable seeds, sunflower seeds (hybrid), and maize seeds (hybrid)] were imported.
3.1 Measures to Improve the Private Sector
Some of the measures required to stimulate the private sector in the region6 are listed as follows:
- Assured availability of pre-basic seed from research institutes.
- Soft loans for establishing seed production, processing and storage units.
- Provision of state land for seed farms.
- Concessions in levies and taxes to import machinery and market products.
- Regulation of marketing of non-descriptive seeds.
4. TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY TO FARMERS
Improved technology can achieve its purpose only if it is effectively transferred to and adopted by farmers. Effective technology transfer can result in higher agricultural production and increased net incomes of farming families, which has a positive impact on rural poverty. Improved crop yields will reduce costly imports of agricultural commodities and the cost of production of basic raw materials for agro-industries. In the long run, the adoption of improved technology by farmers can make agro-industries more competitive in the international markets. In addition, increased agricultural productivity may also have a positive effect on the often hard-pressed national economies of the region.
4.1 Stakeholders
Because of the sizable economic and political gains from effective technology transfer, governments often emphasize agricultural extension programs in their national planning programs. Public sector agencies, especially the agriculture extension departments of the provincial/state governments, audio-visual media institutions and publication centers, agriculture universities, and research institutes undertake transfer of improved technology to farmers. Other public sector agencies involved in the transfer of technology (TOT) are the agriculture credit organizations including private banks, manufacturers and suppliers of agricultural machinery and inputs, and the seed industry. Stakeholders in the private sector involved in TOT are NGOs working to improve economic conditions of farming communities and farmers co-operatives. Because of the growing importance of the agriculture sector and a move towards privatization in the public sector, most activities concerned with the production, import and distribution of agricultural inputs have been transferred from the public to the private sector. The extensive network of domestic and multi-national organizations engaged in these activities are also actively involved in TOT, with the main objective of promoting the sale of their products. The list of stakeholders involved in TOT is therefore quite extensive and diverse.
4.2 Diversity of Target Groups and Nature of Improved Technology
To be successful, the methodology for transfer of technology has to take into consideration the profile of the target group and the nature of the improved technology to be transferred. Considerable research has been done on the great diversity of farming community and the nature of commodities and technological innovations that can be transferred. The target groups in the region vary widely from the resource poor, illiterate landless tenants to the well-endowed, well-educated and sophisticated large holders and the corporate farmers. Similarly, the nature of improved technology intended to be communicated also covers a wide range. Straightforward information including names of the improved crop varieties or optimum seed rates and dates of sowing that can be easily understood even by illiterate farmers can be easily communicated through various forms of media. More sophisticated technologies including the use of an implement on a machine for special farming operations on the use of toxic chemicals on sensitive crops require more elaborate and often costly mechanisms for effective transfer to farmers. Thus there is a great diversity in the target groups and the nature of technology intended to be transferred. This complex menu also requires tailor-made mechanisms for efficient communication of information for specific situations.
Research scientists and extension workers often complain that, in spite of their best efforts, farmers do not adopt improved technologies. They overlook the fact that improved technologies that they try to "sell" to the small farmers are often produced implicitly for large farmers and therefore are unsuitable for the conditions under which small farmers work. Besides, small farmers have a wealth of experience developing successful innovations that work well under their conditions, but which scientists working in research stations are unaware of. Therefore, scientists and extension workers need to interact more closely with farmers and not merely "transfer" improved technologies. Chambers and Ghildyal (1985) analyzed the issue of transfer of technology to resource poor farmers in detail and observed the following:
"--There is much evidence and understanding that when resource poor farmers (RPFs) do not adopt technology, it is usually not from ignorance, but because the technology does not fit their needs, and their physical, social and economic conditions. Technologies, whether biological or physical, bear the imprint of the conditions in which they are generated. They are then adaptable in similar conditions, but often not adaptable where conditions differ. As it is often the case, many conditions on research experiment stations and in laboratories are close to those of resource rich farmers, but sharply different from those of RPFs. "
Chambers and Ghildyal (1985) have also proposed a "Farmer First and Last-FFL" model. The essential elements of this model are compared to the conventional TOT model in Table-4.
In order to develop successful programs to improve agricultural productivity and net incomes for the RPFs, careful attention must be paid to the real situation of the RPFs when designing research experiments and transferring the information to farmer.
4.3 Mechanisms for Technology Transfer
Several mechanisms are used by different stakeholders for transfer of technology to different categories of target groups8. These include (i) audio-visual media, radio, television, mobile video vans, (ii) print media-leaflets, brochures, illustrated booklets, wall charts and posters, (iii) demonstration plots in rural areas, (iv) rural fairs and corner meetings (v) farmers days at research stations (vi) farmer contact with seed dealers (vii) farmer education by field staff of NGOs and seed companies and (viii) extension by agro-industries (floor mills, rice mills, oil processing units, sugar mills, dairy plants). Relatively simple technologies, including the transfer of names of improved varieties and information about optimum seeding rates and sowing dates can be easily communicated, even to illiterate farmers, through the basic tools used for extension-radio. The more sophisticated technologies require the use of TV or mobile cinema vans and demonstrations by extension staff.
Table 4: Transfer of Technology (TOT) and Farmer-First and-Last (FFL) Model
| Parameters |
TOT |
FFL |
|
Research priorities determined mainly by: |
Needs, problems, perceptions and environment of scientists |
Needs, problems, perceptions, and environment of the farmers |
|
Crucial learning is that of: |
Farmers from the scientists |
Scientists from farmers |
|
Role of farmers: |
Beneficiary |
Client and professional colleague |
|
Role of scientists: |
Generator of technology |
Consultant and collaborator |
|
Main R&D locations: |
Experiment stations, laboratories, and greenhouse |
Farmers' fields and conditions |
|
Physical features of R&D mainly determined by: |
Scientists' needs and preferences, including statistics and experimental designs |
Farmers needs and preferences |
|
Non-adoption of innovations explained by: |
Failure of farmer to learn from scientist |
Failure of scientist to learn from farmer |
|
Evaluation: |
By publications |
By adoption of technologies by farmers |
Technologies to farmers becomes more complex when other factors such as soil types, agro-ecological conditions, weather conditions and crop rotations are taken into consideration. Such information would require more sophisticated means of information transfer such as the print medium, lectures and discussion groups.
4.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of Agricultural Extension Methodologies
The simplest, least expensive and probably most effective mechanism for transfer of technology, especially to illiterate small holders, is still the public sector radio service, which has improved its performance over time with different innovations. However, it has limitations in that it is only appropriate to transmit simple messages such as the names of improved varieties and other farm inputs and critical dates for various farm operations. Almost every household in the region, even in remote areas, has a transistor radio, which provides to the family a valuable contact with the outside world and is also a source of entertainment and information. Radio played a pivotal role in popularizing the green revolution technologies.
TV has gained increasing popularity even in the rural areas and has become an important medium for transfer of more sophisticated information about improved technologies to farmers. In addition to agriculture extension departments, who run regular programs almost daily, this medium is also used by research institutions, agriculture universities and other public sector organizations for dissemination of their improved technologies to farmers. Although very effective in transferring even sophisticated technologies to farmers, the use of TV for TOT is still limited because many rural areas do not have electricity or TV coverage.
The print medium is useful for mounting special campaigns to introduce new technologies or to warn farmers against environmental hazards or other harmful farm practices and innovations. Wall posters, especially illustrated ones, are very effective in conveying the message to farmers. The main limitation of this medium is that there is a high level of illiteracy in rural areas.
Direct contact with farmers by employees of agencies in the public and private sector is the most effective mechanism for the transfer of information. However, person to person contact is relatively more expensive and its coverage is also somewhat limited due to the lack of availability of extension agents and the high costs involved. Demonstration plots of improved varieties and technologies are highly effective in motivating farmers to adopt improved technology. Unless an extension agent explains the whole process and especially describes the economic incentive for improved technology, farmers are likely to be skeptical about its profitability.
4.5 Technology Transfer by Different Stakeholders
4.5.1 Extension departments
Technology transfer by public sector organizations, especially extension departments, is generally considered relatively ineffective. The main reasons relate to a lack of career structures for extension staff, poor transport facilities to reach the rural communities lack of mechanisms to keep extension agents up-to-date on new technologies, and ineffective linkages with research institutions. In most cases, technology packages propagated by the extension departments for crop production fail to consider prevailing weather and agro-ecological conditions.
Information on improved varieties is perhaps the easiest information to transfer, especially when the improved varieties are not particularly sensitive to weather and soil conditions. This is perhaps the main reason why extension departments in most countries have been successful in communicating the green revolution technologies, which consist of improved seed of crop varieties and timely use of fertilizer. Increasing the use of farm machinery to prepare land for different crops and soil types, seeding methods, fertilizers and chemicals for weed control, has resulted in economically efficient packages of production technologies for different agro-ecological conditions and crop rotations. Effective transfer of these technologies into farmer fields requires a close linkage of extension departments with research institutions. This would allow extension agents to be properly updated about the details of the new technologies and therefore facilitate their effective transfer to farmers. However, because collaboration between extension services and research institutes have not been met in most countries of the region, the effectiveness of the extension efforts to communicate somewhat sophisticated improved technologies to farmers is quite low. Based on the current constraints faced by most extension departments in the public sector, it is perhaps futile to give responsibility of technology transfer of relatively sophisticated technology to the extension departments.
4.5.2 Research institutions
Due to the growing dissatisfaction with extension departments, there has been an increasing trend in recent years for research institutions to be directly involved in TOT. Several agricultural universities that are responsible for basic and applied agricultural research in their provinces/states have also developed well-equipped TOT departments to undertake extension activities in selected areas. These departments maintain close liaisons with influential farmers in the project areas and arrange for visits of farmer groups to the university campuses for discussions with the research scientists who have developed improved technologies. During these visits, there is a two-way exchange of information. Researchers also get first hand information about the emerging problems on farmers' fields, which is then incorporated in the research agenda. Punjab Agricultural University in Ludhiana, India is an excellent example of a university setting where such direct transfer of technology through farmers' days on-campus has been highly effective in substantially increasing yields of several crops, especially wheat, rice and sugarcane.
Other development that has taken place during recent years is the emergence of a large number of mono-commodity and mono-discipline research institutes, which undertake research on a single commodity or discipline that has overwhelming importance for the agricultural economy of the region. Pakistan has developed commodity research institutes focussing on rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables. These include research in all disciplines besides plant breeding to develop complete packages of improved technology for the crop. There are also research institutes that specialize in soil science, soil salinity and plant protection. It is often difficult to package the improved technology developed by specialized research institutions extension packages designed for farming systems. Several commodity institutes therefore find it more effective to deal directly with farmers who primarily grow these commodities and transfer their improved technologies to them. Direct transfer of technology from research institutions is particularly effective when dealing with relatively sophisticated technologies, which do not consist only of improved products (new variety, machine or chemical), but also include improved techniques and efficient utilization of the natural resources. An important explanation for the success of TOT by research institutions is the strong motivation of the research scientists to promote their innovations in the farmers' fields, which also helps them in their career improvement.
4.5.3 Private sector
The main stakeholders for transfer of technology relating to improved varieties and seed in the private sector are farmers' co-operatives, national and multi-national seed companies, NGOs and the agro-processing industries. There are only a few successful farmers' co-operatives in Pakistan, which presumably is also the case in most other countries in the NENA region. These co-operatives are village based or include farmers from several adjoining villages. They obtain basic seed of improved varieties from public sector institutions and multiply it on their farms. They then supply improved seed to other members along with details of production technology for their specific agro-ecological conditions. Since they are small operations they do not use audio-visual or print media for dissemination of information to their members.
Seed companies are a major stakeholder in the seed business and undertake vigorous campaigns to promote their special products among farmers. The major seed industry in most countries is often a parastatal organization mainly producing certified seed of important self-pollinated crops. These parastatal organizations operate mainly as businesses and as a result their TOT activities are quite modest. There are complaints that, because they are in the public sector, these organizations are influenced by large farmers who can wield a lot of political support to improve their personal business interests, but which may adversely affect the quality of seed.
Multi-national seed companies such as Cargill, Pioneer, Pacific, Sandoz and Lever Brothers, which operate in several countries in the region have well-organized TOT programs to promote their products. Some of these companies have their own research stations and seed multiplication farms in addition to the seed processing plants. In most cases, the seed companies limit their operations to hybrid seed of maize, sunflower and other oilseed crops, vegetables and fodder crops. They have well-organized programs for farmer education and dissemination of information in relation to improved crop varieties and use of quality seed. They also have more credibility with the growers compared to the public sector organizations and are considerably more effective than the state run organizations and institutions.
In some cases, multinationals dealing with hybrid maize have contracted farmer growers to use improved seed along with the necessary inputs and have guaranteed to buy back the produce at agreed prices for further processing. The farmers find such a package very attractive and have readily adopted the new technologies. Several other agro-processing industries have adopted this mechanism to promote improved technologies with their contract growers.
4.6 Interplay Between Public and Private Sectors
There is considerable interplay between the public and private sector in the area of seed improvement and distribution. Field testing of candidate varieties to be released is done by various institutions including variety registration departments and private and multi-national companies. Seed companies also obtain information from public sector research institutions and seed departments on approved varieties that can be commercially multiplied for sale to growers. Breeders and agronomists of public and private sector organizations also share knowledge on varieties and requirements for further research.
National seed companies in the region are often much smaller in size and deal only with one or two selected crops. In Pakistan, these companies are limited to the production of cotton seed. They operate mainly through direct contact with farmers often through their agents and usually do not undertake any activities to transfer technology.
Rural NGOs often work to achieve the broad objective of increasing the net income of rural communities by improving the efficiency of their agricultural production. This inevitably concerns the use of improved seed and agronomic practices. NGOs educate farmers in their project areas about new varieties available and in some cases try to obtain good quality seeds for distribution. The credibility of these organizations with the farmers is much better compared to the public sector organizations and as a result, the farmers readily act on their advice. Unfortunately, very few of these NGOs have facilities to undertake adaptive research and produce their own certified seeds.
The agro-processing industries dealing with rice milling, corn products, sugar production and vegetable oil production have a vested interest in improving varieties grown by farmers correspondingly. They often make a special effort to educate farmers on latest improvements in crop varieties and agronomic practices. In some cases, the mills also sell seed of improved varieties for their target crops on credit to the farmers and their agronomists visit farmers to encourage the adoption of improved technology.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
The importance of improved varieties and quality seed has been recognized by most countries where agriculture is the predominant sector of the national economy. In addition to strengthening their crop breeding programs and establishing better liaisons with international agricultural research centers to obtain improved technology, the national agricultural research systems have been strengthened to generate improved crop production technology to help increase agricultural production. However, despite the critical role seed plays in improving yields, research in seed physiology and other aspects of seed science is limited or non-existing in the NENA region. Similarly most research in crop production emphasizes the biological rather than the economic aspects at both the national and local level. In order to develop packages of technology to optimize sustainable resource use in different agro-ecological zones, the results of biological research must be incorporated into farming systems.
To bolster efforts to increase agricultural production, the seed industry has been established in the public sector to facilitate supply of certified seeds of important crops to farmers. Persistent efforts by public sector extension departments and the relevant private sector organizations have raised awareness among farmers of the value of improved varieties and quality seeds in increasing yields and net income.
The private sector seed industry along with NGOs are playing an important role in producing quality seed and promoting its use. However, for many crops there is still a gap between demand and supply. Only a small fraction of the seed requirements are is met in the region. Provided that governments develop policies to facilitate the involvement of entrepreneurs, particularly in the initial stages the private sector can play a leading role in seed production.
Another important concern related to the quality of seed supplied to farmers. There are persistent complaints because of mixture with other varieties and poor germination seed from public sector organizations and several small private sector companies is sub-standard. This affects farmers' confidence and undermines efforts to promote improved seed especially with small farmers. In order to restore farmer confidence in improved seed, efforts have to be made by the seed certification agencies of the government to ensure that quality standards are maintained and defaulters are strictly punished.
To bridge the large gap between seed demand and supply, it is essential to develop the informal seed sector, which could be accomplished by enabling individual farmers or village level cooperatives to produce and process improved seed on their own fields. This would require that farmers are subsidized to cover the costs to purchase machinery and are granted better credit to establish village sized seed cleaning plants. Special training in seed production and processing would also have to be given to farmers so that they could meet seed requirements in their villages. Production of seed by farmers would be better adapted to the local conditions and considerably cheaper than purchased seeds. Furthermore, it is likely that farmers would be more careful about the quality of seed than some of the commercial organizations, including the public sector seed industry.
Public sector extension programs are limited due to from several constraints, which hamper their performance. The career structure of extension personnel is not attractive and as a result, there is little incentive to work hard and show results. The success of extension depends on research generating information about new technologies. In many countries, extension and research departments are almost totally isolated and there is little effective interaction between the two. The result is that extension personnel are out of date in regard to improved technology and therefore lose with the farmers. Although, information on simple technology improvements including new varieties and some agronomic practices have been effectively communicated by extension departments, little effort has been made to disseminate information integrated land use packages for different agro-ecological situations with a cost/benefit analysis. This is important because farmers are primarily interested in increasing their net profit. Improved technology is only a mechanism to achieve that objective.
6. REFERENCES
Ahmed, I.S. 1999. Seed Certification Department, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad. (Personal communication).
Ahmed, I.S. 1994. Seed Research, Production and Availability to Farmers. In "Institutional Reforms to Accelerate Irrigated Agriculture, Volume-II -Special Studies". John Mellor Associates Inc. Washington D.C. and Asianics Agro-Dev International, Islamabad, (Study 8, pp. 321-353).
Chambers, R., and B.P. Ghildyal. 1985. Agricultural Research for Resource Poor Farmers: The Farmer First and Last Model. Institute for Development Studies, Susex.
Consultative Group on Intentional Agricultural Research. 1998. Annual Report.1997. CGIAR Secretariat, The World Bank 1818 H Street, Washington D.C.
Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Economic Wing, Pakistan. 1997. Pakistan Agricultural Data, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad. Pakistan
Muhammed, A. 1994. Extension. Published in "Institutional Reforms to Accelerate Irrigated Agriculture, Volume-I - Main Report. John Mellor Associates Inc. Washington D.C. and Asianics Agro-Dev International Islamabad, (Chapter 9 pp. 228-238).
Plucknet, D.L. 1993. Science and Agricultural Transformation. IFPRI Lecture Series. September 9, 1993. International food Policy research Institute, Washington D.C.
Naqvi, S.H.M 1994. Cotton Research and NIAB Approach to Research Organization and Management. Published in "Institutional Reforms to Accelerate Irrigated Agriculture, Volume-II - Special Studies". John Mellor Associates Inc. Washington D.C. and Asianics Agro-Dev International Islamabad. (Study 3A. pp79-101),
