FORAGE AND PASTURE SEED PRODUCTION AND
SUPPLY IN THE NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
Mohammed TAZI
Chef du Centre de Production des Semences Pastorales,
B.P. 79 El Jadida, Maroc

1. INTRODUCTION

The Near East and North Africa region (as defined by FAO) includes the following 31 countries: Afghanistan, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Djibouti, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait Kyrgyz Republic, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Yemen.

Climates of the region vary from sub-humid (> 120-day growing period) to quite arid (< 75-Day growing period). Most countries have a Mediterranean type climate characterised by a short, mild winter and a hot dry summer separated by a short autumn and spring. The monsoonal Near East region is characterised by a hot climate and rainy summers.

Of the 1,852 million ha total land area, 27.9% is permanent pastures, 6.7% is occupied by forests and 7.2% is arable land (World Resources Institute, 1994). Only 30% of the arable land is irrigated. This shows that agriculture is very dependent on climatic factors. Most of the remaining land surface is classified as waste and barren land of which one third is suitable for intensive and reliable livestock production, which provides significant feed resources for nomadic and transhumant livestock populations (Sidahmed 1991)

The extent to which land is used for permanent pastures, cultivated forage land and rangeland indicates a reasonable potential for intensive livestock production. Raising livestock is an important traditional activity of nomadic, transhumant, and settled rural communities in the region. Rangelands also constitute a source of energy for farming populations, especially during the period of low temperatures.

Due to a general increase in livestock populations and feed shortages, and in order to combat rangeland desertification, several member countries have initiated programmes to increase forage production and to improve dry season feed quality and soil stabilisation. These programmes are designed to enrich the plant cover by seeding or planting of adapted pastoral species. Such programmes include the introduction of fodder species in crop rotations, the improvement of rangeland by seeding with selected grasses and legumes and planting adaptable fodder trees and shrubs, and the utilisation of marginal fallow land to establish self-regenerating pasture (Tazi, 1995; Zaroug, 1988). The success of these operations depends on several factors among which one of the key elements is the availability of large enough quantities of good quality seeds.

2. PRESENT STATUS OF FORAGE AND PASTURE SEED PRODUCTION

2.1 Forage Germplasm Utilisation and Crop Improvement

The Near East and North Africa region is considered as one of the most important centres of diversity for several forage species. Germplasm collection has been undertaken by international scientists and institutions since the beginning of the century.

During the last decade, national programmes in several countries have paid great attention to collecting plant genetic resources, especially for forage crop species.

In the Maghreb countries, which include Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia, herbaceous species are the most collected (FAO, 1996) plant species.

Collecting activities have been mainly conducted by national institutions in collaboration with international centres and institutes such as IBPGR (IPGRI), ICARDA and institutions from developed countries such as the USA, Great Britain, Canada, France and Australia.

At ICARDA, 24% of the conserved germplasm is comprised of forage species, of which 66% are from West Asia and the North Africa region (Table 1).

Table 1. Origin of ICARDA collections (December 1993).

	Origin of accessions
	WANA		Other countries		Total
Crop	Number	%	Number	%	Number
Cereals	32 545	63.6	18 609	36.4	51 154
Barley	9 233	44.0	11 735	56.0	20 968
Wild Hordeum	1 391	90.3	149	9.7	1 540
Durum Wheat	12 222	68.9		31.2	17 751
Bread Wheat	6 665	93.2	486	6.8	7 151
Other Triticum	1 248	87.3	182	12.7	1 430
Aegilops	1 786	77.2	528	22.8	2 314
Food Legumes	12 894	64.8	7 009	35.2	19 903
Chickpea	6 700	78.9	1 795	21.1	8 495
Wild Cicer	263	97.0	8	3.0	271.
Lentil	3 988	55.2	3 240	44.8	7 228
Wild Lens	315	81.6	71	18.4	386
Faba Bean	1 628	46.2	1 895	53.8	3 523
Forages	14 644	65.7	7 652	34.3	22 296
Medicago	5 791	79.9	1 460	20.1	7 251
Vicia	2 247	48.8	2 357	51.2	4 604
Pisum	467	13.7	2 951	86.3	3 418
Lathyrus	1 180	83.3	237	16.7	1 417
Trifolium	2 741	95.4	131	4.6	27 872
Other genera	2 218	81.1	516	18.9	2 734
Grand Total	60 083	64.4	33 270	35.7	93 353

Forage germplasm from the region has been widely used in breeding programmes around the world. Several traits and characters including high yielding, disease and insect resistance and cold or drought tolerance serve as the basis of crop improvement in these programmes. A good example is local ecotypes of forages from North Africa that have been used at an international level to produce commercial cultivars such as Berber, Ichkhel and Kasba of Dactylis glomerata; El Golea, Sirocco and Soukra of Phalaris aquatica; Djbeniana, Grombalia, Maris Jebel, Maris Kasba and Mornag of Festuca arundinacea, Demnat and Gabes of Medicago sativa, Rivoli of Medicago tornata, El Gara of Ornithopus compressus and Jebala of Ornithopus pinnatus. (FAO, 1996 ).

In most countries, breeding, evaluation and variety development are implemented through the breeding and selection programmes within research institutions and universities. Some private companies have also been involved in Morocco, Pakistan Turkey and Jordan. These activities are particularly focused on cash crops. The leading breeding programmes in all countries are the National Agricultural Research Centres or Institutes. With the collaboration of the CGIAR centres, national breeding programmes within the region have made a great effort to improve germplasm collections and to enhance germplasm evaluation and utilisation, particularly for cereals, food legumes and sometimes for forage crops. (FAO, 1996). Variety development is carried out on alfalfa, berseem clover, oat, vetch, medics, fodder peas and fodder barley (Table 2).

Table 2. Forage and pasture varieties recently developed by some countries in the Near East and North Africa

Species	Variety	Country
Alfalfa	African, Maopa, Sonora	Morocco
	5 varieties	Iran
Annual medics	Bariya (CPSP00097), Haouzia (CPSP00097), Mettouh (CPSP0148), Jabilia (INDAI), Badrya (V124), Karama (V384)	Morocco
Oat	Karia, Taza (320), Tedders (412), Zhiliga (095), Paras (Cokfr79-17), Ghali (Il 3411), Soualem (Mo 06423), Rahma (C7512cpx), Tislit (83 Ab3101), Zahri (72 Ab3082), Tissir (87wiqr157-5), Amlal (87 Wi 8202-03), Nasr (88 M 1420)	Morocco
	Mulga	Algeria
Berseem clover	Sakka 3, Giza 6, Giza 10	Egypt
Sudan grass	S-S Grass Hybrid 102, 402, 103, 407	Egypt
Fodder millet	S-17 Hybrid	Egypt
Fodder barley	Lysi, Sanokrithi 94	Cyprus
Fodder peas	Alfia5 (F305), Alfia17 (F317), Alfia21 (F321)	Morocco
Vetch	Ghazza (6194), Guich1 (6242), Hallaba (6238), Nawal (6235), Nora (6194), Salholtma (1812), Hesba (Acc573), Marhaba (Acc577), Yamama (Acc7o9)	Morocco
	Achilleas	Cyprus

2.2 Forage and Pasture Seed Production and Supply

The area cultivated with forage crops varies from one country to the other. The most important forage crops produced in the region are alfalfa, berseem clover, barley and sorghum under irrigation and oat, vetch, barley, ray-grass, fodder peas, sainfoin, annual medic, clover and Hedysarum in the rainfed zones. For rangeland improvement, species used include perennial grasses (Dactylis, Festuca, Agropyron, etc.), annual medics, clovers and fodder shrubs (Acacia, Atriplex, etc.).

In general, the assessment of forage and pasture seed needs is very difficult due to the fluctuation of the amount of informal seed used by farmers and to the lack of precise information related to the subject. Table 3 shows the areas that are cultivated with forage crops, the seed requirements, seed production, and seed importation for some countries.

The seed production in the region is highly dependent on the amount and distribution of rains within the year. Therefore, in each country, seed needs are covered either through national production or through importation. In general, seed import constitutes a solution for deficits in forage and pasture seeds, particularly during dry years.

Although, most countries have developed facilities for variety improvement and testing, research on forage species are still limited. Because the majority of farmers are saving their own seed or exchanging it with other farmers in the community, large areas are still cultivated with traditional varieties. These practices are due to the fact that cultivated forage crop seeds are considered a by-product and that the informal sector is still playing a leading role in seed exchange.

Table 3. Forage areas, seed requirements and seed production in some countries from the Near East and North Africa.

Country	Forage Areas (ha)	Seed Requirements (tons)	Formal Seed Production (tons)	Seed Imports (tons)	Period	Data Source
Cyprus	14 000	-	202	48	1994-1995	Xenophontos, E. 1997 FAO, 1996
Morocco	395 000	27 661	1 300	-	1990-1994	Tahiri, A., M. Bouchrifa, M., Tazi, and A. Lahlou. 1997
Tunisia	281 909	26 175		5054	1992-96	Chouki, S. 1997
Sudan	-	-	-	227	1990-91	Yousef, O.,A., F. and M., H., Ali. 1994
Iran			1 500		1995	Anonymous. 1995
Saudi Arabia	220 000			2162	1986	Al-Braheem, S., M. 1989
Turkey	549 000	40 000	1 749	305	1995	Balikcioglu, T.T. 1996
Yemen	79 568	2049			1996	Al-Tashi, K., M., H. 1996

 

It should be emphasised that only a few countries such as Morocco, Saudi Arabia and to some extent Tunisia, Syria, and Jordan, have initiated range seed production. This is undertaken by public institutions such as Livestock and Forestry Departments; seeds are produced either at specialised centres or collected from protected areas. However, the quantities produced by each country do not exceed 50 tons/year (Tazi, 1995).

Forage seed supply in the Near East and North Africa is generally provided through two main channels, which include the formal seed sector (controlled local production and imports) and own-saved seed. Formal seed production and distribution is carried out for the most part by the public sector, but private companies are also involved especially in Turkey, Jordan, Morocco, Tunisia, Lebanon and Pakistan. However, these private companies are mainly active in marketing imported seeds of some selected forage crops (alfalfa, sorghum). The certified seed procurement and distribution programme is based on local production, imports and available stocks. Examples of seed distribution systems from the region are described below.

In Cyprus, the marketing of forage seed is carried out by the Seed Production Centre (SPC) through Village Cooperative Credit Societies (VCCS), which provide farmers with the necessary credit for seed purchases. Seed marketing and distribution of forage seed follow a specific procedure. Before each growing season, a catalogue of available seeds is sent by the SPC to all VCCS to assess farmer's seed requirements. Certain forage seeds are sold directly from the centre or through the district agricultural offices to interested farmers or seed dealers (Xenophontos, 1997).

In Iran, the main marketing and distribution agency is the Agricultural Support Services Company in Teheran.

In Morocco, forage seed marketing and distribution is carried out by the National Society for Seed Commercialisation (SONACOS). Some pasture seeds are also distributed to the range projects by the Pastoral Seed Production Centre (CPSP at El Jadida) (Tazi, 1997).

In Syria, forage seed is marketed through the General Organisation for Livestock, which has branches throughout the country (Madaratti and Sayed, 1995).

In Tunisia, since the demand for forage seed is low and highly concentrated, users buy directly from the seed enterprises. The main public enterprise dealing with forage seeds is GRAFOUPAST (Chouki, 1997).

In Turkey, forage seed produced by the public sector is marketed either directly by the producers or by agricultural credit co-operatives. The private sector markets their produce through agents. In 1995, 50% of fodder seed was distributed by the private sector (Balikcioglu, 1996).

In Yemen, seed distribution is carried out by the National Seed Company through its seed centres as well as through agricultural offices and extension agencies. However, farmer's own seed and farmer to farmer diffusion continue to play an important role (Al-Tashi, 1996).

2.3 Variety Release Seed Legislation and Seed Quality Control

Most countries have enacted measures such as quarantine and seed certification legislation to control plant material importation and exportation. Seed legislation is presented in two forms: seed laws or legislative acts and seed regulations or ministerial decrees. On the other hand, to this point, none of the countries from the region have established variety protection or plant breeder's rights. However, due to the importance of variety protection on variety development and in order to motivate the private sector to invest in seed production, several countries such as Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey are developing laws to became members of UPOV (State of the world, 1995).

In general, variety release procedures in the region are mainly based on distinctness, uniformity and stability of the new variety and, in some countries, on suitability for commercial production. The new variety has to be tested for at least two to three growing seasons at different locations before being released.

In Cyprus, existing seed laws do not include regulations for variety release and registration. The release of new varieties is decided by a Seed Committee within the Department of Agriculture. Cyprus has also joined the Herbage and Vegetable Seed Certification Schemes of OECD. The seed production branch of the Agronomy Section of the Department of Agriculture is responsible for seed certification. All seed testing is conducted at the SPC laboratory according to the ISTA rules (Xenophontos, 1997).

In Egypt, the law No. 53 of 1966 regulates production and distribution of all field crops. The Central Administration for Seed Testing and Certification is in charge of seed law enforcement. All seeds are subject to inspection during marketing and distribution whether certified or not. Three main seed testing stations at Giza, Tanta and Minia perform laboratory analysis in accordance with ISTA Rules (Abd El-Wanis, 1995).

In Iran, the Seed and Plant Improvement Institute is responsible for variety evaluation, registration and introduction. There is an Official Release Committee composed of heads of research institutes. There is a seed law in preparation, but there is no seed law currently being used. The responsible organisation for seed quality control is the Seed Production and Control Division of the Seed and Plant Improvement Institute in Karaj. ISTA rules are followed for seed testing (Anonymous, 1995).

In Lebanon, seed quality control is shared by various public institutions including the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI), the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and the Office of Cereals and Sugar Beets (OCBS). Seed testing facilities are available at ARI and the American University of Beirut. Seed analyses are conducted following official procedures. At present, there is no work conducted on forage crops (Abi Antoun, 1997).

In Libya, no national authority is responsible for the planning and production of seed. In addition, there lacks a certification agency and seed testing laboratory (Zentani, A. 1995).

In Morocco, new varieties are registered by decree by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and Fisheries on the proposal of the National Committee for Seed and Planting Materials Selection. The official institution in charge of variety release and registration in the Official Catalogue and seed quality control and certification is The Seed and Planting Materials Monitoring Service within the Direction of Plant Protection (DPVCTRF/SCSP). Laboratory checks on seed quality are conform to ISTA rules, and technical regulations governing control and certification are in accordance with OECD rules (Tourkmani, 1994).

In Sudan, the Technical Committee for Crop Variety Release is formulated by a ministerial decree in accordance with the Sudan Seed Law of 1990 and composed of research scientists, seed specialists, crop producers and agricultural administrators. The National Seed Administration (NSA) within the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for maintaining and multiplying newly released varieties as well as implementing seed certification programmes (Yousef and Ali, 1994).

In Syria, variety testing is conducted by the Directorate of Agriculture and Scientific Research (DASR) or through joint activities with ACSAD and ICARDA. Locally developed or introduced varieties are tested in yield and verification trials and compared with well-adapted commercial varieties in different agro-ecological zones. If a variety shows better value for cultivation and use, the National Release Committee advise the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR) to release it. After the official release of a variety, the research programs provide the breeder seed to the General Organisation for Seed Multiplication (GOSM) to start initial seed multiplication. The GOSM is responsible for field inspection and seed quality control (Madaratti and Sayed, 1995).

In Tunisia, the seed sector is regulated by legislation enacted in 1976. The law has established a framework for the organisation and control of seed and planting material production and marketing. Seed of all newly released varieties is only authorised for marketing after it has been tested and included in the official catalogue. Since there is no specialised agency, variety evaluation is currently handled by breeders from the Agricultural Research Institute (INRAT). The seed legislation applies the basic philosophy of truth-in-labelling, which is generally enforced by inspection and testing. All seed control analyses are performed according to the ISTA rules. At present, few work is conducted on forage crops (Bouziri, 1997).

In Turkey, seed sector activities and seed quality control are carried out within the framework of Law No 308 and associated regulations enforced in 1963 concerning registration, control and seed certification. Variety development is carried out on alfalfa, sainfoin and vetch. The Seed Registration and Certification Centre (SRCC) is responsible for variety trial (VCU) and DUS tests. It is also responsible for field inspection of seed for export. The Control and Plant Protection Units of the Provincial Directorates of Agriculture are responsible for field inspections in the country.

In Yemen, the Agricultural Research and Extension Authority (AREA) is the main institution responsible for variety development and testing. Newly developed varieties are submitted to the Variety Release Committee for evaluation, release and approval. In both the northern and the southern governorates the existing seed quality control is internal. There is no external seed quality control activity, and no seed laws and regulations to support seed certification (Al-Tashi, 1996).

3. CONSTRAINTS TO FORAGE AND PASTURE SEED PRODUCTION

The forage and pastoral seed sector is faced with several constraints, which can be divided in two categories:

• Specific constraints to the seed sector.
• Inherent constraints to the development of range improvement activities.

3.1. Seed Sector Constraints

The development of the production of forage and pastoral seeds faces a certain number of limiting factors and technical difficulties that are summarised below:

3.1.1 Lack of adapted species and varieties

Introduced forage and pasture species and varieties in the region have appeared, on many occasions, to not be adapted to the local environment. Several countries are lacking organised programmes for breeding and releasing forage varieties. Even in countries where some forage crop improvement programmes have been undertaken, initial seed multiplication remains one of the bottlenecks for improved variety development (Tazi, 1995). Furthermore, breeding objectives do not usually correspond with the needs of farmers.

3.1.2 Constraints to the evaluation of seed requirement

Forage seed supply is impaired by the lack of a realistic seed demand forecast system and late distribution. In fact, seed production in the region is highly dependent on the amount and the distribution of rains within the year. Therefore, seed requirements fluctuate from year to year. In addition, the use of farmer's own seed and farmer-to-farmer exchange reduces the actual demand of certified seed.

3.1.3 Absence of legislation for pasture seed

Up until now, in many countries no certification legislation has been instituted for forage and pasture species. This hinders the development of varieties for these species. Even in countries with seed laws, the certification rules that have been established are sometimes constraining and do not take into account the means and techniques used by farmers.

3.1.4 Research deficiency

Despite efforts by different researchers and scientists during the last years in the fields of forage crops in general and range improvement in particular, research in the area of forage and pastoral seed production is almost lacking in the region. Furthermore, due to insufficient funds allocated to research and the limited number of specialists working in this area the development of the seed sector as a whole in the region is constrained.

3.1.5 Lack of farmer’s interest and private sector involvement

The seed production of pasture and range species by farmers and private companies is non-existent. A lack of farmer’s interest is observed even for the certified seed production of other forage species for which the demand is important. This can be explained by the fact that prices that are paid to forage seed producers are not competitive compared to some other remunerative crops. Moreover, it is necessary to underline the lack of specific equipment for seed production and the lack of efficiency of technical support of these farmers, which translates into low yield levels.

3.1.6 Inefficiency of extension and promotion

Extension efforts currently deployed by some countries in the region for the promotion of forage and pastoral crops remains insufficient. Due to financial constraints and lack of incentives to motivate extension agents, extension services are almost ineffective, which is illustrated by the limited adoption of improved varieties by farmers. Extension efforts in the field of seed production in general have to be improved to help farmers master production techniques. A weakness in the seed marketing system in general is the lack of extension efforts by seed companies and co-operatives to increase seed sales.

3.2 Problems and Inherent Constraints to Range Improvement Activities

Demographic pressures occurring in different countries in the region has caused an increase in demand for agricultural and livestock products. This has pushed farmers to overexploit pastoral resources and has led to overgrazing, causing productive rangelands to convert into marginal croplands. These effects have become further aggravated by:

• an absence of private investment in range equipment and the management sector;
• recurrent drought in the region;
• maladjustment of legislation to the range management activities;
• weakness and/or lack of forage reserves for feed shortages and drought periods;
• insufficiency of technical support to livestock holders in the pastoral regions; and
• insufficiency of research in range management fields.

These constraints have a direct or indirect effect on the development of pastoral seed demand. Although rangeland seeding practices have given positive results in some countries, their use has remained very limited. This low rate of realisation can be explained by:

• inadequate funding by the government for seeding activities;
• insufficiency of funds allocated to the rangeland rehabilitation programmes; and
• insufficiency of extension activities concerning rangeland improvement.

4. ACTIONS TO PROMOTE FORAGE SEED SUPPLY AND DEVELOPMENT

The scope of the formal forage seed supply is limited in the Near East and North Africa, where only around 10 to 15% of seed requirements are covered by the formal seed sector. Retention of seed from farmers harvests and farmer to farmer seed exchanges are still the most common sources of forage seed in all countries of the region. These practices have reduced considerably the use of certified seeds. Furthermore, they make it difficult to assess the seed needs in the region. In order to overcome some of the constraints stated above, the following actions should be taken.

4.1 At the Technical, Institutional and Policy Level

Elaboration of national strategies and plans for the development of forage and pasture seeds. Efforts should be made to promote use of forage and pasture crops within the local farming systems.

Promotion of private sector involvement in forage and pasture seed production. Establish legislation that creates a favourable environment for the development of the private sector. It should be noted that private companies are becoming increasingly involved in plant breeding and seed production in some countries, but their involvement is still restricted to a limited number of major crops. Private seed companies can contribute to strengthening national capacities for seed supply (Rihm, 1989) by:

(i) investing in variety research development;

(ii) assisting in establishing modern seed multiplication systems through the selection and training of farmers;

(iii) assisting in establishing quality control procedures;

(iv) assisting in securing optimum seed storage; and

(v) transferring new technologies.

Intensifying research in the seed production area, especially forage and pasture crop seed. The following actions should be undertaken to promote forage and pasture seed utilisation:

(i) promote the livestock industry (milk and meet);

(ii) enhance seed production techniques for forage crops

(iii) by the adaptation of appropriate seeding techniques in different ecological conditions, eliminate some constraints that hinder the extension of rangeland improvement in semi-arid and arid zones;

(iv) collect and evaluate plant genetic resources of the main forage and pastoral native species and promote their conservation in genebanks for ulterior utilisation;

(v) study the pastoral potentialities of local drought resistant species and their conservation in situ for future use in the development of marginal zones; and

(vi) develop an adapted technology to pastoral seed production.

Pastoral research in the long-term should be involved in seed selection and variety adaptation (from promising ecotypes and foreign variety introductions) to improve the utilisation of plant genetic resources.

Co-ordination of research, extension and seed production. Considering the limitation of human and financial resources, it is essential to co-ordinate efforts with seed production organisms and centres and different research institutions in order to:

(i) promote local production in the existing seed multiplication centres, of foundation seeds of forage and pasture species;

(ii) increase the rate of adoption by farmers of improved forage and pasture varieties;

(iii) achieve research results during a reasonable period of time.

(iv) assist farmers to master production techniques and other issues related to forage crop production; and

(v) contribute efficiently through the exchange of expertise and information to the development of range improvement techniques and seed production in the Near East and North Africa.

Developing on-farm participatory research. A large baseline study leading at farmers' perceptions of their needs for forage/pasture varieties and seeds is essential to better develop the seed sector. In order to gather farmer's perception data, it is necessary to train local extension agents and research scientists in participatory methods. Methodologies for gathering farmer perception data should include focus groups, case studies, group interviews, open interviews and structured surveys, and direct observation. Generally, this type of study also requires a preliminary analysis of socio-economic data. A handbook about participatory tools related to seed production techniques, species, commercialisation, and legislation should be developed.

Promoting integration of the formal and informal seed systems. This is a prerequisite to the preservation of landraces and traditional varieties and conservation of plant genetic resources, which must be promoted by the formal seed sector. The role of NGOs in implementing projects that support on-farm seed production should not be neglected, and efforts should be made to strengthen these activities.

Establishing seed legislation and regulations. One of the constraints to certified seed production of forage and pasture species in most countries in the region is the absence of technical rules for these species. It would be useful to set-up rules for at least species being multiplied in a given country. These rules have to be adapted to farmer’s conditions relating to standards for multiplication, number of generations, and production techniques.

Encouragement of training. The success of steps leading to the development of local seed production can not be assured without the specialised training of technical personnel. Such training is currently limited in the region. Nevertheless, the intensification of short training programmes in seed production and seed technology could be undertaken at the local and regional level. Emphasis should be also given to on-job training of farmers and extension agents.

Reinforcing rangeland development actions. All rangeland development actions will have positive effects on pastoral seed utilisation. Among these actions, we can stress the following:

• reinforce and expand, where it is feasible, range improvement practices such as seeding and planting to revegetate selected rangelands;
• promote farmers awareness in low rainfall zones to redirect their production systems to integrate forage crops with livestock breeding;
• encourage livestock holders to plant fodder shrubs on converted cultivated lands that had originally been rangeland, particularly in North Africa.

4.2 At the Regional Level

Strengthening of the existing networks dealing with forage and pasture seed production in the region. The exchange of plant materials, expertise and information linked to research on forage and pasture species should be promoted. Activities of these networks should be assisted by international organisations and by the "Centres of Excellence" in the WANA countries to develop and manage forage and pasture seed production databases in the region.

Reinforcement of activities of the international centres and institutions (FAO, IPGRI, ICARDA, CIHEAM, etc.) in the region. The following are some of the areas where assistance is to be considered:

• training in forage and pasture seed production;
• reinforcing collaborative research within the region;
• providing consultants for example to improve and standardise seed legislation;
• developing projects addressing weaknesses in the forage and pasture seed supply system;
• supporting/reinforcing networks dealing with forage and pasture seed production in the region.

5. CONCLUSION

Forage and pasture seed production in the region is less developed compared to other crops. This is probably due to the fact that forage seeds are considered by all stakeholders and mainly by farmers as a by-product to forage production. As a result, most seeds are produced and distributed through the informal sector. Governments should recognise the importance of this sector in the preparation of their seed strategies and plans. Privatisation of the forage seed sector should be carefully analysed and policy makers should take into consideration the fact that private companies will not easily invest in a sector where the demands are low and uncertain. International institutions should fulfil their role by assisting countries from the region in the development of the seed sector through technical and financial assistance and by stimulating the reinforcement of regional collaboration.

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Annex 1. Natural Resources for agriculture in the Near East and North Africa.

Country	Total Land Area (1000 ha)	Arable Land as % of Total Land	Permanent Pastures as % of Total Land	Forest as % of Total Land	Other Land as % of Total Land	Irrigated Land as % of Arable Land
Algeria	238 174	3,21	13,03	1,71	82,05	5,07
Cyprus	924	16,88	0,54	13,31	69,26	23,08
Egypt	99 545	2,63	0,00	0,03	97,34	100,00
Jordan	8 893	4,48	8,89	0,79	85,84	16,00
Lebanon	1 023	29,42	0,98	7,82	61,78	28,10
Libya	175 954	1,22	7,56	0,39	90,82	12,31
Djibouti	2 318	0,00	8,63	0,26	91,11	-
Mauritania	102 522	0,20	38,28	4,32	57,20	5,85
Morocco	71 230	13,51	37,76	12,64	36,30	13,25
Palestine	618	37,54	24,27	4,85	33,33	9,48
Syria	18 392	30,58	42,14	3,94	23,31	12,44
Tunisia	15 536	31,33	23,72	4,19	40,76	4,76
Sudan	237 600	5,43	46,30	18,87	29,40	15,00
Somalia	62 734	1,66	68,54	14,44	15,36	11,00
Kyrgyz Republic	19 130	7,32	45,22			10,00
Azerbaijan	8 610	18,58	25,55			37,00
Tajikistan	14 270	5,61	23,23			17,00
Turkmenistan	48 810	2,46	68,55			3,00
Afghanistan	65 209	12,35	46,01	2,91	38,73	34,27
Bahrain	68	2,94	5,88	0,00	91,18	50,00
Iran	163 600	9,20	26,89	11,01	52,89	38,21
Iraq	43 737	12,46	9,15	4,31	74,08	46,79
Kuwait	1 782	0,28	7,63	0,11	91,98	40,00
Oman	21 246	0,28	4,71	0,00	95,01	95,08
Pakistan	77 080	27,38	6,49	4,45	61,69	80,42
Qatar	11	0,55	4,55	0,00	94,91	0,00
Saudi Arabia	214 969	1,10	39,54	0,56	58,80	39,58
Turkey	76 963	36,06	11,09	26,25	26,60	8,67
United Arab Emirates	8 360	0,47	2,39	0,04	97,11	12,82
Yemen	52 797	3,04	30,43	7,69	58,85	19,38
Total	1 852 105	7,25	27,95	6,72	56,08	30,05

Source: World Resources Institute 1994

Annex 2. Seed legislation and Stage of development of seed sector in the Near East and North Africa.

Country	Variety release	Seed Law	Seed quality control	Seed Distribution	Formal Forage seed production
Algeria	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Cyprus	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Egypt	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Jordan	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Lebanon	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No
Libya	Yes	No	No	Yes	No
Djibouti	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Mauritania	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No
Morocco	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Palestine	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Syria	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Tunisia	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No
Sudan	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Somalia	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Afghanistan	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Kyrgyz Rep.	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Azerbaijan	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Tajikistan	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Turkmenistan	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Bahrain	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Iran	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Iraq	Yes	Yes	Yes	NA	NA
Kuwait	No	No	Yes	Yes	No
Oman	Yes	No	NA	NA	No
Pakistan	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	NA
Qatar	Yes	No	No	No	No
Saudi Arabia	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Turkey	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
United Arab Emirates	No	No	NA	NA	No
Yemen	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No