| INDEX
INTRODUCTION ix
1. RECALL OF THE ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE
TRACT OF RUMINANTS AND THE DIGESTIVE UTILISATION OF LOW QUALITY FORAGES
1
1. 1. Anatomy of the digestive tract 1
1.2. The importance of microbes to ruminants 3
1.3. Digestive utilisation of low quality forages 8
1.3. 1. Chemical composition 8
1.3.2. Digestive utilisation 13
1. 3.2. 1. Background 13
1.3.2.2. Conditions for good digestive utilisation 15
1.3.3. The nutritional value, as related to intake and digestibility
21
1.4. Conclusions and strategies which allow maximum value to be obtained
from low quality forages 22
II. FORAGE TREATMENT 25
2. 1. Physical treatment techniques 25
2. 1. 1. Mechanical treatment 25
2.1.2. Thermal treatment by steam 26
2.2. Biological treatment 27
2.3. Chemical treatment 27
III. AMMONIA TREATMENT 31
3. 1. Ammonia as a reagent 31
3.2. Success factors for ammonia treatment 32
3.2. 1. Amount of ammonia 32
3.2.2. Temperature and length of treatment 34
3.2.3. Effect of ambient humidity on ammonia treatment 35
3.2.4. The nature of the forage to treat 36
3.3. Practical applications 37
3.3. 1. Practical treatment methods 37
3.3.2. Examples of practical applications 37
3.4. Conclusion 39
IV. UREA TREATMENT 41
4. 1. Basic principles 41
4.2. Key success factors for urea treatment 42
4.2. 1. Urease presence 42
4.2.2. Urea application rates 43
4.2.3. The amount of water to add 44
4.2.4. Ambient temperature and the length of treatment time
46
4.2.5. The initial quality of forage to treat 50
4.2.6. Hermetic sealing of the treatment environment 51
4.3. Practical considerations for urea treatment 51
4.3. 1. Treatment and storage methods 52
4.3.2. Practical methods for urea treatment 57
4.3.3. The calendar of work for urea treatment 58
4.3.4. Other urea treatment methods: the use of urine 59
4.4. Conclusions relating to urea treatment techniques
60
V. EFFECTS OF TREATMENT ON FORAGES
63
5. 1. Physical aspects 63
5.2. Chemical composition 65
5.2. 1. Crude fibre content determination by Weende's Method
66
5.2.2. Fractionation of the carbohydrates by the Method of Goering
and Van Soest 66
5.2.3. Nitrogen Content (N) or Crude Protein Content (N x 6,25)
67
5.2.4. Overall mineral content (ash) 70
5.3. Feeding value 70
5.3. 1. Organic matter digestibility (OMD) 70
5.3.2. Crude protein 72
5.3.3. Ingestibility and intake 74
5.4. Conclusion concerning the treatments 76
VI. FEED SUPPLEMENTS 101
6. 1. Recall of basic nutritional principles 101
6. 1. 1. Minimum feed supplements: optimising the use of cellulose
in the rumen 101
6.1.2. Supplements to ensure good animal production 102
6.1.2. 1. Substitution phenomena 102
6.1.2.2. Consequences on the nature and the amount of complementary
energy 104
6.1.2.3. Consequences on the nature and the amount of supplementary
nitrogen 105
6.1.2.4. The case of treated forages 108
6.2. Practical applications 110
6.2. 1. Supplements consisting only of urea 110
6.2.2. Mixtures of molasses and urea III
6.2.3. A special case: using multinutrient blocks as a supplement
113
6.2.3. 1. Objective 113
6.2.3.2. Principles for manufacturing the ingredients 114
6.2.3.3. Fabrication methods 118
6.2.4. Supplements with green forages and crop residues 118
6.2.5. Supplements using local byproducts 120
6.2.5. 1. Supplements available "on the farm 120
6.2.5.2. "Complete" rations designed to fully exploit the usage potential
of low quality forages 122
6.2.6. "Classic" supplements using commercially available concentrates
124
6.3. Conclusion 124
VII. RESULTS AND EXPERIENCES CONCERNING ANIMAL
PRODUCTION AND THE UTILISATION OF LOW QUALITY FORAGES 127
7. 1. Review of the general context 127
7.2. Use of multinutrient blocks 127
7.2. 1. Case study results 127
7.2.2. Effects on intake and performance 128
7.3. Utilisation of treated forages by the animal 130
7.3. 1. Case study results 130
7.3.2. The contribution of treatment towards general maintenance and
well-being of the animals 132
7.3.2. 1. Straw given as an unlimited ration 132
7.3.2.2. Limited stocks of Straw 133
7.3.3. Utilisation of treated forages to achieve modest production
rates 134
7.3.3. 1. Milk production 135
7.3.3.2. Growth and fattening 137
7.3.3.3. Draft animals 140
7.3.4. More intensive production systems 141
7.4. Multinutrient blocks or forage treated with urea? 144
7.5. Conclusion 145
VIII. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING THE VALUE OF LOW QUALITY FORAGES
147
8. 1. Introduction 147
8.2. Economic aspects 147
8.2. 1. Agro-economic contexts 147
8.2.2. How to reduce treatment costs 154
8.2.3. Optimizing the quality and quantity of supplements for the treated
forage 155
8.3. Practical considerations concerning the development of straw improvement
techniques 156
8.4. Impact of the techniques on agricultural systems 158
8.4. 1. Local byproducts; and introduction of improved forage species
158
8.4.2. The impact of diffusing urea treatment techniques 159
8.4.3. A simple technique, supporting the development policy for animal
production 160
8.5. Conclusion 161
IX. DEBATE - QUESTIONS AND REPLIES FROM THE FIELD
163
X. CONCLUSION 173
APPENDIX 1. DIFFERENT PRACTICAL METHODS for UREA
TREATMENT 179
APPENDIX 2. DIFFERENT PRACTICAL METHODS for AMMONIA
TREATMENT 185
APPENDIX 3. GUIDE FOR USING TREATED FORAGES
189
APPENDIX 4. FABRICATION METHODS and GUIDE FOR USING
MULTINUTRIENT BLOCKS 193
APPENDIX 5. IN CASE OF POISONING DUE TO THE UREA
199
APPENDIX 6. AVERAGE NUTRITIONAL VALUE FOR THE PRINCIPAL
CROP RESIDUES AND AGRO-INDUSTRIAL BYPRODUCTS 201
APPENDIX 7. COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE ENGAGED IN ACTIONS
CONCERNING TECHNIQUES FOR MAKING MULTINUTRIENT BLOCKS and TREATING STRAW
WITH UREA 203
GLOSSARY 205
REFERENCES 213
PHOTOS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank the Animal Production and Health Division of
FAO, particularly the Food Resources Group and its leader, Rend SANSOUCY,
for being invited and given the confidence to undertake this work.
We thank all the field officers and their directors or chiefs, together
with all the livestock farmers whom we have been privileged to meet during
our missions in the various different countries visited. We fully appreciate
the work that they have accomplished both in our presence and in our absence.
We congratulate them for their interest, patience and ingenuity for which
they have proven themselves through putting into practice the proposed
methods in a manner best adapted to their respective local constraints.
Without these colleagues, this document could have lost its realistic approach.
We thank our research, training and extension colleagues for having
carefidly read the document during its preparation and for giving their
criticisms and suggestions for improvements. Special thanks are directed
to Frangois ACHARD for reviewing the all document and to Jean Pierre BOUTONNET
and to G&ard MERCIER for their invaluable advice concerning the preparation
of Chapter 8 which deals with socio-economic aspects.
Finally we have special thoughts for Messrs. Vincent de Paul RAJAONARIVONY,
from Madagascar and Chim KEAVUTH, from Cambodia, deceased prematurely during
or shortly after undertaking development projects in their countries. This
message is addressed directly to their families to whom we offer our deepest
respect and condolences. |
