MANAGEMENT, CONSERVATION AND UTILIZATION
OF PLANT GENETIC DIVERSITY
IN THE NEAR EAST AND NORTH AFRICA (NENA)
Mohammad TAEB
AERO, Ministry of Agriculture, Teheran, Iran

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Region and it’s Agro-Ecological Conditions

In this analysis, the Near East and North Africa (NENA) region comprises 27 countries. It covers a large area of 1,682,282,526 hectares, out of which 98,340,860 hectares or 5.8 % are cultivated. Countries of the region include Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Cyprus, Djibouti, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. In 1995, the population of the region was nearly 522 million people and, if the current trend continues, it is expected to grow to over 800 million by the year 2020 (FAO 1999).

The region is a net importer of food. The value of food imported into the region increased from 22 billion US$ in 1990 to over 29 billion US$ in 1997 (FAO 1999), an increase of nearly 30%. Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and Egypt are the largest food importing countries. In general, agricultural imports in the region have by far superceded agricultural exports. Wheat, for which the region is ironically regarded as the center of diversity, is among the major items in the import bill. In 1996, the NENA region produced 12.7% of the world's production of wheat, whereas it imported 22.9% of the total world imports of the same crop (FAO 1999).

The region is primarily arid and semi-arid, and average national annual precipitation varies from 18 mm per year in Egypt to 827 mm per year in Lebanon. Variability in altitude and precipitation has resulted in the establishment of different types of climates in various parts, hence creating conditions for the survival and evolution of a large diversity of plant species as well as diversity within species. Low level of industrialization and high economical dependency on agriculture in many countries make utilization and conservation of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA) diversity a challenging issue in the region. This issue could have an important impact on agricultural development. Establishing policies for agricultural development or PGRFA management in isolation without considering their interrelationship could produce serious imbalances in the future.

1.2 Nature of Agricultural Development in the Region

Agricultural development of countries in the region is dependent to a large extent on the economic structure of the country. Based on their Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the region can be divided into three economic groups. The high-income group of countries includes Oman, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Cyprus, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait, all which have a GDP of more than US$ 6,000 per capita per year. The middle income group of countries include Turkey, Iran and Iraq with their GDP ranging between US$ 1,500 – 6,000 per capita per year. Low income countries of the region that have less than US$ 1,500 per capita per year include Afghanistan, Algeria, Tunisia, Lebanon, Yemen, Pakistan, Syria, Morocco, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Palestine (ICARDA 1997a), Djibouti, Kyrgyzestan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan.

According to the World Bank (1998), the share of agriculture in the GDP of countries varies between 0-52%. In oil rich and low populated countries such as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, the shares of the agricultural sector in the GDP are generally small. For instance, in Kuwait the agricultural sector contributes about 0.0% and in Saudi Arabia the share is 1.0% of the GDP. In contrast, the shares tend to be higher for less oil-rich and highly populated countries. For example, the agricultural sector contributes about 52% of the GDP of Kyrgyzestan (World Bank, 1999).

1.2.1 Structure of the agricultural sector: weaknesses and strengths

The agricultural sector in NENA is characterized by small and fragmented holding size farms. In such holdings, modern and appropriate agricultural practices are seldom used, resulting in low productivity. Agricultural production in NENA is almost entirely operated by the private sector; a large percentage of the labor force is employed in agriculture. Depending upon the country, the percentage of the labor force engaged in agriculture varies between 1 - 70% (ICARDA 1997a). A high percentage of the labor force engaged in agriculture leads to an increase in the disintegration of land, a reduction in the efficiency of production, and limitation in the application of new technologies for higher production. Among countries of the region, Egypt has the highest added value per hectare of land, whereas Lebanon has the lowest added value (World Bank, 1998).

1.2.2 A fragile ecosystem, the limitation to traditional agriculture

As indicated, the NENA region is primarily arid and semi arid; drought, salinity, heat and short growing periods are characteristics of the environment in this region. Desertification is rapidly progressing in part due to of unsustainable agricultural practices in parts of the region. Currently, most countries are faced with serious soil erosion, loss of arable land, loss of water resources and loss of species diversity as forests and woodlands disappear and range lands transform to deserts.

Much of the agricultural production is conducted through irrigated agriculture and about 25% of irrigated agriculture in the region use traditional methods (FAO, 1998, 1999). However, the expansion of this agricultural system is limited by water availability. In most countries, water removal is more than the annual precipitation. This situation has increased salinization of most irrigated land.

1.2.3 Genetic erosion, the cost of past development

Erosion of genetic diversity is a continuing process and there are many factors that contribute to this phenomenon. In major food crops, replacement of land races by improved cultivars has had major impact on genetic diversity. Other factors that have had negative effects on genetic diversity include grazing, urbanization, land degradation and ecosystem imbalances. According to FAO, the area under permanent pasture and forest in the Near East has almost remained constant from 1966 to 1994 while, cheep production during 1966 to 1996 almost doubled. This production is believed to cause the disappearance various plants in pastures (Table 1).

Rapid increase in human settlement often results in genetic erosion. Over the past 30 years FAO (1999) has observed a rapid growth in urban populations compared to rural populations (Fig. 1). Unfortunately, there is a general shortage of data on species composition and density to assess the impact of urbanization on genetic diversity in the region.

 

Table 1. Land use and value in the Near East¹ (FAO 1997b).

Land / Production	year	Value
Arable land (1000 ha)	1966	81,523
	1995	89 ,62
Irrigated land (1000 ha)	1966	15,553
	1994	27,122
Permanent pasture (1000 ha)	1966	1,210,076
	1994	1,211,493
Forests (1000 ha)	1966	1,995,348
	1944	1,902,354
Mutton and lamb (1000 MT)	1966	717
	1996	1,422
Milk (1000 MT)	1966	8,912
	1996	18,463

 

Fig. 1¹. Growth of urbanization in the Near East (FAO, 1999)

 

2. PLANT BIODIVERSITY IN THE NENA REGION

2.1 Flora of the Region

The region is rich in Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA). It is estimated that the Mediterranean and North Africa sub-region along with west and central sub-region of NENA have a flora of 32,000 and 15,000 species, respectively (Zehni, 1998). Among the flora of the region, there are many plant species of global food importance, which have their center of diversity in the region. These include wheat, barley, oilseed rape and chickpea. These species constitute almost 38% of the world dry matter in food production. Turkey and Iran have the highest plant diversity in the region (FAO, 1998b and World Conservation and Monitoring Center, 1999).

2.2 Conservation Capacity of Plant Genetic Resources in the Region

2.2.1. Ex situ holding

According to country reports and the World Information and Early Warning System (WIEWS) database (FAO 1997a), only 14 countries in the region have an ex situ collection. The largest ex situ collections are in Iran, Turkey and Pakistan, and only these countries have cold storage facilities for long-term storage. The number of accessions stored in ex situ collection across the region is estimated to be around 138,664 (FAO, 1998b and World Conservation and Monitoring Center, 1999), which is 2.6% of the global ex situ collection.

Because there are large gaps in collections, ex situ holdings of the Region, do not fully represent the genetic diversity of the countries. These gaps are due to a lack of collections in areas that have never previously been explored and distant species that have not been regarded of any use in the past.

Member countries of WANANET have identified gaps in ex situ collections and prioritized areas and species for collections. Although much of the ex situ collections of the region are duplicated in other national and international collections either inside or outside the region, the extent of duplication is not clear and the identification of gaps in the regional collection remains difficult. Some of the oldest collections from the region are hold in genebanks in Japan and Russia.

The size of ex situ holdings of countries of the region depends on the national policies and efforts of the country preserving its PGRFA, as well as on the richness of plant biodiversity cover of the country. Hence, comparisons of conservation status from one country to another require that a link between the size of ex situ and the number of species in the local flora be established.

Identifying the size of ex situ holding, in relation to the diversity of flora in the country could provide a basis for comparison among countries in their effort to conserve their PGRFA diversity. This comparison could be estimated by the Coefficient of Protection Effort (CPE), which is estimated by dividing the number of accessions held in ex situ by the total number of species in the flora. Further elaboration of CPE requires information on several aspects of ex situ conservation. These include information on the quality of ex situ maintenance, the extent of ex situ genetic erosion, the number of accessions collected in the country vs. the number of accessions repatriated, relative abundance of accessions within species, and the number of species out of the total flora.

Among the countries in the region, Cyprus has the highest CPE, followed by Iran, Egypt, Syria and Turkey. Although Iran, Turkey and Pakistan have the largest ex situ facilities and holdings in the Region, when expressing their holdings in relation to the overall flora biodiversity available in the country, it appears that further efforts are needed in the collection of PGRFA in these countries (FAO, 1998b and World Conservation and Monitoring Center, 1999). Considering the richness of the flora and the number of accessions maintained in ex situ, Iran has one of the strongest PGRFA programs in the region.

2.2.2 In situ conservation

In situ conservation is carried out in protected areas in the region (FAO, 1998b and World Conservation and Monitoring Center, 1999). These areas vary largely in size and percentage as related to the size of the country. The largest protected area of nearly 12 million hectares is in Algeria and the highest percentage of protected area is in Oman where 13.7% of the country is protected (FAO, 1998b and World Conservation and Monitoring Center, 1999).

Most countries in the region fall short of the average world protected areas (6.9%) expressed by the size of protected area as a percent of total area (FAO, 1998b and World Conservation and Monitoring Center, 1999). For the majority of protected areas, the extent of inventory listing of species, the degree of protection, and the monitoring of changes and dynamics on species composition are unclear. There are currently 5 GEF projects, with total fund of about US$ 10,794, that have direct relevance to protected areas in the Region (CHM 1999)

2.2.3 Conservation of NENA's PGRFA outside the region

Germplasm from the region is extensively maintained in genebanks located in other parts of the world. They are in genebanks maintained by various institutions including national governments, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), and other international and private organizations. Collections from NENA countries in the CGIAR centers are relatively well maintained and many of them have been characterized.

The ex situ collection of the genus Triticum, which is the main component of ex situ collections across the region and for which the region is known to be the center of diversity, constitutes 39,953 accessions in the region. However, according to WIEWS this represents only 5.3% of the global Triticum ex situ collection. The rest of ex situ Triticum collection is in other genebanks outside the region. Other species native to the region such as barley and chickpea are also mainly maintained in genebanks outside the region. As a result, the overall material maintained in the region is only a small fraction of that outside the region.

3. UTILIZATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES IN THE REGION AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Conservation of plant genetic resources has wide implications on food security. The main driving force for the conservation of PGRFA is believed to be the utilization of these resources. Utilization is referred to as the mechanism that derives benefits from plant genetic resources through agricultural practice. However, agriculture can disturb natural ecosystems and pose a threat to the conservation of plant genetic resources. Agriculture can also reduce diversity with potential use in agriculture. Therefore, the pattern and characteristics of agricultural development is important for the conservation and utilization of PGRFA

Breeders have been the main beneficiaries of collections of ex situ material and the prime concern in making collections has been the utilization of the collected resources. However, in recent years breeding material or crossing blocks are mostly supplied by International Agricultural Research Centers (IARC) such as CIMMYT, ICARDA and ICRISAT. As a result, national programs tend to use less their native PGRFA for breeding purposes. Breeding materials supplied by the CGIAR centers have been characterized and are easy to use. The main effort required by the breeder is the selection of crossing blocks. On the other hand, PGRFA accessions held in national genebanks are usually kept as heterogeneous populations, and as a result, it is difficult to work with them.

3.1 Partners in Utilization of PGRFA for Sustainable Development of Agriculture

3.1.1 National agricultural research systems and the conservation of PGRFA

National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) are composed mainly of public research institutes and universities. While research institutes are involved in full time research, university activities are mainly teaching oriented with limited research. A study conducted by FAO (1996a) revealed that the research potentials of universities in Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia are all under utilized. The study stressed the importance of developing measures to facilitate effective use of these capacities to address national agricultural research priorities.

The scientific capacity of NARS in the region is variable in terms of human as well as physical capacity and funding (World Bank, 1998). Existing capacities are mostly focused on a few important priority crops, and these crops are also given priority in conservation programs. Distant relatives are usually not among the priority species in conservation efforts.

3.1.2 Seed production and its impact on conservation of genetic diversity

The informal seed sector has been an important partner in the conservation of PGRFA. Farmers have maintained large germplasm resources as landraces. Once again, utilization has been the main driving force in farmer germplasm conservation. Although the number of landraces that are maintained by farmers is unknown, it is clear that farmer landraces constitute a large-part of seed in the Region.

It is estimated that there are 400 different types of crops cultivated in the Region. Although most of these crops have direct relevance to food consumption, many of them are non-food crops. In any case, maintenance of these crops by farmers, although very important, should be viewed as complementary to other conservation methods.

3.1.3 Farmers participation in the conservation of plant genetic resources

The improved seed production capacity of the region is unable to meet requirements of the farmers. Therefore, farmers must save their own seeds for the next season. Furthermore, the breeding capacity and improved seed production in most countries is concentrated only on a few important field crops. Seeds of the remaining crops are produced and maintained by farmers. In the case of perennial crops such as horticultural fruit trees, (breeding capacity in the region is almost non-existent and most trees are grown from seeds), farming communities maintain a large part of the genetic variability in the region.

Since utilization has been the prime incentive for farmers to conserve genetic diversity, selection has been carried out according to their food needs. As a result, farmer collections are biased and do not represent the real PGRFA diversity available in the country. A lack of available technologies to farmers limits their ability to utilize plant genetic resources and associated conservation practices.

Private seed sectors also have a stake in conservation of PGRFA. However, their main concern is the utilization of PGRFA in breeding or in some instances in the biotechnology industry. Country reports prepared for the Global Plan of Action (GPA) reveal that in 1995 there were no private industries active in plant breeding in the NENA region. The private sector is only active in the production of certified seed, a complementary activity to the ongoing practices of the public sector. Foreigners in the private sectors are mostly involved in hybrid crop production for which royalties are ensured by the technology rather than patent or plant variety protection laws.

3.2 National Policies and Utilization of PGRFA

National policies are reflected in the developmental plan of the country where relevant legislation is established and priorities are accordingly set up and given to various programs. As all the countries of the region are food importers, food production remains a primary concern, which is reflected, in the national policies. It is estimated (Zehni, 1998) that in the Near East 72% of increased food production comes from plant genetic diversity. Therefore, the conservation of PGRFA is regarded as an important component in food production. This is only possible if plans of actions are prepared with PGRFA in mind. In addition, other relevant sectors of the government should coordinate efforts to ensure the conservation and utilization of PGRFA.

3.2.1 National agricultural priorities and concerns to PGRFA

The countries of the region rely heavily on agriculture in their GDP. This is due to a high proportion of economically active members of the population in agricultural sector, a poor industrial infrastructure and an increase in population creating a high proportion of young job seekers. Agriculture, for most countries of the Region, particularly those with a large population in the middle income group, could provide economic advantages if issues related to PGRFA conservation and utilization are appropriately addressed.

The globalization of trade and the Uruguay Round Agreement is expected to affect agricultural development in the region. It is forecasted by FAO that the prices of some major food crops could rise as much as 7% in the region. Therefore, agricultural development, particular in food importing countries, is considered a priority activity at the macroeconomic level.

Within the context of agricultural development, plant breeding is critical for the sustainable use of resources and an increase in food production. This is particularly important when considering that fresh water is limited in the region. Therefore, the development of technologies in the utilization of PGRFA for sustainable use of water must be a priority in the region.

3.2.2 Legislation requirements

Although in most countries agriculture is directed under a single ministry, it is also affected by policies adopted by other ministries within the government. Plant genetic resources are a concern of agricultural ministry and other ministries dealing with environment. Other policies and legislation affecting land reform, employment, industrialization and trade policies also could also have implications on agriculture, which in turn could affect conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources.

It is often difficult to coordinate the activities of the players involved in the conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources. Therefore, preparation of legislation should clearly define the responsibilities and role of all stakeholders involved. The development of legislation relating to the conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources should take into consideration the broader context of agricultural and economic development of a country.

3.2.3 Global influence on national policies related to PGRFA

There are global conventions and agreements with varying degree of relevance to conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Different international agencies are responsible for the implementation of these conventions, and national ministries or departments of the member countries collaborate as national focal points. Collaboration among these international implementing agencies should promote the cooperation of different sectors of the governments.

Insufficient coordination between international implementing agencies creates duplication of the national level among sectors working in biological activities. This problem has been clearly stated in country reports on biological diversity. Based on the Egyptian and Turkish country reports it can be said that the representation of agro-biodiversity appears unproportional and poor to the importance and impact of agriculture on overall biological diversity of these countries.

By recognizing that agro-biodiversity is a major component of biological diversity, FAO and the secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1997 signed a memorandum of cooperation that named FAO responsible for the development and operation of Clearing House Mechanism for agro-biodiversity. The further integration of FAO in this effort is an essential step to ensure success and achievement of the objectives of CBD. FAO's role should have a positive impact on the coordination of activities at the national level.

3.3 Privatization Policies and its Impact on PGRFA

It is believed that plant breeding activities and seed trade, when in the hands of the private sector, might have positive effect on the conservation and utilization of PGRFA. For the private sector to be involved in breeding and seed trade would require that appropriate measures that could guarantee profits are taken. These measures include the control of seed market and the establishment of national long-term policies on Intellectual Property Rights (IPR).

Although utilization of PGRFA might be improved by greater involvement of private sector, the conservation of PGRFA should remain the responsibility of national governments.

3.3.1 Seed production

While agricultural production is mainly in the hands of the private sector mainly composed of farmers, in most countries of the region, the seed industry is controlled by the public sector. Only a limited quantity of seed is produced by the private sector. The public sector is responsible for the production of pre-basic or basic seeds and certified seeds of major food crops. Whereas the private sector, is only involved in the production of certified seeds of cross-pollinated crops and some hybrid seeds. Depending on the country and its legislation, the private seed sector may exist in the form of company, a cooperative or individual farmers operating under contract. In general, the private sector usually lacks structure and organization as well as capital for investment and development in the region.

Farmers maintain a large proportion of seeds of improved cultivars for their own use. However, these seeds usually lose their genetic purity after several growing cycles. Pricing polices of certified seeds, lack of availability of adapted improved cultivars, and ineffective seed distribution systems and poor extension services are among the reasons farmers maintain their seeds.

The extent to which farmers maintain seeds varies according to on the crops. In the case of cash crops, where there is differential pricing based on consumer preference farmers follow the rules of the market and get access to quality seeds in accordance with the market demand. In contrast, in other crops where the market is dominated by the presence of the government with little consideration of seed quality and consumer preference, there is a stronger tendency for farmers to follow their traditional methods of seed procurement.

Seed trade in the region is very small compared to the global seed trade of over US$ 30 billion. In countries where data was available, the import of seed cost US$ 180-200 million per year while export reaches US$ 20-30 million each year (ICARDA and GTZ, 1997). In Egypt, where the annual internal seed market is US$ 140 million (ASSINSEL, 1999), the private sector is involved in seed production of self-pollinated crops. The private sector produces 5%, 10%, and 15% of the seed requirements of wheat, sorghum, and rice, respectively (ICARDA and GTZ, 1997). In Morocco, the annual internal seed market is US$ 160 million (ASSINSEL 1999). However, despite the existence of 140 private seed companies, seed production makes up only 5% of the seed market of the country and the remaining seeds are provided through the public sector (ICARDA and GTZ, 1997).

In Pakistan, where 51 private seed companies exist, many of the companies are not functional (ICARDA and GTZ, 1997). In Sudan, where private seed production is also encouraged, farmers in a cooperative system with the government produced 100% of cotton and wheat seed requirement, 40-60% of sorghum seed requirement and 3% of groundnut seed requirement (ICARDA and GTZ, 1997). In Jordan, only 30% of the area under crop production uses improved cultivars (Country reports, GPA).

In Tunisia, only 12% of the national requirements for seeds of improved varieties are met by quality seed are produced by four seed companies, two of which belong to the private sector (ICARDA and GTZ, 1997). In Turkey, there are 32 private and 38 public seed companies producing quality seeds of improved varieties. The private sector produces one third of the improved seed requirements of the country and the remaining seeds are provided by government institutes (ICARDA and GTZ, 1997). In Cyprus, seed production is firmly in the hands of the public sector. Reliable farmers and growers under contract with the government produce certified seeds out of the pre-basic and basic seeds received from the government. However, this meets only 50% of the national need for certified seed in cereals (ICARDA and GTZ, 1977). In Jordan and Syria, there are no private seed companies and, as a result, all seeds of the improved varieties are produced by the government. In Lebanon, the total seed market is estimated at US$28 million annually, and only US$0.67 million comes from the public sector (ICARDA and GTZ, 1997). In Yemen, there are five government owned seed centers. However, reliable farmers produce certified seeds under government contracts (ICARDA and GTZ, 1997). In Iran, production of pre-basic and basic seeds of improved cultivars is in the hands of public institutes. However, government contracted farmers carry out further production of certified seeds.

3.3.2 Plant breeding capacity and objectives in NENA

Plant genetic resources from the region have widely been used in breeding programs around the world in either national programs or in CGIAR centers. Within the region, the use of PGRFA in research activities carried out by public institutes has mainly been conducted to meet immediate national food needs.

The fragile and harsh environment of the region requires efforts in adapting plant varieties to abiotic and biotic stresses. Drought, salinity and heat are the major abiotic stresses in most crops including wheat, barley, chickpeas, alfalfa, lucerne and date palm. Tolerance to these stresses is often one of the major goals of national breeding programs in the region. According to ICARDA (1997b), the number of cultivars released by national programs in 1981-1997 using material received from ICARDA, were 120 for bread wheat, 68 for durum wheat, 62 for barley, 43 for chickpea, 24 for lentil, and 35 cultivars were released for other crops (ICARDA, 1997; AGRIS, 1998). It appears that Egypt, Iran, Turkey, Algeria and Morocco have released more improved varieties than any other countries in the region, whereas countries such as Afghanistan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and UAE have not released any or only a few cultivars.

Breeding for high yields has been a major objective in the region for many years. However, high yielding varieties also require high input. With decreasing water resources for irrigation and water withdrawal exceeding water replacement in the majority of countries in the region (FAO, 1997b, 1999), it is essential that the objective for high yield consider high yield per unit water consumed. In this regard, there is a need to utilize more modern breeding methods, which should include multidisciplinary approaches and other practices that exploit the natural genetic diversity for higher efficiency in water use. Genetic engineering and biotechnology can also be used to maximize yield per unit of water used. These technologies could eliminate some of the barriers in the transfer of diversity across distant relatives and reduce the time required for rearrangements of genes.

Country reports indicate that plant breeding capacity varies across countries of the region. Table 5 lists some indicators, which represent the breeding capacity and efforts to utilize plant genetic resources in the region. FAO (1998a) indicates that from 1997 to 1998 PGRFA was more widely studied in Egypt, Iran, Turkey, Pakistan and Morocco. However, the entire region constitutes only 4.5 to 5.3% of the total studies on PGRFA worldwide.

3.3.3 Agricultural research capacity essential for utilization of PGRFA

In countries where the economy is more dependent on agriculture, there is a reasonable link between the GDP generated by agriculture and expenditures on agricultural research and development. In their last meeting, member countries of the Asia and Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institute (APAARI) recommended that resources allocated to agricultural research and development be between 1-2% of the GDP generated by agriculture (APAARI 1998). Based on this recommendation, the expenditures expected in the NENA countries are presented in Annex 1.

Expenditure incurred for research and development in most countries of the region is unknown. However, according to the World Bank, Egypt spends 1%, Turkey 0.8% and Tunisia 0.3% of their Gross National Product (GNP) on research and development. The I. R. Iran spends 0.31% of it’s GDP on research and development. Compared to the developed world, where on average more than 2% of the GDP is allocated to research and development, these NENA figures appear to be low (World Bank, 1998).

Current expenditures of Egypt, I. R. Iran, Turkey and Tunisia on agricultural science and development are expected to be approximately US$ 115, 69.7, 246 and 8 million respectively. All of the country budgets fall short of the minimum advocated by APAARI.

Some countries of the region, such as Iran, Egypt, Turkey and Morocco, have an infrastructure for plant breeding (ICARDA, 1997; AGRIS, 1998). However, there is not a proportionate relationship between the size of the ex situ holding and expenditures made in agricultural research and development. For instance, despite the fact that Egypt has the highest budget for agricultural research and development, its genebank is not yet fully developed and Egypt has one of the lowest ex situ holdings. In contrast, while Turkey has a small budget for agricultural research and development, it has a genebank as well as almost three times more ex situ holdings than Egypt. There appears to be a need to review the agricultural research and development policies and to define clearly the position of genetic resources with regard to agricultural development priorities.

Production of improved cultivars is the applied utilization of genetic diversity for food and agriculture. In a study conducted in Iran from 1985-1995, AREEO 1996 concluded that the minimum cost of development of the new wheat cultivar "Ghods" was US$ 4.5 million. The study also found that the minimum rate of return of the capital investment was 59% per year. Since similar studies carried out elsewhere show the same results, it was concluded that investment in breeding programs is a viable and profitable investment. However, many NARS in the region fail to benefit from this investment opportunity. A shortage of public sector funding, the absence of a clear private investment policy and lack of awareness on the value and extent of economic opportunities available in the utilization of PGRFA are among the important reasons.

3.4 Scientific Capacity and Requirements for the Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources

PGRFA could be used for agricultural production through a range of technology applications. Breeding involves a range of practices from simple selection among diverse populations to genetic manipulation through transformation and creation of new gene combinations or creation of new diversity through mutation. The choice of breeding technology depends on a number of factors including the availability of a research infrastructure and facilities, trained human resources, adequate funding, clear objectives and policies and access to information and relevant material.

3.4.1 Technology requirements for utilization of plant genetic resources

Modern plant breeding requires a package of technologies that when integrated can increase the value of plants or other related genetic diversity. The ability to utilize genetic diversity depends on the availability or accessibility of related technologies in the country, which is determined by several factors including national priorities, investments on science and privatization policies.

New technologies available allow breeders to utilize a wider range of PGRFA. Advances made in biotechnology, genetic transformation and marker assisted selection along with doubled haploid production technique can all accelerate the breeding process. The following biotechnology techniques are used on PGRFA in the region:

(i) Doubled haploid production in wheat, barley and cotton to shorten the breeding time.

(ii) Doubled haploid production to develop sorghum-inbred lines required in hybrid sorghum breeding.

(iii) Embryo rescue techniques and wide crosses in cereals.

(iv) Low cost, simple marker technology such as isozymes and PCR based markers for marker assisted breeding in wheat, barley, sorghum, chickpeas, lentil, sugar beet and cotton.

(v) Micropropagation and production of virus free plants by tissue culture in horticultural plant such as date palm, apple, walnut, pistachio, almond and olive.

The above mentioned techniques are regarded as equally important in plants foreign to the region such as maize and rice, which are widely cultivated and bred in some countries. Transgenic plants in crops such as cotton carrying BT gene may soon be available in markets in the region. On the other hand, due to costs and other limitations such as patents, genetic transformation in comparison to the above techniques, at the moment, appears far from being widely applied in the region.

3.4.2 Availability of technology and trained staff

A recent report by Madkour and Hamdan (1998) indicated that biotechnology capacity exists in most countries of the region. However, the report failed to provide information and data on human resources, funding and research capacities. Present expenditure on research and development and the number of scientists in countries are important indicators of the national scientific capacity.

Based on the available information, it appears that Egypt, Tunisia, Libya and Iran have the highest number of scientists (World Bank, 1998). These countries have 458, 388, 361 and 338 scientists per one million of the population respectively. Among the countries, which provide data on expenditures on research and development, Egypt and Iran incur the highest costs. The number of cultivars released by national programs could also be a reliable indicator of national scientific capacity. However, this indicator does not reveal the type of technology employed.

3.4.3 Access to technology in other countries

Access to foreign technology can be facilitated in a number of ways such as through the exchange of scientists and training of students overseas, joint scientific collaboration through bilateral cooperation agreements, and membership in PGRFA networks. Access to technology could also be mediated through CGIAR research centers, as technology transfer to developing countries is an important component of the CGIAR mandate. Quantitative indicators to measure access to technology in the field are scarce, it is therefore important that technology transfer is considered in future analysis of utilization of PGRFA.

There is a general understanding that the Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) could facilitate access to technology (Art 19 CBD). This is particularly true in industries where IPR are considered important; it is argued that potential suppliers of technologies are more willing to transfer technology voluntarily if the host country has an effective IPR regime in place (COP 1996). Although this would facilitate the importation of IPR protected goods, technology transfer would only be possible if appropriate national policies establishing functional research units, funding mechanisms, privatization and foreign investment, and related legislation are adopted. The convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Global Plan of Action (GPA), two of the international mandates with direct relevance to utilization of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, have provided the legal framework essential for access to and transfer of technology. Eighteen countries in the region have already ratified CBD (Table 2); articles 16, 18 and 19 of CBD call upon parties to take measures for effective technology transfer. In addition, 22 countries of NENA have adopted GPA (Table 2) and have committed to the Leipzig Declaration to facilitate access to and transfer of technology in support of world food security.

Table 2¹. Ratification status of various international conventions and other legal obligations related to the conservation and use of PGRFA.

Country	GPA	CBD	UPOV	WTO	ISTA2	CITIES	World Heritage	Combat Desertifi-cation	Climate Change	Patent Treaty	WIPO
Afghanistan	X					X	X	X
Algeria	X	X		O		X		X	X		X
Bahrain	X	X		X			X	X	X
Cyprus	X	X		X	X	X	X		X	X	X
Egypt	X	X			X	X	X	X	X		X
Iran	X	X			X	X	X	X	X
Iraq	X						X				X
Jordan	X	X		O		X	X	X	X		X
Kuwait	X			X				X			X
Lebanon	X	X						X			X
Libya	X							X
Morocco	X	X		X	X	X	X	X	X		X
Oman	X			O			X	X	X		X
Pakistan	X	X		X	X	X	X	X			X
Qatar	X	X		X			X		X		X
Saudi Arabia	X			O		X		X	X
Sudan	X	X		O		X	X	X	X	X	X
Syria	X	X						X	X
Tunisia	X	X		X	X	X	X	X			X
Turkey	X	X		X	X	X	X	X		X	X
UAE				X				X	X	X	X
Yemen	X	X				X	X	X	X		X
Djibouti		X		X		X			X
Kyrgyzstan		X		X			X			X	X
Tajikistan							X		X	X	X
Turkmenistan	X	X					X	X	X	X	X

O=observer; X=convention ratified. 1 Compiled from ratification status lists available on the web and other sources; 2 International Seed Testing Association

§Data not available for country of Palestine, and Blank cells also indicate non-available data.

4. REGIONAL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

Constructing comprehensive information system for PGRFA has been adopted as priority 17 of the GPA. In the CBD, article 17 also calls upon parties to facilitate the exchange of information from all publicly available sources. Within the region, IPGRI and ICARDA play an important role in facilitating the dissemination of information.

4.1 Documentation

For an effective information exchange, it is essential first to have information recorded and documented and then disseminated through the appropriate channels. Country reports indicate that the status of documentation of data on PGRFA in the region varies among countries. It appears that Iran, Pakistan and Turkey, in comparison to other countries of the region, have more extensive documentation on PGRFA, which are computerized. The need to strengthen the capacity for documentation and assign priority to this activity have been stressed in the regional meeting to promote the implementation of GPA held in 1998 in Syria.

4.2. Dissemination Systems

Internet facilities and computer applications are available to various degrees among countries of NENA. Data from the World Bank indicate that at least twelve countries in the region have access to the Internet (World Bank, 1998). The same source of data indicate that Kuwait, UAE, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Algeria and Iran have a reasonable number of computers per 1000 people when compared with the world average. However, the extent to which electronic documentation of PGRFA materials is available in some of the above countries appears to be limited. Provided that computers and the Internet are available, electronic information systems are the cheapest means of information dissemination. In other countries, access to computers appears limited. However, with the current trend in the computer industry, it is expected that technology will soon be available at a reasonable cost to all countries of the region.

4.3 Availability of Information and its Impact on Conservation/Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources

Availability of documented information is an essential tool for policy direction and planning at all levels of decision making. Priority area 20 of the GPA recognizes the importance of the availability of information to promote public awareness. Lack of awareness among policy makers in the region has been raised as one of the constraints in the implementation of the GPA.

The examination of international obligations made by countries in the region reveals a failure to integrate activities related to the conservation and utilization of PGRFA into national plans. This is an indication of the negative impact that in adequate information on the importance of PGRFA can have on policy makers. In addition, the reluctance of breeders to utilize PGRFA in their breeding programs is usually attributed to a lack of available data on the potential values of PGRFA as well as breeders preference of crossing blocks received from CGIAR centers.

5. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND LEGAL OBLIGATIONS RELATED TO PGRFA AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION IN THE REGION

The international Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) is an international mandate with direct relevance to the utilization of PGRFA. However, none of the countries in NENA are members of UPOV. This indicates that NENA countries are less involved in international activities related to plant breeding and that efforts are focused on domestic demand. Lack of involvement in such an important international convention explains why seed export in the region is only US$ 20-30 million while seed import is around US$ 180-200 million (ICARD/ GTZ 1997).

Eleven countries in the region are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and bound to its rules (Table 2). In addition, 19 countries are members of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and there are seven others that are members of the Patent Cooperation Treaty (Table2). The Uruguay Round Agreement of negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) produced the Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement, which commits all members of the WTO to adopt and enforce minimum levels of protection for IPR. Article 27.3(b) of the Agreement on TRIPS calls for members to develop Plant Variety Protection legislation. However, none of the countries in the region that are member of WTO have yet developed Plant Variety Right legislation. Iran is developing a sui generis system on plant variety protection.

The genetic diversity of the region is eroded by many factors including the export of medicinal plants. Many of medicinal plant species are harvested in the wild and there is no mechanisms in place to monitor the dynamics of such species. The hard currency earning through the uncontrolled exportation of this material would lead to the erosion of at least some of the genetic diversity in this group of plants. Therefore, plant diversity; particularly of medicinal plants, should be subjected to the regulation of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

6. RELATIONS AND CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER REGIONS

The science of plant genetic resources is relatively new and, as a result, there is shortage of expertise and trained personnel. Implementation of CBD and GPA requires well-trained personnel. Sharing experience among countries both within the region as well as outside the region would also enhance the implementation of the CDB and GPA.

There are a number of crop specific networks in the region coordinated by ICARDA in which countries from other regions participate as well. There is also a plant genetic resource network, West Asia and North Africa Network (WANANET), which coordinated by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) and the Association of Agricultural Research Institute in the Near East and North Africa (AARINENA) and assisted by international bodies. There are other crop-specific networks that are coordinated by FAO and some of the countries in the region as well as countries from other regions. These networks provide an important platform for scientific and germplasm exchange. There can be many possibilities for scientific exchange including information exchange on ex situ holdings, sharing of training and funding opportunities, dissemination of research results and matters related to the utilization of PGRFA. The recently established Global Forum on Agriculture is expected to push for partnership in agricultural research on commodities and promote collaboration in the management of plant genetic resources worldwide.

Several of the CGIAR centers are active in the region and provide scientific support to countries. ICARDA, IPGRI, International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR) and the International Potato Center (CIP) are among the most active centers in NENA. As the technology provided by the CGIAR centers is free from limitations imposed by IPR, assistance from the centers has allowed countries of the region to bridge some gaps in technology.

7. FUTURE OUTLOOK AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conservation and utilization of PGRFA can only be realized if it is developed within the context of agriculture. Therefore, it is important that the economic importance of the agricultural sector be clearly defined. This would enable other sections within the government such as budget and planning, the legislative system and other ministries to adopt policies supportive of agriculture and, in particular, conservation and utilization of agro-biodiversity. It is recommended that governments develop their medium term agricultural development strategies and clearly define the position of PGRFA in their programs.

The conservation of PGRFA should be seen as an important part of biodiversity. In this regard, it is essential that the coordination of activities between all stakeholders be developed at the national level through the establishment of committees with strong legal status and authority to take appropriate decision.

Information on the regional potential and capacity in the utilization of PGRFA should be shared through the establishment of technical groups on the utilization of PGRFA. Within these groups, the exchange of PGRFA material such as crossing blocks and breeding material, scientific information and training on particular themes could be developed in accordance with international obligations and bilateral arrangements.

For effective implementation of CBD and GPA, it is recommended that appropriate articles be included in the national development plan of governments.

It is recommended that appropriate legislation in support of the private sector such as the recognition of the IPR, and that foreign investment on plant breeding industry be developed. This would encourage the utilization of PGRFA. To this end, it is important that investment opportunities on agricultural research in the field of plant breeding and utilization of PGRFA be identified and brought to the attention of potential investors.

Appropriate legislation should be developed to ensure seed security to farmers through mechanisms that ensure that only seed of given standards are multiplied and distributed in the country

Organizations that are active in the region such as the Islamic Bank, IFAD, FAO and CGIAR centers should give special priority in establishing appropriate platforms for the exchange of scientists and material and technology related to the conservation and utilization of PGRFA. These exchanges should be established through partnerships on research and the development of the conservation and utilization of PGRFA and should include countries in the region and outside the NENA region.

WANANET could serve as an information platform for the region. It is recommended that some support provided by international funding organizations in the region be channeled through WANANET. Funding can be used to enhance regional activities and potentials and promote partnerships among countries of the region on conservation and utilization of PGRFA. WANANET could also help to monitor the implementation of relevant international obligations related to PGRFA.

It is recommended that countries in the region generate data on various quantitative indicators, which demonstrate their management of and achievements towards the conservation and utilization of PGRFA. This could provide an additional dimension to PGRFA in future agricultural planning.

It is recommended that at least 1% of agricultural GDP be given to agricultural research. It is further recommended that agricultural research be prioritized such that an effective PGRFA program be planned and integrated within NARS in support of sustainable agricultural development.

It is recommended that more efforts be made by NARS in the region to utilize local genetic resources in breeding programs. This is important because CGIAR breeding materials are getting narrow in their genetic base.

It is recommended that FAO, with the support of the CBD and financial mechanisms at the disposal of the international community on agro-biodiversity, assists NENA countries to develop PGRFA programs integrated in national biodiversity plans and agricultural research and development.

8. REFERENCES

APAARI. 1998. Fifth General Assembly of ASIA-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions and the Expert Consultation on Research Management Mechanism of National Agricultural Research Systems, Republic of Korea 1998.

ASSINSEL (1999 on web). World Seed Statistics.

CGIAR. 1997. SINGER CD-ROM Database, CD version.

CHM (1999 on the web). List of GEF funded projects under the CBD.

COP. 1996. Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, UNEP/CBD/COP/3/22.

FAO. 1996a. The Role of Universities in the National Agricultural Research Systems of Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, the Sudan and Tunisia.

FAO. 1996b. The Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

FAO. 1997a. WIEWS Database, on diskette version 1.

FAO. 1997b. State of Food and Agriculture (Sofa 97) software.

FAO. 1998a. AGRIS Database, CD version.

FAO. 1998b. State of the world’s plant genetic resources for food and agriculture

FAO. 1999. FAOSTAT Database

ICARDA, and GTZ. 1997. Privatization of the Seed Industry in the West Asia and North Africa Region.

ICARDA. 1997a. Rural Poverty and Natural Resources in Dry Areas: the Context of ICARDA’s Research.

ICARDA. 1997b. ICARDA Annual Report 1997.

Madkour, M.,A and I.Y Hamdan. 1998. Prospects of Biotechnology in the Arab World, paper presented to the third Arab Conference on Modern Biotechnology and Areas of Application in the Arab World, Cairo, Egypt.

Zehni, M. 1998. AARINENA Towards 2000 and Beyond, a Strategy for the Future. Paper presented at the sixth General Conference of Association of Agricultural Research Institute in the Near East and North Africa, Tehran, Iran 1998.

WCMC. (1999 on web). 1996 Global Protected Areas Summary Statistics.

World Bank. 1998. World Development Indicators.

World Bank. (1999 on web). World Development Indicators

 

Annex 1 - Share of agriculture in GDP of NENA countries (World Bank 1998) and desirable expenditure on agricultural research and development (Million US $).

Country§				GDP in 1996		Percent of Agriculture in GDP in 1996	Desirable Research Expenditure
							At 1% of Agri GDP	At 2% of Agri GDP
Algeria					45,699	13	59.4	118.8
Egypt					67,691	17	115.0	230.1
Iran					89,979#	25#	250	500
Jordan					7,343	5	3.6	7.3
Kuwait					26,650	0	0	0
Lebanon					12,997	12	15.5	31.1
Libya						2*
Morocco					36,820	20	73.6	147.2
Pakistan					64,846	26	168.5	337.1
Saudi Arabia					126,266	1*	12.6	25.2
Sudan						34*
Syria					17,587	20*	35.1	70.3
Oman					12,102	3*	3.6	7.2
Tunisia					19,516	14	27.3	54.6
Turkey					181,464	17	308.4	616.9
United Arab Emirates					39,107	1*	3.9	7.82
Yemen					6,016	18	10.8	21.6
Kyrgyzstan					1,754	52	9.12	18.2
Tajikistan					1,990#
Turkmenistan					4,397#

* Share of agriculture in GDP in 1980.
# 1997 figures (World Bank 1999).
^§Data not available for countries of Afghanistan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Iraq, Palestine, Qatar and Djibouti
Blank cells also indicate non-available data.

 

Annex 2 - Agricultural production efficiency as indicated by agricultural added value and some factors affecting that. (World Bank, 1998).

Country				Agricultural value added per ha. 1992-94	Scientists and engineers in R & D per 1 million of population	Expenditure for R & D as % of GNP	Personal computers per 1000 people	Internet host per 10000 people July 1997
Algeria				180			34	0.01
Egypt				2,990	458	1.0	58	.031
Iran				696	338*	0.31#	32.7	0.0
Jordan				461			7.2	0.38
Kuwait				224			74.1	21.72
Lebanon				24	67			0.01
Libya					361
Morocco				111			1.7	0.32
Pakistan				382	54		1.2	0.07
Saudi Arabia							37.2	0.15
Sudan							0.7	0.0
Syria							1.4	0.0
Oman				328			10.9	0.0
Tunisia				232	388	.3	6.7	0.02
Turkey				404	209	.8	13.8	3.6
UAE				2,076			65.5	7.6
Yemen								0.0
Kyrgyzstan				4				0.23
World				236			49.9	35.19

* Full time researcher
# As a percent of GDP
^§Data not available for countries of Afghanistan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Iraq, Palestine, Qatar, Djibouti, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.
Blank cells also indicate non-available data.

 

Annex 3 - Water availability to agriculture in NENA countries¹

Country	Cultivated area hectare		Irrigated land hectare		Renewable water per inhabitant 1995	Water withdrawal per inhabitant m3		Population million
	Year	ha	Year	ha	m3	Year	m3	1995	2020
Afghanistan	1990	3,344 ,00	1967	2,385,740	3,227	1987	1,702	19,661	40,955
Algeria	1993	3,372,000	1992	555,500	512	1990	180	557	816
Bahrain	1994	3,165	1994	3,165	206	1991	465	557	816
Cyprus	1994	111,649	1994	39,938	1,213	1993	331	745	925
Egypt	1993	3,246,000	1993	3,246,000	926	1993	913	62,096	90,606
Iran	1993	14,382,418	1993	7,264,194	2,044	1993	1,091	68,365	119,826
Iraq	1993	3,731,300	1990	3,525,000	3,688	1990	2,367	20,095	38,013
Jordan	1991	214,767	1991	64,300	161	1993	246	4,215	8,431
Kuwait	1994	4,770	1994	4,770	13	1994	348	1,691	2,752
Lebanon	1994	189,206	1993	87,500	1,465	1994	444	3,009	4,193
Libya	1987	2,278,648	1990	470,000	111	1994	880	5,407	11,448
Morocco	1993	7 232 700	1989	1,258,200	1,110	1991	436	26,524	37,801
Oman	1993	61,550	1993	61,550	455	1991	728	2,207	5,610
Pakistan	1990	16,556,000	1990	15,729,448	2,968	1991	1,277
Qatar	1994	8,312	1993	12,520	96	1994	528	548	764
Saudi Arabia	1992	1,608,000	1992	1,608,000	134	1992	1,040	18,255	37,919
Sudan	1995	7,600,000	1995	1,946,200	3,150	1995	633	26,707	43,760
Syria	1993	4,938,670	1993	1,013,273	1,791	1993	1,017	14,203	24,563
Tunisia	1993	4,254,600	1991	385,000	463	1990	382	8,987	12,832
Turkey	1991	20,480,000	1994	4,185,910	2,967	1992	541	60,838	82,248
UAE.	1993	54,512	1995	66,682	79	1995	1,107	2,210	3,185
Yemen	1994	1,052,786	1994	481,520	283	1990	251	15,027	34,540
Djibouti	1989	407	1989	674	520	1985	20
Kyrgyzstan	1990	1,323,400	1990	1,072,600	2,445	1990	2,527	5	5
Tajikistan	1992	812,000	1992	718,000	6,474	1989	2,065	6	7
Turkmenistan	1993	1,480,000	1993	300,000	17,321	1989	6,346	5	6

1 Extracted from FAO data sources.
^§Data not available for countries of Palestine and blank cells also indicate non-available data.

 

Annex 4. Size of ex situ holdings and in situ protected land area of the countries in the Region

Country	Floral diversity *	Number of accession	Accessions in the CGIAR collection1	Size of the protected area (ha)2.	%land area of the country protected	In situ coefficient of protection efforts
Turkey	9,000	26869#	13,873	819,441	1.05	2.9
Iran	8,000	40000*	13,546	8,299,566	5.04	5
Morocco	4,500	3115#	4,892	362,120	0.79	0.69
Afghanistan	3,500	2965$	2,960	218,438	0.33
Algeria	3,200	985$	55	11,919,288	5.00
Palestine	3,000		1,191
Iraq	2,921	6400*	1,047			2.19
Jordan	2,500	2642*	3,991	290,300	3.02	1.05
Yemen	2,336	4229#	2,759			1.81
Tunisia	2,150	504#	4,253	44,867	0.27	0.023
Pakistan	600	19208$	4,072	3,720,939	4.63
Egypt	2,112	8914	1,729	793,200	0.79	4.2
Syria	2,100	8750*	13,968			4.1
Lebanon	2,100		1,506	3,500	0.34
Libya	1,900	1750*	519	173,000	0.10	0.92
Cyprus	1,760	12313#	1,052			6.99
Saudi Arabia	1,737		71	6,201,400	2.58
Oman	1,021	238$	301	3,736,250	13.74
UAE	343		8
Kuwait	235		0	27,000	1.11
Qatar	221		0	1,619	0.14
Bahrain	196		2
Sudan		5,178#	3,590
Djibouti			0	23,000	0.43
Kyrgyzstan			9	198,500	1.43
Tajikistan			115	143,100	0.6
Turkmenistan	2,500	10,721*	152	488,100	2.28

# Extracted from WIEWS database; * Country reports for the preparation of GPA.; $ FAO (1998b).
¹ Extracted from SINGER database.
² World Conservation and Monitoring Center (1999); Blank Cells indicate either non-availability of data or non-applicable

 

Annex 5 - Utilization of plant genetic resources in the Region as indicated by number of articles appeared in AGRIS¹ and number of cultivars released by National Programs from ICARDA supplied material².

	Breeding1	Germplasm1	Genetic resources1	Barley	Durum wheat	Bread wheat	Chick pea	Lentil	Other crops
Afghanistan	2	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Algeria	10	1	5	3	10	15	0	3	0
Bahrain	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Cyprus	7	2	2	5	3	5	0	0	1
Egypt	168	9	6	3	5	20	1	3	8
Iran	40	8	19	6	3	21	4	0	1
Iraq	14	1	2	4	3	4	2	1	0
Jordan	10	3	3	1	4	3	2	1	3
Kuwait	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Lebanon	4	1	0	3	3	3	2	2	3
Libya	0	0	0	6	12	3	1	1	0
Morocco	34	9	25	9	7	5	7	1	5
Pakistan	88	20	20	6	1	1	1	3	1
Qatar	0	0	0	2	0	1	0	0	0
Saudi Arabia	3	0	1	1	1	0	0	0	0
Sudan	61	7	9	0	1	4	2	2	8
Syria	61	0	20	3	5	6	3	0	1
Oman	0	0	0	0	0	2	3	0	4
Tunisia	18	0	7	5	3	4	5	2	0
Turkey	82	30	0	3	7	13	10	5	0
UAE	0	0	0	0	0	3	0	0	0
Yemen	2	1	1	2	0	12	0	0	0
Sum	663	98	129	62	68	120	43	24	35
As a percent of the total	5.3%	5.2%	4.5%	55.8%	81.9%	94.4%	68.2%	48.9%	94.5%

1Key words used in combination with names of countries using AGRIS 1997-1998
² ICARDA Annual Report 1997
^§Data not available for countries of Palestine, Djibouti, Kyrgyzestan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan
Blank cells also indicate non-available data.