A.P.Y. Djogo
Introduction
Historical Perspectives
Leucaena, a Miracle Multipurpose Tree in Timor - its Rise and Fall
Local Utilisation of Forage
Introduced Species
Conclusions
References
Timor Island is a unique biophysical area of Indonesia in terms of its environment and agricultural production systems and human ecosystems. It is part of the province of Nusa Tenggara Timur and lies between 7° and 10° S. The climate is characterised by an extended dry season of 8-9 months caused by the southeast monsoon, a hot dry outflow from the Australian continent. A relatively short and unpredictable wet season occurs from December to March due to the influence of the northwest monsoon. Rainfall varies from less than 1,000 mm in some locations to over 2,500 mm in others largely due to orographic effects.
Soils on the island are derived from uplifted coral terraces surrounding volcanic ejecta laid down in a marine environment. They are generally shallow, of alkaline reaction and susceptible to erosion.
The major agricultural production system in Timor is based on maize and livestock production which provides a source of cash income for almost all villagers.
Most farmers raise chickens, goats, pigs and cattle. Cattle are grazed on natural savannah grasslands on forest margins, on roadsides and fallow cropping areas. Pigs, chickens and goats scavenge around villages.
Traditionally, livestock were killed and eaten only on ceremonial or festive occasions and contributed little to the nutrition of the rural population. However, over the last two decades, cattle have been increasingly sold to local, provincial and national markets.
Most of the natural forests on the island have been denuded or severely reduced by decades of 'slash-and-burn' agriculture. This has resulted in an increase in the area of grasslands and unproductive degraded lands. As a result, increasing use is being made of local, naturalised and introduced tree and shrub species as sources of forage, placing some strain on this resource.
This section outlines the use of naturalised tree and shrub species in livestock production in Timor, the historical background to their use and progress towards use of exotic species introduced specifically for forage production. The benefits and shortcomings of planting forage trees and shrubs will be highlighted. The dependency of local cattle production on one major species, Leucaena leucocephala, has provided an excellent insight into the drawbacks of over-reliance on a monocultural system.
In Timor, livestock production is the major source of cash for villagers. This is in contrast to other parts of Indonesia where farmers rely upon cash crops or plantation agriculture for their major source of income. Livestock husbandry is relatively recent in Timor as Bali, Ongole and Madura breeds of cattle were first introduced at the beginning of this century.
The introduction of cattle has had a profound impact on the Timorese way of life. Bali cattle in particular were given to rulers and chiefs and due to their high calving rate, even in the harsh conditions, numbers expanded rapidly. This placed great pressure on fallowed 'slash-and-burn' lands and food crops cultivators had to invest a great deal of time to protect their fields against damage from straying livestock (Suryanata et al. 1986). Ormeling (1955) estimated that farmers spent up to one third of their labour on fence construction.
Unfortunately, with the introduction of Bali cattle in 1912, a fast-growing shrubby weed, Lantana camara, was also introduced. It rapidly spread over the island and covered much of the grazing and cropping lands. To help combat this problem, and to provide a source of high quality feed for the cattle, the Dutch authorities introduced the drought resistant leguminous tree Leucaena leucocephala (Ormeling 1955, Fox 1988).
The introductions of Bali cattle, L. leucocephala and weed species to Timor had both positive and negative impacts on the environment and the stability and sustainability of livestock production systems. These are discussed below.
The first introductions of leucaena occurred mainly in the Amarasi district, southeast of Kupang where a powerful local ruler delineated grazing and cultivation areas within his domain. This was the first step of its kind in Timor to prevent the intrusion of animals into fields and to limit the need for extensive fencing (Fox 1988).
The grazing areas were planted to leucaena and a local Amarasi farmer noticed that Bali cattle could be successfully fed on an exclusive diet of this species. The local ruler then instructed that all cattle be tethered and fed leucaena. Within a decade Amarasi achieved the most equitable distribution of cattle ownership in the whole of Timor (Fox 1988) and it became the most important source of high quality animals. In other parts of Timor, there was also a shift from extensive cattle raising on native rangelands to stall-fed cut-and-carry systems. These changes have been supported by the increasing cattle market and extensive plantings of leucaena. In the past, large cattle herds were owned by elite groups representing only 2-10% of the population. In stall-fed systems, families rarely tended more than 3-4 cattle, thus improving the distribution of benefits.
Although leucaena was promoted by the government, it was not always used by local farmers. For example, in the Humusu district, even though leucaena was extensively planted, farmers did not feed it to their cattle, relying instead on more traditional species such as Sesbania grandiflora and Acacia leucophloea. In 1985, the psyllid insect (Heteropsylla cubana) arrived in Timor and devastated most of the leucaena plantations on the island. Some stands were killed outright and most have not recovered even today. The farmers of the Amarasi district, whose cattle depended almost exclusively on leucaena, had to find alternative species and many discontinued cattle raising as a result. The Indonesian government has taken urgent action to combat this problem but alternative species, until recently, have been confined to research stations.
The destruction of leucaena by the psyllid was a disaster for cattle production systems in most parts of West Timor. However, it did provide a good lesson for governments and development agencies of the dangers of over-reliance on single multipurpose trees.
In the traditional livestock production system (swidden pastoral) the major source of animal feed was natural rangelands. Forage supply and quality, water supply and the prolonged dry season were the main constraints to productivity and stability of the system.
Due largely to overgrazing of most of the rangelands during the last few decades, the quality, biological diversity and botanical composition of the rangelands have been considerably degraded. Farmers have resorted to the forests and woodlands in search of forage for their livestock. This, in combination with traditional slash-and-burn agriculture, has placed significant strain on forest resources and the whole ecological balance on the island is under threat.
In most parts of Timor Island, turi (Sesbania grandiflora) is now the most important multipurpose tree. This species is utilised as forage, as a vegetable for human consumption, for firewood and light construction materials and for soil fertility improvement. Sesbania grandiflora is one of the few species that is widely accepted throughout Timor as a good source of forage (Figure 7.6.1).
Fig. 7.6.1. Bundles of S. grandiflora foliage for sale on the roadside in Timor.
In drier areas of West Timor, kabesak (Acacia leucophloea) is a second important forage species. It grows naturally in open fields and forest margins. It is resistant to drought and fire and regrows well after coppicing or pollarding. It is one of the few sources of forage during the dry season, however, considerable pressure has been placed on Acacia leucophloea and it is declining in the natural grasslands and forest ecosystems. Farmers appear not to have the knowledge or capability to grow this species and very few efforts have been made to replant it in its natural habitat.
Also important are the banyan trees (Ficus spp.). There are more than 30 species of Ficus in Timor and many of them are edible and used as livestock feed (Dress 1951).
Many other species (Table 7.6.1) are also traditionally utilised as forage but some are not widely recognised for their forage value. Melia azedarach, for instance, is not commonly used for forage in Indonesia as its leaf is somewhat bitter but in certain areas of Timor (Seki, Oemofa and Bismark regions), this species is routinely used as a source of forage.
Table 7.6.1. Local species utilised as forage sources in traditional farming systems in West Timor (Djogo, 1992).
|
Species |
Vernacular name |
|
Acacia farnesiana |
Bakuro |
|
Acacia leucophloea |
Kabesak, Besak |
|
Acacia villosa |
Lamtoro/Petes Merah |
|
Adenanthera pavonia |
Saga Pohon, Kaikenahawu |
|
Albizia chinensis |
Samatuku, Angkai |
|
Albizia lebbeck |
Pusine |
|
Albizia lebbeckioides |
Pusine, Pusinat, Pusienta |
|
Albizia saponaria |
Araek, Kaben, Kbena, Kabena |
|
Artocarpus integra |
Nangka |
|
Bambusa spp. |
Bambu |
|
Bauhinia malabarica |
Pohon Daun Kupu-kupu |
|
Bauhinia sp. |
Pohon Daun Kupu-kupu |
|
Borasus sundaicus/flabelifer |
Tuak, Lontar |
|
Breynia cernua |
Buah tinta, Mekon |
|
Cajanus cajan |
Kacang Turis |
|
Callotropis gigantea |
Kolengsusu, Widuri |
|
Ceiba petandra |
Kapok |
|
Cordia dichotoma |
Kukbai |
|
Cordia subcordata |
Nunak |
|
Cordia subpubescens |
Haukukbai, Nanukukbai |
|
Corypha gebanga |
Gewang, Gebang |
|
Desmanthus sp. |
Petes Utan |
|
Erythrina ovaliafolia |
Nenes, dadap |
|
Erythrina urophylla |
Dadap |
|
Erythrina variegata |
Nenes, Neonsae, Dadap Duri |
|
Ficus spp. |
Ara, Beringin |
|
Gosampinus malabarica |
Kapok Utan |
|
Grewia koordersiana |
|
|
Hibiscus tiliaceus |
Waru, Fao |
|
Ipomoea batata |
Ubi tatas |
|
Justicia ganderussa |
Gandarusa |
|
Macaranga tanarius |
Bafkenu, Kfenuk |
|
Manihot esculenta |
Ubi Kayu |
|
Melia azadarach |
Kme, Kame, Akmel |
|
Melochia umbelata |
Busi |
|
Musa spp. |
Pisang |
|
Parkinsonia aculeata |
Adjao kase |
|
Passiflora foetida |
Buah putri, Markisa utan |
|
Peltophorum innerme |
Kaukolo, Kayu Laru |
|
Phaseolus sp. |
Arbilla |
|
Pipturus argentus |
Ramkoa |
|
Pongamia pinnata |
Sikam, Waringi |
|
Psidium guajava |
Jambu |
|
Schleichera oleosa |
Kosambi, Usapi |
|
Sesbania grandiflora |
Kane, Gala-gala |
|
Sesbania sesban |
Gala-gala kecil |
|
Sesbania sp. |
Gala-gala utan |
|
Tamarindus indica |
Kiu, Tambering |
|
Tarena incerta |
Mengkudu |
|
Terminalia microcarpa |
Nismetan |
|
Thevetia peruviana |
Tunmolo |
|
Timonius timon |
Timo |
|
Trema orientalis |
Loam, Deo |
|
Uvaria rufa |
Koknaba |
|
Zizyphus mauritiana |
Kabuka, Bidara, Kom |
At present in Timor, there are only a very few individual trees of Albizia lebbeck left in the landscape. It is thought that this species was originally widespread but has been overexploited; it is slow growing and difficult to propagate, hence its occurrence has declined markedly. Albizia lebbeckioides, a similar species which is highly regarded as a forage source, is also under threat.
Farmers utilise many of the local plants quite extensively but they seldom try to propagate or replace species in replanting programmes (Djogo 1992). It may be that they do not have sufficient knowledge to do this or that they regard the trees as an exploitable, unlimited resource.
Apart from L. leucocephala and the many local species, there are a number of introduced species of trees and shrubs that have been utilised as sources of forage in Timor. However, many of these species are still under investigation in experimental plots on research stations and only a few have been widely used by farmers.
Acacia catechu was introduced into Timor in the 1930s. It is fast growing and, in two decades, it has spread over the island as a useful forage and fuelwood species. It has been variously known as Acacia arabica or Acacia polyacantha and it appears to be closely related to Acacia nilotica which is growing extensively in the dry zones of Queensland, Australia (Section 7.2).
Since the devastation of L. leucocephala by the psyllid in 1985, there has been considerable research activity on suitable alternatives. Several research institutes have focused on other leucaena species or interspecific crosses with L. leucocephala, such as KX1 (L. pallida x L. diversifolia), KX2 (L. pallida x L. leucocephala) and many others.
Other government and non-government organisations are promoting species from other genera such as Calliandra calothyrsus, Calliandra tetragona, Gliricidia sepium, Desmodium rensonii, Flamingia macrophylla, Cassia siamea, Desmanthus virgatus, Sesbania sesban and several other species. These efforts, however, are still in the initial stages focusing on experimental observations. The basic objective is to stabilise the various agroecosystems.
This section has illustrated the use of forage tree species in both the traditional systems and the more modern economically driven livestock production systems.
The traditional pattern of utilisation of forage trees and shrubs has provided a sound basis that can be remodelled to fit the modern or improved animal production system. However, there are a number of key issues facing small-scale farming systems of Timor which should be addressed by developmental schemes of this nature. Some of the issues include:
· There are a wide range of species that could be utilised as forage but there is insufficient information on their value or most appropriate management.· Farmers' plots are usually very small, so that there needs to be careful consideration given to the introduction of species which have minimal impact on their main cropping enterprise.
· Land tenure issues have become an important factor in the promotion and planting of new species. In the past, farmers in Timor exploited forage resources on communally owned land, but this opportunity has become more limited.
· More information is required on the combined use of local species with introduced species to provide an ecologically and economically sound fodder production system.
· Seed production of local and introduced tree and shrub species is a major constraint to the expansion of the programme of planting of these species.
Djogo, A.P.Y. (1992) The possibilities of using local drought resistant multipurpose tree species as alternative to lamtoro (Leucaena leucocephala) for agroforestry and social forestry in West Timor. Working Paper No. 32. EAPI-East West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, 41 pp.
Dress, E.M. (1951) Distribution, ecology and silvicultural possibilities of the trees and shrubs from the savanna forest region in Eastern Sumbawa and Timor (Lesser Sunda Islands). Communication of the Forest Research Institute No. 33. Balai Penjelidikan Kehutanan, Bogor, Indonesia.
Fox, J.J. (1988) The historical consequences of changing patterns of livelihood on Timor. In: Wade-Marshall, D. and Loveday, P. (eds), Contemporary Issues in Development. North Australian Research Unit, Canberra, pp. 259-279.
Ormeling, F.J. (1955) The Timor Problem. J.B. Walters, Djakarta, Gröningen.
Suryanata, K., Mella, W.I.I., Djogo, A.P.Y. and Renggana, A. (1986) An analysis of a village agroecosystems in Timor. Suan III Symposium at Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
