Nigeria
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by
Eroarome Martin Aregheore
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Nigeria
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| 1. INTRODUCTION The Federal Republic of Nigeria is in West Africa between Latitudes 4 o to 14o North and between Longitudes 2o2’ and 14 o 30’ East. To the north the country is bounded by the Niger Republic and Chad; in the west by the Benin Republic, in the East by the Cameroon Republic and to the south by the Atlantic Ocean. The country takes its name from its most prominent river, the Niger. Nigeria has a land area of about 923 769 km2 (FOS, 1989); a north-south length of about 1 450 km and a west-east breadth of about 800 km. Its total land boundary is 4 047 km while the coastline is 853 km. The Federal Ministry of Environment of Nigeria (FMEN, 2001) 1993 estimate of irrigated land is 9 570 km2 and arable land about 35 %; 15 % pasture; 10 % forest reserve; 10 % for settlements and the remaining 30 % considered uncultivable for one reason or the other. Boomie (1998) corroborated the irrigated land at 9 570 km2 with arable land at 33 %; permanent crops 3 %; permanent pastures 44 %; forests and woodland 12 % and others 8 %. Cleaver and Shreiber (1994) put the surface area of Nigeria as 91.07 million hectares, 57 % of which is believed to be either under crops or pastures while the remaining 43 % is divided amongst forest, water bodies and other uses. Nigeria is a country of marked ecological diversity and climatic contrasts. The lowest point is the Atlantic Ocean at sea level while the highest point is the Chappal Waddi at 2 419 m. Nigeria has diverse biophysical characteristics, ethnic nationalities, agro-ecological zones and socio-economic conditions. It has evolved over time and space in terms of administrative structures and nature of governance. It started as an amalgamated British colony in 1914, became a federation in 1963; then became independent in 1960 as a two-unit region comprising the Northern and Southern provinces. An additional Mid-Western region was created in 1963. Also in 1963, Nigeria was proclaimed a republic. The three former regions (Western, Eastern and Northern) excluding the Midwest were later divided into 12 states in 1967 along with a number of sub-administrative divisions for each state. In 1976 the states were increased to 19, in 1987 to 21 and 30 in 1987 (Figure 1). Further changes in the administrative composition of the country include the redefining of the political regions as local government areas (LGAs) and the creation of the new Abuja Federal Capital Territory (FCT) on December 12 1991. With this, Lagos ceased to be the country’s capital, a position that it held right from before independence. Thus today Abuja is the capital while Lagos is the largest city in terms of population and the main commercial centre. There are now 744 LGAs. The present 36 States structure emerged in 1996 during the time of erstwhile Babaginda, with the creation of 6 additional states namely Bayelsa, Ebonyi, Ekiti, Gombe, Nasarawa and Zamfara. Today Nigeria consists of 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory located at Abuja (Figure 1). Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa with an estimated population of 131,859,731 inhabitants (July 2006 estimate, World Factbook). The average annual growth rate according to the 2006 estimate was 2.38 %. Nigeria’s population is divided among 478 different ethnic groups, some numbering fewer than 10 000 people. Of the different ethnic groups, ten (Hausa, Fulani, Yoruba, Ibo, Kanuri, Tiv, Edo, Nupe, Ibibio and Ijaw) account for nearly 80% of the population. Twenty-five percent of the population is in the former Western Region (12% of area), 21% in the former Eastern Region (9% of area), and 53% in the former Northern Region (79% of area). The lowest population densities are in the northern regions, especially in Borno, Adamawa, Kebbi, Kwara, Taraba, Yobe and Zamfara States. Details of Nigeria’s population density are presented in Figure 2.
Nigeria's economy has been dominated since the late nineteen-sixties by the export of oil, a sector dominated by the Government. By the mid-nineteen-seventies, about 75% of Federal revenue came from petroleum. The share of exports accounted for by fuel, mineral and metals continued to rise and stood at 96% in 1991 (World Bank, 1993). In 2004, the share of export commodities from petroleum and petroleum products was 95 %, while cocoa, rubber and others contributed most of the remainder of exports. Nigeria’s industrial production growth rate was 2.3 % (2004 estimate) (CIA World Factbook, 2004). GDP growth rose marginally in 2004, led by oil and natural gas exports. The capital-intensive oil sector provides 20% of GDP, 95% of foreign exchange earnings, and about 65% of budgetary revenues (2004 estimate) (CIA World Factbook, 2004). The development of the petroleum industry in the late nineteen-sixties and nineteen-seventies radically transformed Nigeria from an agricultural based economy to a major oil exporter. Increased earnings from petroleum exports generated high levels of real economic growth, and by the mid-nineteen-seventies Nigeria ranked as the dominant economy in sub-Saharan Africa and as the continent's major exporter of crude petroleum. Notwithstanding the decline in world petroleum prices after 1981, the government became increasingly over-extended financially, with insufficient revenue from petroleum to pay the rising cost of imports or to finance major development projects. The decline in Nigeria's earnings of foreign exchange led to an accumulation of arrears in trade debts and of import shortages, which, in turn, resulted in a sharp fall in economic activity, with most of Nigerian industry struggling to operate without essential imported raw materials and spare parts. A series of poor harvests, an overvalued currency and a widening budget deficit compounded the problem. The dramatic fall in international prices for petroleum in 1986, and reduced output in all sectors (except agriculture), kept the economy in the depths of recession, thus in July 1986 the government announced a two-year structural adjustment program (SAP). This programme was aimed at expanding non-oil exports, reducing the import of goods that could be manufactured locally, achieving self-sufficiency in food and increasing the role of the private sector. The SAP included the abolition of import licenses and a reduction in import duties. Consequently in 1994, the SAP was abandoned, following a severe deterioration in political and economic conditions in the early nineteen-nineties. Economic instability was also reflected in a persistently high rate of inflation, which increased from an annual average of 24.0% in 1986-91, to a peak 72.8% in 1995. Between 1996 and 1998, the Nigerian economy recorded impressive macroeconomic stability while it continued to show positive signs of growth (as reported by the Federal Ministry of Finance). These included the exchange rate and the rate of inflation. The improved performance of the economy in 1997 was as a result of the sustained implementation of a sound fiscal policy dovetailed into an anti-inflationary monetary stance. Indeed, inflation rate decelerated dramatically to reach a 7-year low of 8.5% by the end of December 1997. The Role of Agriculture in the Country’s Economy Table 1. Agriculture - Production indices
During the early nineteen-seventies Nigeria experienced growth rates of 8% -10% per annum, while the increase in agricultural production declined to around 4% per annum towards the end of the decade. The slow growth continued into the nineteen-eighties, with output rising by only 3.4% in 1981 and by 2.7% in 1982. The effects of drought and the government's austerity program resulted in severe 9.4% fall in agricultural output in 1983. However, a succession of good harvests, higher producer prices, reductions in cereal imports and a resurgence of public and private investment in crop production resulted in a sharp recovery in production (FAO, 2001). Table 2 presents output of some major staple food crops from 1995 – 2004.
Food output showed the strongest growth, rising by 7% in 1984 and by an estimated 10% in 1985, while total agricultural output increased by 3.8%. Agriculture was the only sector to show any significant expansion in 1986, with an estimated increase in overall agricultural production of 2.1%. From 1981-94 the average annual growth of GDP was 2.3% compared to 4.6% for the earlier period 1970-80. Average growth from agriculture from 1980 to 1992 was estimated to be 3.6% and this compares favourably with an average of 1.7% for Sub-Saharan Africa. For the earlier period agricultural production in Nigeria declined by -0.1% (World Bank, 1993). Agriculture (including hunting, forestry and fishing) contributed 33.5% of GDP in 1993 and an estimated 63.7% of the labour force was employed in the sector in that year. Table 2. Production statistics of some major staple foods (MT)
Agricultural output increased by an estimated 4.1 per cent during 1993 compared to 1995 and 1996 with increases of 3.5 and 3.7 per cent, respectively. The value of agricultural production constituted 38.7 per cent of the nation's GDP. In spite of the continued satisfactory performance of the agricultural sector, it still fell short of the 5.5 per cent growth rate stipulated in the National Rolling Plan for 1997 – 1999 and to this date continued to decline because of lack of interest in farming by young people. The largely subsistence agricultural sector has failed to keep up with rapid population growth and Nigeria once a large net exporter of food, now must import food. According to 2004 estimate the value of agriculture production constituted 30.8%; industry, 43.8 % and services 25.4 %, of the nation’s GDP, respectively. The nation’s GDP real growth rate stood at 7.1% (CIA World Factbook, 2004). Traditional smallholders, who use simple techniques of production and the bush-fallow system of cultivation, account for around two-thirds of Nigeria's total agricultural production. The number of state farms is relatively small, and of decreasing importance. Subsistence food crops (mainly sorghum, maize, taro, yams, cassava, rice and millet) are grown in the central and western areas of Nigeria, and are traded largely outside the cash economy. Cash crops (mainly palm kernels, cotton, cocoa, rubber and groundnuts) are grown in the east, west, mid-west and northern states of the country. It is estimated that Nigeria has about 71.2 million hectares of available agricultural land and about half of which is currently being utilized. Increasing rainfall from the semi-arid north to the tropical rain forested south allows great crop diversity, from short season cereals, sorghum, millet and wheat in the north to cassava, yams and rice in the wetter areas. In the drier north cash crops include cotton, groundnuts and tobacco, while in the south cocoa, coffee rubber, oil palm, sugar and ginger are grown. A steady growth has been observed in the agricultural production of both staple and cash crops since 1990 and the aggregate index of agricultural production increased by 4.1 per cent in 1997 but declined in 1998. However, from 1999 all the major staples recorded significant increases over the proceeding years’ level. The intensification of on-farm adaptive research by some relevant agencies, the supply of high quality seeds/seedlings and better usage of improved storage facilities contributed to the observed improvement in staple food production. Estimates of production output for principal staple crops in 2003 were maize (5.2 million tons), sorghum (8.0 million tons), millet (6.1 million. tons) and rice (4.9 million. tons). Others include cassava (33.5m tons), yams (27.0 million tons), potatoes (6.0 million tons) and vegetables (9.1 million tons). Among the cash crops, only cocoa makes any significant contribution to exports. Nigeria was the world's fourth largest exporter of cocoa beans in 1990/91, with sales of 135 000 tons accounting for about 7.1% of world trade in this commodity. But Nigeria's share of the world cocoa market has been substantially reduced in recent years, owing to aging trees, low producer prices, black pod disease, smuggling and labour shortages. Recent emphasis has been placed on encouraging domestic cocoa-processing, to provide higher-value products for export. Table 3 presents major cash crops production outputs in Nigeria from 1995 – 2003. Nigeria was the world's leading exporter of palm oil, until overtaken by Malaysia in 1971. The production of oil palm products has increased somewhat since 2000 however the country is still heavily dependent on imports in order to satisfy domestic needs. Like other cash-crop sectors, output of palm products suffered from labour shortages, inefficient traditional harvesting methods, and lack of vital inputs and low levels of capital investment. However, a sharp reduction in imports and large-scale replanting resulted in a substantial increase in production during the mid-nineteen-eighties. Trade liberalization and the exchange rate policies adopted in the nineteen-eighties have contributed to the improvement in palm oil production. Also there have been substantial investments in oil-milling facilities to produce vegetable oil for domestic use and since 2000 oil palm products continued to increase for the reasons stated above. Table 3. Major cash crops production outputs (1 000 tons)
In 1990 Nigeria overtook Liberia as the largest rubber producer in Africa. Production rose from 60, 000 tons in 1986 to 147, 000 tons in 1990. It dropped to 125,000 tons in 1995 and 107, 000 tons in 2000 but went up again in 2003 to 142,000 tons and remained at 142, 000 in 2004. Benefits from a replanting programme in the eastern States, Edo and Delta states have yet to materialize, and local demand from tyre and footwear industries continues to outstrip domestic supply. A programme to increase output of rubber and palm kernels, with financial assistance from the World Bank, is being implemented. Also various state governments are encouraging farmers to increase rubber production by providing interested farmers with subsidies (FMEN, 2001). Compared to the previous years’ production (1995 – 1997), cottonseed has continued to increase and some of the reasons for the increase were considerable public and private investment in the sector, as well as incentives for local textile companies and higher tariffs on imported cotton. The supply of animal products has been declining over the past two decades, while demand has been increasing, as a result of increases in population and urbanization. Consequently, Nigeria has remained a net importer of livestock and livestock products. Restrictions placed on imports of animal products and foodstuffs in the nineteen-eighties coupled with the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP), which saw a massive devaluation of the Nigerian currency, initially reduced the imports of meat and dairy products. However, during the period 1995 to 1999, expenditure on the import of food and live animals (Table 4) continued to increase (FMEN, 2001). Table 4: Importation of food and live animals from 1995 - 1999 (Nigerian
naira (
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The geology of Nigeria is dominated by igneous structures that form most of the highlands and hills. The rocks of the basement complex, mainly of igneous origin, are encountered in over 60 % of the surface area. The landforms can simply be classified into highlands, plateaux, hills, plains and river valley systems. The landforms are more deeply dissected in the south than in the northern parts (Udo, 1970). Figure 4 presents dominant land classes while Figure 5 presents a simple relief map of Nigeria. The topography of the country shows that Nigeria is highest along the
eastern border and rises to a maximum of 2,040 m above sea level at Vogel
Peak, south of the Benue river. The Jos plateau, that is located close
to the centre of the country rises to 1780 m at Sphere hill and 1,698
at Wadi Hill. The Plateau is also the watershed, from which streams flow
to Lake Chad and the rivers Niger and Benue. The land declines steadily
northward from the plateau and this area, known as the High Plains of
Hausaland, is characterized by a broad expanse of level sandy plains,
interspersed by rocky dome outcrops. To the south-west, across the Niger
River similar relief is represented in the Yoruba highlands, where the
rocky outcrops are surrounded by forest or tall grass and form the major
watershed for rivers flowing northwards to the Niger and southwards
to the sea.
Thus, Nigeria can be divided into:- (1) the high plateau; and (2) the lowlands (Iloeje, 2001) (Figure 6). (1) The high plateaux. The three tracks of the Niger-Benue river system cut across the highland to form three blocks, i.e. the central Plateau in the north; the Eastern and North-Eastern highlands in the east; and the western Uplands in the west. It is important to highlight the fact that these highlands correspond roughly with the areas of volcanic rocks and uplifted areas of basement complex rocks. This goes to show that these areas were initially high and were able to resist erosion (Iloeje, 2001). Based on the above description, the high plateau consists of: (a) The Northern Central plateau – This plateau as the name suggests lies in the centre of northern Nigeria and covers nearly one-fifth of the area of the country. The surface is generally flat, but it is dotted here and there with some granite hills and ridges. The plateau is made up of two distinct platforms that lie at different levels: (i) the high plains of Hausaland forms the lower step. The average elevation stands at 750 m; (ii) the Jos plateau. Has a higher platform with an elevation of 1 500 to 1 800 m. It has a south-west steep scarp that overlooks the high plains from a height of about 1 600 metres in the north-east, but falls to these plains rather gradually. The highest part is the Shere Hills north-east of Jos where the elevation exceeds 1 650 m above sea level (Iloeje, 2001). (b) The Eastern and North-eastern highlands – These highlands consist of the Mandara Mountains (1 200 –1 500 m) and the Biu Plateau (600 – 900 m). The Mandara Mountains are a mass of basement complex exposure while the Biu Plateau is of basalt. In eastern Nigeria, the highlands are made up of two big granite spurs that are western prolongations of the Cameroon Mountains into the Cross River Plains (Iloeje, 2001). These spurs are the Obudu Plateau that stands at a height of over 1 200 metres above the general level of the land and the Oban Hills with an average elevation of 1 200 m above sea level. (c) The Western uplands – They cover an area of about half the size of the North Central Plateau. Most of the area lies between 300 to 600 m however the Idanre Hills, where the Plateau is highest are about 1 000 m above sea level (Iloeje, 2001). (2) The lowlands lie mainly in the basins of the major rivers and fall roughly within the areas of sedimentary rocks lying in the basins of sedimentation. (a) The Sokoto plains in the north-west – These extend over one twentieth of the area of Nigeria and have an average height of 150 m. They are monotonously flat. The main rivers that drain into this area are the Sokoto, Rima and Zamfara. They have flat-floored valleys that are flooded in the wet season only. The water recedes during the dry season and leaves a coating of alluvial soil behind. These seasonally flooded areas are called “fadamas” in Hausa (Iloeje, 2001). (b) The Niger/Benue trough wrapping round the north-central plateau – This starts from the Sokoto plains in the North-west through Lokoja, and ends near Yola. The Niger/Benue trough is an elongated bow-shaped lowland. It represents a previous arm of the sea, probably an extension of the Atlantic, into which sediments were deposited. Its surface generally lies below 300 m. It has been deeply disserted by erosion into tabular hills that are separated by gorge-like river valleys (Ileoje, 2001). (c) The Chad Basin in the North-east extremity of the country – It consists of about one-tenth of Nigeria. It is a depressed basin composed of Territory rocks. It has a average elevation of about 45 – 60 m and is separated from the Benue valley by the Biu Plateau. Except for the sand dunes of the Hadejia, the surface is almost flat. These dunes are long narrow sand ridges of about 12 – 30 m high and 275 – 365 m wide and they vary in length between 800 m and 12 km. As a result of increased rainfall, they have been overgrown by vegetation and are thus fixed in their present position (Ileoje, 2001). (d) The interior coastal lowlands of Western Nigeria – This area lies west of the Niger. Its boundary is marked in the north by the ridge of the basement complex of the western Highlands; in the South by Quaternary deposits of the coastal margin. Rocks found in this area are Secondary and Tertiary sedimentaries, which dip gently southwards. The South dipping surface has however, sunk to below 300 m and is cut into blocks by narrow parallel valleys cut by the north-south flowing rivers (Ileoje, 2001). (e) The lowlands and scarplands of South-eastern Nigeria – The rocks in this area are made of sandstones, shales, clays and coal. With the exception of the coastal areas and the Eastern Highlands it covers the whole of the eastern section of Nigeria. This area is divided into three sub-units (i) The Cross Rive plains, east of Enugu; (ii) The Scarplands that lies west of the longitude of Enugu and (iii) The South-east Coastal Plains that are tertiary rocks and lie south of the Scarplands (Ileoje, 2001). (f) The Coastal Margins and swamps that lie adjacent to the seas – These run along the coast from east to west in a strip of land below 30 m and are made up of recent deposits of sand, clays and mud. This area can be divided into two (i) the lagoon coast lies in the west where the strip is narrow. Sands predominate and sand-bars cut off east-west lagoons. The Lagos lagoon is partly made up of fresh water from the rivers and partly of sea-water stranded behind a sand-bar. (ii) The Niger Delta which consists mainly of muddy deposits pushed out by the Niger into a relatively tideless salt sea. The creeks and water channels of the coastland form important fishing grounds and provide highways in this marshy area (Ileoje, 2001).
Soils None of the soils was rated as Class 1 with high productivity by the FAO. In-short over 48 % of the Nigerian soils fall into class 4 and 5, which are mainly vertisols, alisols, acrisols, ferrasols and arensol. These soils usually have low productivity due to inadequate moisture retention capacity and low organic matter. Except for the ferrasols, they are the most dominant types found in the northern dry parts of the country. The most systematic current information on Nigerian soils is based on the reconnaissance soil survey of the Nigeria project whose field-work was completed in 1985. The geology and geomorphological processes that shaped the landforms greatly influenced the soils. Table 5: Productivity potential of Nigerian soils
Nigerian soils can be classified into groups made up of four (climatic) zones that are soil associations. The groups are: (i) Northern zone of sandy soils (ii) Interior zone of laterite soils; (iii) Southern belt of forest soils; and (iv) zone of alluvial soils (Oyenuga, 1967; Iloeje, 2001) (Figure 7) and the soil types (classifications) are well distributed among the groups (Adegbola, 1979).
Besides the above classification, Sobulo (1988) reported that Nigerian soils can also be broadly grouped into four major categories for management purposes and these groupings are:-
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3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES Climate
The seasonal pattern of the south differs from that of the north and the south has four seasons: (i) The long wet season that starts in mid-March and lasts till July is a season of heavy rains and high humidity. Plants and pasture are fresh and green, grasses and weeds grow rapidly and look attractive. This is the planting season. (ii) The short dry season. This is the August break and it starts from July – August and lasts for about one month. (iii) The short wet season. It follows the August break and lasts from September to October. During this period rainfall is not usually heavy compared to the first wet season and the total amount of rainfall is less; and (iv) The long dry or harmattan season which continues from November to mid-March. Harmattan mornings are usually cool and misty, however the mist disappears after sunrise. The afternoons are full of haze due to dust in the air brought by winds from the north. At this period of the year grasses die off and leaves of some trees turn brown and later fall ( Oyenuga, 1967; Ileoje, 2001). In the north, the long dry season starts earlier and ends later. Here there is nothing like the August break, therefore the two wet seasons become one. Therefore two seasons are prominent – a long dry season that spans from October to April, and a wet season for the remaining five months. (i) The long dry season: there is lack of rainfall and the dry conditions that prevail cause cracks to develop on clay soils. However, this season is welcomed because the nights are cool and the afternoon haze helps to wade off the sun’s heat; and (ii) the wet season that is ushered in by frequent storms. This is the planting season in the north. Rainfall varies from place to place and from season to season. In the wet season, the full effect of the tropical maritime air mass is the main reason that brings rainfall, while in the dry season the rainfall is less. The total annual rainfall decreases from the south to the north. The southern two-thirds of the country have double peak rainfall while the northern third has a single peak. Seasonal distribution and annual rainfall for selected towns are presented in Figure 8 and Table 6, respectively. For example Brass has 379 cm, Jos 143 cm, Sokoto 71 cm, and Maiduguri 63 cm (Iloeje, 2001).
July is the middle of the wet season and the relative humidity is usually high because of the warm wet air that prevails. The humidity is over 80 % in the South and never goes below 60 % in the north. Over 80 % of the rains fall within the wet months of April – September. In the South the figure is above 70 % and in the north nearly 100 % of the rains are during these months (Table 6). Table 6. Seasonal distribution of rainfall in selected towns in Nigeria (North to South)
Temperature also varies from place to place and from season to season. It has been observed that there are considerable contrasts between the coastal areas and the interior, as well as between the high plateau and the lowlands. On the plateau, the mean annual temperature varies between 21 0C and 27 0C. In the Jos area, temperatures are between 20 0C and 250 C. On the lowlands such as the Sokoto Plains, the Chad Basin and the Niger-Benue lowlands, the mean annual temperature is 27 0C. The coastal fringes have lower means than the interior. It appears therefore that altitude and proximity to the seas determine to a large extent the distribution of temperature in Nigeria. Generally, temperatures are high throughout the year because Nigeria lies within the tropics and the mean monthly figure could go above 27 0C, while daily maximum temperatures can go between beyond 35 0C – 38 0C depending on the location (Iloeje, 2001). Figure 9 presents mean annual temperature distribution.
In general while there is hardly any dry season in the extreme southern tip of the country, the wet season hardly lasts for more than three months in the north-eastern part. Similarly annual rainfall totals range from 2,500 mm in the south to less than 400 mm in parts of the extreme north (FMEN, 2001). Agro-ecological zones The North with its lower rainfall and shorter rainy season consists of savanna land, and this represents 80 % of the vegetation zones of the country. The savanna land forms an excellent natural habitat for a large number of grazing livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep, horses, camels, and donkeys. The natural vegetation zones resulted from the interaction of the climate, humidity and rainfall (Oyenuga, 1967), and soils (Iloeje, 2001). These factors have been modified by human activities and man’s pattern of land use (Oyenuga 1967; Iloeje, 2001). Based on the above, Oyenuga (1967) classified Nigeria into nine (9) agro-ecological zones viz:- (i) The mangrove forest and coastal vegetation, (ii) the freshwater swamp communities, (iii) the tropical high forest zone, (iv) the derived Guinea savanna with relict forest, (v) the Southern Guinea savanna zone, (vi) The northern Guinea savanna zone, (vii) The Jos plateau, (viii) The Sudan savanna, and (ix) The Sahel savanna. However, Iloeje, (2001) grouped the country into (A) forests and (B) savanna zones. These two major zones were further sub-divided into three zones each such as (A) Forests that consist of (i) salt-water swamp, (ii) fresh-water swamp, (iii) high forest; and (B) Savanna zone that consist of (i) guinea savanna (ii) Sudan savanna, and (iii) Sahel savanna (Figure 10).
The mangrove forest and coastal vegetation: This occupies the coastal areas and consists of tidal swamps, interspersed with numerous creeks and lagoons. The mangrove swamp is noted for the mangrove species of trees (Rhizophora) that dominate the swamp and to a much less extent by Conocarpus erectus and Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove). Among the Rhizophora spp. Rhizophora racemosa dominates, occupying an estimated 99 % of the entire mangrove area. The coastal swamp area is not widely cultivated except for swamp rice in places where they are stabilized and non-saline. The freshwater swamp communities: This area which originally occupied 18 130 km2 lies immediately inland of the mangrove swamp but on a slightly higher ground. The lagoons or the rivers that overflow their banks in the wet season supply it with fresh water because the area is low lying, therefore it is flooded with rain water and lies under rain for sometimes eight or nine months of the year. The periodical flooding experienced gradually deposits new layers of alluvial soils on the surface of the land, a deposit that leads to the formation of more solid ground behind the swamp, where we find the beginning of the rain forest. This zone consists of a mixture of trees. Important among the vegetation of this zone are the various palm and fibre plants such as Raphia spp., Raphia vinifera, the wine palm and Raphia hookeri, the roof-mat palm. They are used for thatching mats and for providing rafter, poles and stiff piassava fibre for the production of brooms. Leaves of the pandanus palm (Pandanus candelabrum) are used for preparing sleeping mats and baskets. Fishing and fibre-making are the important products of the fresh-water swamp community. The tropical high forest zone: This zone is the major source of timber for all large constructional and cabinet making timber. Of all the zones it contains the most valuable species of vegetation. However due to human activities, this one-time forested area has been drastically reduced. Bush fallows, villages and farms are found scattered throughout the zone. Presently the drier end of its inland side is becoming reduced to derived guinea savanna because of felling and clearings. In the humid rain forest are found economic cash crops such as oil palm, (Elaeis guineensis), cocoa (Theobroma cacao), Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) banana/plantain (Musa spp.) and cola nut (Cola nitida). Also found are some principal staple food crops such as yam, cocoyams, sweet potato, maize, rice, groundnut, cowpeas and beans as well as a number of fruits. This zone is also good for sylviculture. A number of timber trees such as the African mahogany (Khaya ivorensis and K. grandifoliola), the scented sapele wood (Entandrophragma cylindricum) and iroko (Chlorophora excelsa) to mention but three are found in this zone. This zone therefore is very important in terms of food production and timber for construction and cabinet making (Oyenuga, 1967). The derived Guinea savanna with relict forest: This was originally the drier part of the high forest. Due to bush burning and overgrazing, cultivation and hunting activities over a long period in the zone, the high forest trees were destroyed and the forest that used to exist is now replaced with a mixture of grasses and scattered trees. However, along the streams and in wet low-lying areas were surface water accumulates there are still some traces of forests. The Guinea savanna is characterized by grasses such as Pennisetum, Andropogon, Panicum, Chloris, Hyparrhenia, Paspalum and Melinis. These tall grasses are characteristic of the Guinea savanna proper. The Guinea Savanna: This zone consists of the larger part of the savanna zone and is sometimes divided into the southern Guinea savanna and northern Guinea savanna. It is the broadest vegetation zone in the country and it occupies almost half of its area. It is located in the middle of the country, extends southwards to southern Nigeria and pushes northward beyond Zaria (Figure 10). It covers an area that has 100 – 150 cm of annual rainfall and where the wet season lasts for 6 - 8 months. The false balsam Copaiba (Daniellia oliveri), used for carving mortars and pestles for pounding yam, Terminalia, Lophira, Afzeila, Daniellia and Vitex, Khaya senegalensis (the poor mahogany) are the species found in the southern Guinea savanna. In the northern guinea savanna species such as Isoberlinia doka and I. tomentosa form the bulk of the scattered woodland. Also found are locust bean tree (Parkia filicoidea), shea butter tree (Butyrospermum parkii) and mangoes (Mangifera indica). Comparatively, there are fewer trees in the northern Guinea savanna than in the southern Guinea savanna and the trees are not as tall as those found in the southern Guinea savanna. Most of the tall grasses found in the derived Guinea savanna, are also found in the Guinea savanna, however, they are less luxuriant. The appearance of this zone differs from season to season. During the rainy season, the whole zone is green and covered with tall grasses that grow and reach maturity rapidly and thus become fibrous and tough. In the dry season they tend to die and disappear and one can see for kilometres. This clearing is due to several periodical bush-burning that occurs during the dry season between November and April, carried out to either assist in farm clearance or hunting. The Sudan savanna: This zone is chiefly associated with groundnuts, sorghum and millet cultivation. Grasses found in this zone are not generally as tall, coarse or thick on the ground as those found in the Guinea savanna zone. Here there is continuous grass cover of the short and feathery grasses on a large scale. The grass vegetation is interspersed with farms and thick bush trees such as shea butter tree (Butyrospermum parkii) and Acacia albida. The genus Acacia and Combretum, especially Combretum micranthum are well represented and prolific in the Sudan savanna zone. Also found in the zone are locust bean tree (Parkia filicoidea), tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica). A large portion of this zone falls within the tsetse fly free belt of West Africa and it is excellent for the rearing and breeding of ruminant livestock (cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, horses and camels). The nomadic Fulani roam about this zone in search of fodder and water for their livestock. The Sahel savanna: Occupies about 18 130 km2 of the extreme northeast corner of Nigeria and is the last vegetation zone of the savanna type between the Sahara and the northern frontier of the Sudan savanna (Figure 10). The annual rainfall is low and the rainy season lasts between three to four months. Here the vegetation is not only sparse but the grasses are very short. This zone is characterized by plants such as Cenchrus biflorus, and Acacia raddiana. The shrubs that are predominantly scattered in the zone are African myrrh (Commiphora africana) and Leptadenia spartum. As a rule this zone is not cultivated without irrigation. The people found in this zone are the nomadic herdsmen, and they are careful not to burn the grass found because sparse as it is it provides the only pasture available for their grazing livestock. Montane vegetation: There is no true montane type vegetation in Nigeria, but slight variations in the prevailing plant cover introduced by relief. For instance the Jos plateau, the Bauchi Highland and the Adamawa Plateau lie in the guinea savanna zone, however, the grasses found on these highlands are shorter and the trees are fewer than at lower level. The Fulani who live in great numbers in the area turn the available fields into good pasture for their grazing animals. Figure 11 presents photographs from some agro-ecological zones.
The main constraints on feed resources in all the zones are the destruction of perennial tree cover for firewood, bush fires caused by hunters; livestock rearers and overgrazing. These man-made constraints often lead to serious degradation of the pastoral resources and in some cases to an irreversible process of desertification, especially in the Sahel zone. The sub-humid zone (SHZ) has a high potential for ruminant production because of high rainfall and vast land area for forage production. However, the SHZ contains only 19.59 per cent of the total national livestock (Otchere and Nuru 1988). This low percentage of total livestock unit in the Nigerian SHZ is attributed partly to tsetse infestation and high humidity. |
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| 4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
SYSTEMS Main production systems Traditional or extensive or Village systems Nomadic or pastoral systems Herding is a monumental task for the Fulani who are always trying to get the best grazing condition for their animals. Contrary to popular belief, moving with animals is not the delight of the pastoralists. The migrant Fulani in Nigeria move because they have no choice (Otchere et al., 1985). A survey (Iro, undated) reported that three-quarters of the mobile Fulani indicated that herding is not only toilsome, it is becoming more strenuous. Nevertheless, about ten percent of the Fulani, mostly those who are near dams and grazing reserves, say herding is becoming easier. Ninety-seven percent, including those who say herding is becoming less laborious, prefer raising animals within the precinct of the homestead. In general terms the pastoral systems practiced by the Fulani herders fall into three groups – Exclusively pastoralists; transhumant pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. Exclusive pastoralists:These are mainly livestock producers who do not grow crops and therefore depend on the sales of live animals and dairy products to buy grains, other food items and other necessities. Most pastoralists under this system may move very long distances every year. It is a popular assumption that they wander from place to place without any logic; in general they have set migration routes and often long-standing arrangements with farmers to make use of their crop residues. It is only when there is drought, a failure of the pasture or the spread of diseases that they diverge from their existing patterns. The pastoralists in the Niger-Benue valley migrate very short distances between the wet and dry seasons. They use the same grazing areas and routes each year with the thatching on houses at each location repaired annually. Most of the pastoralists spend the dry season in the River Niger floodplains and only move to higher grounds before the flood rises during the rains. Transhumant pastoralists: Transhumance pastoralists in the drier north of the country rear a very high proportion of the cattle herd and many sheep and goats. Pastoralists under this production system have permanent homestead and base. Their animals depend on the natural forage legumes and grasses for subsistence but these are usually unavailable in the dry season. They move in response to seasonal changes in the quality of grazing and the tsetse fly challenges. The travelling unit is normally made of a common herd owned by close male relatives, father and son. Grain and other basic needs are purchased from sale proceeds of live animals (surplus male sheep, goats and cattle) by the men or selling of milk and other dairy products by the women in the local markets. They grow crops mainly for domestic use rather than for the market. The male folk take away the majority of the herd in search of grazing, however they leave older members of the community with the nucleus of lactating women. They return in the wet season to assist with crop cultivation. They do not have traditional grazing rights and often move to the south during the dry season to fatten their animals for sale (Aregheore, 2001). The animals move from their arid home range to the wetter southern parts where vegetation remains green and suitable for grazing. Agro-pastoralists: These are semi-settled pastoralists and they are found in many parts of northern Nigeria. They cultivate areas sufficient to feed their families from their own cereal production. In Bornu most pastoralists fall into this category. They hold land rights, use their own or hired labour to cultivate land and grow crops such as yams and cassava in addition to the staple cereals such as sorghum, millet and maize. In the system, the average herd of cattle is small compared to other pastoral systems, because they no longer rely solely on cattle and the finite grazing area around their environs that can be reached in a day will limit herd size. Most pastoralists in this system have preferences for particular breeds. Mixed farming (Integrated Crop/Livestock): Mixed farming is one of the more subtle qualitative changes that have taken place within local systems of Agriculture in Nigeria (Bourn, et al., 1994). For example, the marked reduction in pastoral nomads; the widespread sedentarisation of pastoralists and their adoption of crop cultivation in addition to keeping livestock; the uptake of animal husbandry and fattening of livestock by arable farmers; and the utilization of crop residues by livestock farmers in exchange for dairy products and/or manure (Van Raay, 1975; Bourn, et al., 1994) are all indicative of a progressive and widespread trend towards mixed farming (FAO, 1983; and McIntyre et al., 1992). Mixed farming is firmly established in Nigeria as a production system and the further integration of livestock production within local farming systems will definitely become one of the major strategic goals of livestock development in Nigeria (Bourn, et al., 1994). Mixed farming is practiced in almost all agro-ecological zones of Nigeria; from rainforests to the arid North. The principal objectives of this system are three fold: (i) complementary benefit from an optimum mixture of crops and livestock; (ii) Spreading income and risks over both crops and livestock production, and (iii) scope to adjust crop/livestock ratio to social and economic needs and opportunities. Most retirees from government services embrace mixed farming and the interest is growing because it uses space more efficiently and spreads risks more uniformly. This process is now firmly established in Nigeria and the further integration of livestock production with local farming systems is destined to become one of the major strategic goals of livestock development. Peri-urban and modern ruminant livestock husbandry
Ruminant Livestock Table 7a. Data on ruminant livestock population
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