2.1. DRAFT BACKGROUND PAPER: DEVELOPING TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR ORGANIC HORTICULTURE IN SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL REGIONS

This background paper is based on work carried out by Dr MariaGabriella Sandini, in collaboration with the Horticultural Crops Group, AGPC.

Summary

Organic agriculture is a method of agricultural production, which has potential environmental and health benefits as compared to some other farming methods. It is not a method which can be recommended as improvement for all existing agricultural production systems as it will not be able to address the problems with for instance soil fertility and pest and disease pressure under all production circumstances. The practice - as the output of a modern movement - originates from developed countries, mostly in temperate regions. Currently there is considerable interest in organic horticulture as a method for commercial horticultural production for tropical and sub-tropical countries even though it is not the single motivation for countries and producers to opt for conversion to organic agricultural production. Other motivations are unavailability of inputs in the market or lack of acquisition power, environmental concerns, social concerns and personal philosophy.

There is a need to develop knowledge and skills on organic horticultural production suitable for production under the different agro-ecological conditions in the tropics and the subtropics. The standards which are set for organic production define the practice of organic farming but they are they are not a handbook for producers. The standards do not give guidelines and technical recommendations for specific agro-ecological conditions and crops. Direct extrapolation of international standards and subsequent technical guidelines for organic horticulture in temperate regions is not appropriate due to the differences in production circumstances with the temperate regions (e.g. differences in availability of organic manure both in quantity and quality; higher pest and disease pressure, different crops, pests and diseases). Furthermore, farmers' current access to technical assistance on organic horticulture has been reported as difficult in different parts of the world.

The initial strategy of the Horticultural Crops Group (FAO Crop and Grassland Service) to address the need identified is outlined.

The target is to quickly develop a slender, but globally co-ordinated, programme on technology generation and information dissemination, and to mobilise extra-budgetary resources in order to facilitate its activities.

1. Introduction: organic agriculture

In the Codex Alimentarius organic agriculture is defined as "a holistic production management system, which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It emphasises the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible, cultural, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system (Codex Alimentarius, 1999)".

Organic agriculture is not new, but as a modern movement it has developed, mainly in the western world initially, from different systems of thought, philosophies of life and agro-political motivations. While for some practitioners organic agriculture is a commercial method of food and commodity production, for others it is a holistic approach that involves a specific philosophy and a different way of life.

Discussion on the actual sustainability of organic farming versus conventional farming (read: not certified organic) is not easily facilitated due to the diversity of farming systems and production environments all over the world. At the same time there are at least 386 definitions of sustainable development (Rigby and Caceres, 2001 after Jones, 1995). The FAO Committee on Agriculture has recognised the environmental and potential health benefits of organic agriculture and its contribution of innovative production technologies to other agricultural systems and to the overall goals of sustainability (FAO, 1999).

In the past 15-20 years, the organic market has developed from a niche sector to, in the case of the European Union (EU), a sector with a market share of 1 to 1.5% of total spending on food. Consumer demand is growing and in some EU member countries it is expected that organic food sales will reach 5 - 10 % of the market share by the year 2005. Factors contributing to this market development are a significant increase of political and financial support to the organic sector (both within the EU as well as within separate member states); the fact that the mainstream supermarket trade has committed itself to the organic trade; and, the introduction of uniform standards for organic food production and labelling and for organic certification throughout the EU by Council Regulation (EEC) 2092/91. Other main markets for organic food and vegetables are located in the United States and Japan. (ITC, 1999).

An export market opportunity has been identified for developing countries, especially for organic horticultural products that are not produced domestically in temperate countries (for example spices, tropical fruits and vegetables and citrus fruits). Although there are risk factors, and marketing studies are always advisable/required before deciding to export a product. (ITC, 1999).

More and more developing countries are embarking in organic agriculture. The decision to start organic agriculture is not necessarily based on the single reason of export market opportunities. In a study on organic agriculture and sustainable rural livelihoods in developing countries, the Natural Resources Institute found the following motivations in developing countries to convert to organic agriculture: - Market demand;
- Unavailability of inputs (no buying power or not available in the market);
- Environmental concerns;
- Social concerns; and
- Personal philosophy.
In practice the decision to convert is often based on a combination of motivations, rather than one single reason. (NRI, 1998).

Standardisation and certification of organic produce for the market will only be useful in case there is a chance of recognition of the added value by consumers combined and a willingness to pay a higher price. If there is no demand in the local market certification will only pay and be useful if higher value export markets can be reached.

EU standards (Regulation EEC 2091/92), the Codex Alimentarius Guidelines and the basic standards of the International Federation of Organic Movements (IFOAM) are mostly used as point of reference for development of national organic standards. The EU, representing one of the largest international markets for organic produce, recognises organic production from third countries only on basis of equivalence of standards. The standards concern organic production, processing, the documentation and the inspection.

In the USA, the National Organic Program (NOP) and subsequent standards are expected to be fully implemented on 21 October 2002. The standards are already defined in the Final Rule of the NOP, which became effective in April 2001. In Japan, the third major importing country, there has been an organic regulation operational since April 2001.

2. The need for technical guidelines for organic horticulture in tropical regions

Most information on national programmes is focussed on market development (domestic and export) and development and adoption of standards and not on sector- specific production practices. However, the standards (Codex alimentarius, IFOAM basic standards and EU standards) define the practice of organic farming but they do not constitute handbooks for farmers working in the field. In fact, strictly following organic standards does not automatically mean a positive environmental impact. This also depends on the skills of the farmer. "Just as there are conventional growers that do an excellent job of resource protection and soil husbandry, so, too are there organic farmers who contribute to environmental degradation (Grubbinger, 1992)". In this light, Rigby and Canceres, 2001 refer to "organic by neglect". Both history and current practices show that for instance soil fertility can be destroyed by low input, chemical-free agricultural practices. Hence skill and knowledge development is important.

Furthermore, farmers' access to appropriate technical assistance on organic horticulture has been reported as difficult in some parts of the world:
Grubbinger (1992) mentions mutual agreement between growers and researchers that organic approaches to pest control and nutrient management have not been sufficiently studied while growers claim that the research establishment doesn't serve them (USA). Wachira (1996) claims that experiments in organic farming in Kenya are carried out in a near vacuum of information, an absence of experience, expertise and extension.

Recent literature points to the need for careful and continuous assessment of nutrient management under existing agro-ecological conditions and an organic production system. Greenland (2000) concludes that under UK conditions, organic manure (coming from organic animal husbandry) would be insufficiently available if organic farming systems were widely used, and that the levels of organic manure required for an economic yield would not even be attainable currently if there had not been a build-up of nutrients in most arable soils in Britain due to fertilizer use. In assessing organic conversion scenarios for Denmark, the Bichel Committee (1999) concluded that potassium could become a yield-limiting element over the medium and long term. In a reviewing soil health strategies in organic cultivation systems, Neeson finds that there is a trend towards deficiencies in phosphorus, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur under current organic management regimes in broad-acre (extensive) cropping and livestock systems in Australia. At the same time other, limited studies of intensive organic farming systems have generally shown improvement in soil health, and it is suggested that this could actually be a reflection of the effectiveness of applying larger applications of commercial organic fertilizers, compost and incorporation of green manure to high value horticultural crops. (Neeson, 2001).

In many cases, conversion to organic agriculture concerns conversion from a system of overfertilisation. Ariha (2000) cautions that "increasing needs of agricultural production in developing countries cannot be met either by 'low input' schemes or 'organic farming' alone. This is because crop nutrient uptake tends to exceed nutrients applied in the form of fertilizer." Also Dudal and Deckers (1993) mention that even though optimum use should be made of local resources such as crop residues, green manure and biological nitrogen fixation, it does not replace nutrients removed by harvest and N supply needs to be supplemented by the provision of other essential plant nutrients which cannot be supplied sufficiently by organic matter in acid tropical soils.

The horticultural sector in general is characterised by knowledge- and skill-intensive production with intensive land use in which accurate fertilisation plays an important role. In conventional horticultural production systems the use of fertilizers plays an important role in obtaining good harvest results. Also, much of organic horticultural production in Europe and the USA rely on input of commercial fertilizers permitted under organic regulations. This illustrates the need to carefully look into the availability of sufficient organic inputs, in terms of both quantity and quality, for a sustainable organic horticultural production system.

With perennial horticultural crops like fruit and nut tree crops, nutrients are in high demand for a longer period of time. Hence it is important to have adequate methods to maintain the soil fertility and especially levels of P, K and micro nutrients in such a way that yields can be sustained over the medium and long term.

Pest and disease problems have large impact on agricultural production in tropical and sub tropical regions. Pest pressure is in often higher due to climatic conditions. Horticultural crops are often highly susceptible to pests and diseases due to the high intensity of cultivation, hence a conversion to a production system without pesticides might not easily be attainable for all horticultural crops.

It is important to maintain an acceptable production level without huge economic losses for the producer. In Denmark, a wide variety of organic vegetables can be grown economically. Yields of fruits and berries however drop considerably with average yields falling by 40 to 85%. Fungal diseases and insect-transmitted viral diseases are the main causes of problems with yield and quality in fruits and berries. (Bichel, 1999).

For many of the tropical horticultural crops in demand on export markets for organic produce (avocados, bananas, mangoes, pineapples, papaya, starfruit, etc.) practices for cultivation in an organic regime will not be vastly different from those that have been developed in commercial conventional horticulture. The specific adaptations needed, in particular, for plant nutrition/ soil fertility management and for pest/disease management will need to be the focus of attention of crop specialists - given the highly specialised character of fruit crop agronomy. Some technology is already available; others need to be generated through dedicated research initiatives.

There is general consensus that pests and diseases can be controlled more efficiently in horticulture through the implementation of Integrated Pest Management practices. Experience from IPM can be used in organic pest management. However, there are a number of pests and diseases which might prove difficult to control organically. Examples are: Black Sigatoka in banana, greening in citrus, Phytophthora infestans in tomatoes and potatoes.

Resistance to pest and diseases and good performance under an organic production system is important in the choice of cultivars, while attractiveness for the market remains an important criterion. This information has varied availability for the different commercial horticultural crops from tropical and sub-tropical regions. However, the general availability is limited.

Organic agriculture regulations that specify that seed and planting material must be also grown organically, have in turn generated a sub-commodity area for which specific technology adaptations need the attention of crop specialists.

3. Objective

The above illustrates some of the technical areas important to consider in introducing and developing organic horticultural production in the tropics and the subtropics. The objective of the current initiative is

To improve the availability of and access to producers' technical guidelines on organic horticultural production in tropical and subtropical regions.

4. Strategy

The initial strategy of this exercise aims at further delineation of the issue by identification of priority areas and improving availability of already produced material through steps:
1. Survey (questionnaires) in selected countries targeting organisations involved in organic agriculture and Ministries of Agriculture to obtain information on: a. Organisations and institutions involved in research and extension on tropical and subtropical organic horticulture as well as co-operatives and other farmers' organizations;
b. The specific technical production guidelines already available in different languages;
c. Information sources for farmers and technicians;
d. Profile of target group e.g. horticultural producers in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
An interim information paper will be produced as output of this step.

2. Meeting with crop experts from selected countries to further the development of technical guidelines for specific horticultural crops in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
More specifically, the following outputs are expected:
a. Detailed overview of status of research and extension in the different countries;
b. Identification of problem areas in the development of research and extension on organic horticulture, with initial focus on subtropical and tropical fruits;
c. formation of editorial groups with the aim of producing adaptation guidelines on organic cultivation of selected tropical fruits
d. Strategies for interregional co-operation on technical development of organic horticulture in tropical and sub-tropical regions.

Literature:

Ariha, Joji, 2000. Cropping systems and their mechanisms of nutrient uptake. Extension bulletin. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center. 14 Wenchow St. Taipei 10616 Taiwan R.O.C.

Bichel Committee, 1999. Report from the Bichel Committee - Organic Scenarios for Denmark. Report from the Interdisciplinary Group of the Bichel Committee. Miljøstyrelsen. Miljø-og Energiminsteriet.

Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1999. Guidelines for the production, processing, labelling and marketing of organically produced foods. CAC/GL 32-1999. Secretariat of the joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. FAO/WHO, Rome, Italy.

Dudal, R. and Deckers, J. 1993. Concluding remarks: soil organic matter in relation to soil productivity. Soil organic matter dynamics and sustainability of tropical agriculture. Proceedings of an international Symposium organized by the Laboratory of Soil fertility and Soil biology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (K.U. Leuven) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and held in Leuven, Belgium, 4-6 November 1991. Mulongoy, K. and Merckx, R. (eds). John Wiley and Sons.

FAO, 1999. Report of the Fifteenth Session of the committee on Agriculture. Rome, 25-29 January 1999.

Greenland, 2000. Effects on soils and plant nutrition. Shades of Green - A review of UK farming systems. Tinker, P.B. ed. Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Grubinger, V.P. 1992. Organic vegetable production and how it relates to LISA. Hortscience, Vol 27 (7), July 1992 (Part of the Proceedings of the Colloquium "Sustainable Vegetable Production" held at the 88th ASHS Annual Meeting University Park, Pa. 22-07-1991.

ITC, 1999. Organic food and beverages: world supply and major European markets. International Trade Center. Geneva.

McGrady, J. 1992. Sustainable Vegetable Production: Introduction to the Colloquium. HortScience, Vol. 27(7), July 1992.

Neeson, R. 2001. Soil health strategies for organic agriculture. Tweed Richmond Organic Growers Association. http://www.nor.com.au/community/organic/library/soilfert/soil_health.htm

NRI, 1998. Organic agriculture and sustainable livelihoods in developing countries. A study commissioned by the Natural Resources and Ethical Trade Programme Managed by Natural Resources Institute and conducted by the Soil Association in the context of the Department for International Development Natural Resources Advisors Conference in July 1998. June 1998.

Rigby, D. and Caceres, D. 2001. Organic farming and the sustainability of agricultural systems. Agricultural Systems 68 (2001) 21-40.

Wachira, W.S., 1996. Meeting food needs for highland communities in Kenya. IFOAM '96. Book of Abstracts. 11th IFOAM Scientific Conference, 11-15 August 1996, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Willer, H. and Zerger, U. 1999. Demand and development in organic farming in Europe. First SREN Workshop on research methodologies in organic farming. Proceedings. Zanoli, R. and Krell, R. (eds). Frick, Switzerland. 30 September - 3 October 1998. FAO, Rome.