Annotated Bibliography ****Abdallah, Daad 1997 Rangeland Rehabilitation and Establishment of a Wildlife Reserve in the Steppe of Palmyra: A Study on the Evaluation of the Status of Bedouin Women in the Project Area and Identification of their Needs to Improve their Conditions as Producers. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Ministry of Agriculture of the Syrian Arab Republic.   **Abu Lughod, Lila 1985 A Community of Secrets: The Separate World of Bedouin Women. In Signs (Chicago, III), 10((4):637-657.   *Abu-Lughod, Lila 1986 Veiled sentiments: Honour and Poetry in a Bedouin Society. Berkley, CA: University of California Press. This ethnography is an analysis of honor and shame ideology among a Bedouin tribe in Egypt. It argues that the social subordination of Bedouin women is relative and subject to a number of variables such as age, fertility, kinship, and their acceptance of the code of honor and shame, which puts a high premium on sexual chastity maintained by rules of gender segregation.   *Abu-Lughod, Lila 1990 (February) The Romance of Resistance: Tracing Transformations of Power Through Bedouin Women. American Ethnologist 17(1):41-55   The author asserts that the ideology of honor and shame is the primer organizer of gender behaviour among the Bedouin in Egypt. Such forces of modernization as consumerism and urban migration challenge young women's ideals of feminine modesty and family honour.   ****Adan, Amina H. 1978 The Nomad Woman. In Basic Education for Nomads: 18-21. Nairobi, UNESCO.   ****Adan, Amina H. 1988 (October) Women's Role in Pastoral Economics and Related Development Issues (Somalia). Paper presented at the ACORD Workshop on Pastoral Systems and Social Change, Mogadishu, Somalia, October 25-27, 1988. Adan discusses women's work in herding small stock (goats, sheep), and in milking and processing milk from small stock and large (camels, cattle) among Somalian pastoralists. Information Adan collected in 1985 indicates that women work more than 11 hours a day in the dry season and 12 to 13 in the wet season: most of this time is spent watering stock in the dry season and milking and making butter in the wet. The paper briefly describes areas of pastoral life in which individualism, cooperation, collective ownership, or tribal alliance dominate. Women, for example, work cooperatively to make the constituent parts of their movable houses and cook together on ceremonial occasions. Both traditional law (Her) and islamic law (Shari'a) regulate somalian nomad life. Adan considers the impact of some 40 years of social change that has induced migration to the cities, has brought new products (from spaghetti to transistor radios) to pastoralists and education to many of their children, and especially, has accelerated commercialization in livestock raising and dairying. She concludes with suggestions for research on the status of pastoral women and barriers to their progress, and ideas for helping pastoralists-especially women-with dairying and animal product processing and marketing techniques.   **Adu Bobie, Gemma J. 1981 The Role of Rendille Women. In Human Ecology: Consultancy Reports on the Rendille Samburu and the Role of Women/Project 3: Impact of Human Activities and Land Use Practices on Grazing Lands. Nairobi, Kenya: UNESCO. Pp. 113-161. (Man and the Biosphere Program/Integrated Project in Arid Lands (IPAL) Technical Report No. F-2). This document, a part of Integrated Project in Arid Lands (IPAL), is a socioeconomic analysis of factors relating to stock ownership and population mobility among the Samburu and the Rendille in Kenya. Women's role and spheres of activities are discussed, but with little theoretical sophistication. Such issues as family planning, division of labor, attitude toward marriage and divorce, education, and employment are discussed briefly.   ****Ahmed, Abdel Ghaffar M.., ed. 1976 Some Aspects of Pastoral Nomadism in the Sudan. Khartoum, Sudan: Sudan National Population Committee/The Economic and Social Research Council. A critique of the idea of sedenterazing pastoralists runs through this volume, which consists largely of papers that had their initial publication between 1962 and 1973. Sections of the books describe pastoral movements of several ethnic groups and social and economic aspects of nomadism life among the Bagarra Humr, the Rufa'a al Hoi, the Hababin of the Dar Hamid Confederation, and Nubians of the Khashm el Girba Scheme. A final section deals with the general question of sedentarization in Sudan and includes a summary of a request to the UN Special Fund for Surveying "all the nomadic and the semi-nomadic tribes" in Sudan, the results to be used for designing sedentarization schemes, and a point-by-point criticism of the outline of such settlements as described in the request. Only scattered references to the roles of women appear throughout the collection. For example, the tent and household goods of a Humr woman belong to her, are inherited by her if her husband dies, and are usually retained if she is divorced; Humr women earn small amounts of cash for their households by making and selling dairy products and other domestically produced or gathered items; and woman help water animal in the hot, dry season because water then must be drawn from wells. Among the Rufa'a al Hoy, polygyny and the gender-related division of labor are noted, while a contrast is indicated between Igessana, whose women do not travel with the cattle herders, and Fulani, whose households move together with their animals, and whose women can thus help with the herding. A small number of animals that are attached to Hababin households (for transport, cows for milking, goats for meat and milk) are cared for by women and children, while the larger herd of sheep, cattle, and camels are kept away from the village and herded by men and other boy, with occasional hired male herders. Hababin men and women both perform agricultural tasks, however, with clearing mostly a male chore and winnowing a woman's.   **Ancey, G. 1977 Connaisance démographique des milieux d'éleveurs de l'Afrique de l'Ouest sahélienne. In Les Systèmes pastoraux sahéliens: données socio-démographiques de base en vue de la conservation et de la mise en valeurs des parcours arides et semi-arides. Avec le concours du Fonds des Nations Unies pour les Activités des Populations- Annexe I. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (Etude FAO: Production Végétale et Protection des Plantes No. 5.) Reviews demographic studies of pastoralists completed in the Sahel between 1957 and 1964. Ancey discusses various particularities of these studies including the often-reported high male-to-female sex ratio among the Tuareg, which he dismisses as a methodological problem.   *Anderson, Jon W. 1982 Social Structure and the Veil: Comportment and the Composition of Interaction in Afghanistan. Anthropos 77(3/4):397-420.   ***Asad, Talal 1970 The Kababish Arabs: Power, Authority and Consent in Nomadic Tribe. New York, NY: Praeger Publishers. This ethnographic account of the political and socio-economic structure of the Kababish tribe of Sudan discusses women's spheres of activity and rights in relation to kinship, establishment of new households, and distribution of authority within the domestic unit. The division of labor tends to ascribe to men the responsibility of herding, slaughtering, and selling animals. Women are in charge of processing milk, cooking, weaving, and childcare, though they are expected to, and in fact are praised for, participating in herding tasks. Women own the tent and achieve rights over the ownership of some animals through gifts or bridewealth paid by a man to his mother-in-law. The right of women to dispose of their own animals is ultimately subject to men's de jure authority.   ***Ba, Abdoulaye; Balde, Demba; Ka, Aliou; Kone, Oumy Khaïry; Toure Oussouby. 1993 Etude socio-économique de la zone de Mbegge. Dakar: Conseil des Organisations Non-Gouvernementales d' Appui au Développement/Comité de Soutien aux Eleveurs de Khelcom. Report on a study partly based on RRA/PRA methods to gain an overview of Fulani Pastoralistst's perceptions of their situation and future perspectives after a large part of the woodland reserve was "declassified" and granted by the Senegal Government to a Muslim brotherhood for groundnut production. One section is devoted to the situation of the Fulani women.   *Baer, G. 1976 Population and Society in the Arab East. Westport Conn., Greenwood Pr.   ***Balikçi, Asen 1990 Tenure and Transhumance: Stratification and Pastoralism among the Lakenkhel. In The World of Pastoralism. John G. Galaty and Douglas L. Johnson, eds. New York, NY: Guilford Publications. Pp. 301-322. Fieldwork in northeastern Afghanistan was conducted in the mid-1970s before the soviet occupation of the country. The Lankenkhel, a Pashtoun people, practice a "vertical" or mountain transhumant sheep herding in association with sedentary rainfed and irrigated agriculture. Households whose production is surplus to their own subsistence requirements carry out an active trade with urban centers, with women transforming milk into butter and wool into felt carpets.   ****Baroin, Catherine 1981 Les droits sur le bétail et les rapports sociaux: le statut de la femmes chez les Toubous du Niger (Daza Kecherda). Aix en Provence: LAPMO (Travail du LAPMO 16.)   ****Baroin, Catherine 1984 Le statut des femmes dans trois sociétés pastorales saharo-sahéliennes. Conclusion. In Production pastorale et société, Paris, 14:121-124.   ***Baroin, Catherine 1986 La règle du mariage et ses conséquences chez les Toubou. Aix-en-Provence: LAPMO. (Travail du LAPMO 13.)   ***Baroin, Catherine 1987 The Position of Tubu Women in Pastoral Production: Daza Kesherda, Republic of Niger. Ethnos 52(I-II): 137-155. This article describes Tubu women's role and rights in different stages of their life cycle. While there is little analysis of the effects of recent islamization on women's status and options, the article points out that the subordination of women's rights and privileges has lessened through their slowly attained legal rights to milk animals. Cultural mechanisms such as bridewealth exchange, uxorilateral kin support, divorce, and motherhood have augmented women's status. Although men enjoy greater rights in disposing of the herd, such decisions are often made cautiously after consultation with their wives.   **Barth, Fredrick 1953 Principles of Social Organization in Southern Kurdistan. Oslo, Norway: Prödrene Jörgensen A/S, Boktrykkeri. (Universitetes Ethnografiske Museum Bulletin No. 7.)   **Barth, Fredrick 1964 Nomads of South Persia : "The Basseri Tribe of the Qhamseh Confederacy. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget.   ***Bayoumi, M.S., et al. 1977 Guide Lines Towards Development of Nomadism in the Sudan. In Growth, Employment and Equity: a Selection of Papers Presented to the ILO Comprehensive Employment Strategy Mission to the Sudan, 1974-1975. Ali M. El-Hassan, ed. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office. Pp. 96-115. Three types of nomadism in the Sudan-pastoral nomadism, seminomadism, and transhumance- are described as rational adaptations of human life to the environment. Labor is divided on the basis of sex and age within the household. Women spin wool, weave the tent (which always belongs to the wife) tops and sides, construct the bed, and prepare decorative leather hangings. The finished products belong to the wife, although she obtains the raw materials from the husband. Women also prepare clarified butter, and procure water and firewood with the help of their children. In terms of inheritance, a son receives twice the share of a daughter. Women may inherit considerable numbers of animals, and divorced women receive stock from their husbands in order to raise the children.   ***Beaman, Anne W. 1983 (February) Women's Participation in Pastoral Economy: Income Maximization among the Rendille. Nomadic Peoples 12:20-25. In this discussion of the activities of Rendille women in Kenya, the author challenges the common misconceptions about the economic roles of women in pastoral economies. The misconceptions are often formed because most discussions of pastoral economies focus on production, a predominantly male-oriented sphere, showing little interest in distribution and exchange of products, primarily female-dominated tasks.   ****Beck, Lois 1978 Women among the Qashqa'i Nomadic Pastoralists in Iran. In Women in the Muslim World. Lois Beck and Nikki Keddie, eds. Cambrige, MA: Harvard University Press. Pp. 351-373. The notable degree of integration between the sexes is emphasized in this study of the Qashqa'i, a nomadic, Turkic-speaking group who practices transhumance in the Zagros mountains of Iran. Males and females perform many tasks cooperatively, including much of the work of setting up and dismantling camps. Specialization exists, however, with men doing work away from the tent (herding, trading in towns) while women remain at home, engaged in household work, gathering wood, water and wild plants, child care, and spinning and weaving, deriving prestige from these skills. Women weave the tent as well as household items; in some groups, women weave objects for sale. Women as well, prepare animal and milk products for markets but-except for those who have become sedentary in or near towns-do not receive proceeds from sales. Marriage tends to be endogamous, and females retain closeness to and protection from their father and brothers. Polygyny is rare is rare except for barrenness. Although the Qashqa'i are nominally Shiite Muslims, shari'a is not strictly followed and they prefer their integrated male-female lifestyle to that of the more orthodox persian-speaking population. Beck attributes the substantial degree of gender equality in part to the absence of male and female solidarity groups, but notes that recent changes, such as growth of power of the national state, a decline in the availability of land and pasture, an increase in the need for cash, and the mechanization of migration are all contributing to a diminution of women's power and prestige.   ****Beck, Lois 1980 (July) Herd Owners and Hired Shepherds: The Qashqa'i of Iran. Ethnology 9(3):327-353. This document discusses the effects of market penetration and state domination on the Qashqa'i tribe of Iran. It argues that in the past, within a stratified tribal structure, the rich and poor members maintained an economic partnership, with the poor households constrained by capital shortage and the rich by labor shortage. With the nationalization of pasturelands and the demilitarization of the tribe by the state, most Qasqa'i lost access to grazing land.   ****Behnke, Roy H., Jr., and Carol Kerven 1984 (July) Herd Management strategies among Agropastoralists in the Bay Region, Somalia (Draft). Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Department of Sociology. (Bay region Socio-Economic Baseline Study, Somalia.) The authors conducted a two-month baseline study for the University of Wiyoming on the Agropastoralist herders of the Bay Region, Somalia. The paper is divided into three parts, covering herd movements, family labor and herd management, and commercialization. Several interesting points are made regarding the gender division of labor; for example, both cooking and ghee production are the exclusive domains of women.   ***Bellot, Jean-Marc 1980 (April-June) Les Femmes dans les Sociétés Pastorales du Gorouol. Cahiers d'Outre-Mer 33(30): 145-165. Bellot provides evidence that Peul and Bella woman's economic contribution to household income is not reflected in their status vis-à-vis men. On the basis of data from 23 women, the study breaks down labor contributions and income from: (1) barter (milk for millet); (2) dairy marketing; (3) artisanal production and marketing and (4) agricultural work. Estimates of the value of millet received in barter for milk and of income from marketing activities are made, but they are not compared with the income contribution of men or with the amount necessary for women to survive.   **Ben-David, Yossef 1988 (December) Social Change among the Beduin of the Negev: Transition from Tribal Organization to Urban Community. Sede Boqer, Israel: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Social Studies Center. (Research Project on Urbanization of the Beduin of Negev.) This report documents the effects of urbanization on the Beduin tribes in the Negev, Israel. In his study the author finds different degrees of economic cooperative work within the extended family, ranging from full cooperation to partial cooperation. In this context, issues related to gender and generational differences are mentioned. Ben-Davis postulates that households whose source of income is hired labor, however, are becoming basically indipendent and nuclear in their structure.   ***Bencherifa, Abdellatif, and Douglas L. Johnson 1990 Adaptation and Intensification in the Pastoral Systems of Morocco. In The World of Pastoralism. John G. Galaty and Douglas L. Johnson, eds. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Pp. 394-416.   ***Benería, Lourdes 1981 (April) Conceptualizing the Labor Force: The Underestimation of Women's Economic Activities. Journal of Development Studies (African Women in the Development Processs [Issue Title]) 17(3): 10-28.   ****Berge, Gunnvor, Hveem, Britt 1992 L'utilisation des plantes sauvages: commentaires relatifs à la répartition de la population interrogeé. Oslo: Centre pour le Développement (Rapport d'étape plantes sauvages; annexe no. 12). Programme de recherche Sahel, Soudan, Ethiopie- Projet de recherche "Environnement et Développement au Mali.   Key Words: Mali/Wild Plants/Plant Resources/Resources Utilization/Ethnic Groups/Social Stratification/Men/Women/Nomads/Surveys   ****Bernus, Edmond 1981 Touaregs nigériens: Unité culturelle et diversité régionale d'un peuple pasteur. Paris, France: ORSTOM. (Mémoires ORSTOM No. 94.) This exhaustive ethnographic study of the Tuareg peoples, primarily of Niger, Mali, and Algeria, is based on original research and historical and secondary sources. It covers, geography, history, social organization, animal husbandry, language, production systems, and transhumance in this highly stratified society. The role of women is unique and powerful among the aristocratic class, since the woman owns the tent, mixes freely with men in evening gatherings, and influences household decisions. Special castes of women are leather workers. Aristocratic women have not had to work extensively in the past because of the existence of slave-class women. Women among the servile classes have historically been involved in the gathering and processing of wild food. Bernus examines women's role throughout the life cycle from birthing, force feeding of aristocratic women for marriage, and their active participation in all social aspects of the society. Marriage depends on one's status, although Bernus notes that with a larger briedwealth poorer or less-respected men have married with more respected families. Although polygamy is very rare, marriages are fairly unstable, much like those of the Peulh. Quite rich in details on gender division of labor and social roles, this work is important for any discussion of the Tuareg peoples.   ***Berthel, Kathleen E. 1988 (January) Women in the Sudan: A Bibliography of Recent Literature, 1978-1988. Paper presented at the conference of the Sudan Studies Association, Khartoum, Sudan, January 1988.   **Biesele, Megan 1993 Women Like Meat: The Folklore and Foraging Ideology of the Kalahari Ju'hoan. . Joannesburg: Witwatersrand U.P.   Key Words: Botswana/Namibia/Ethnic Groups/Folklore/Cultural Values/Sex Roles/Hunting/Nomads/Women/Social and Cultural anthropology   **Birks, John Stace 1976 The Shawawi Population of Northern Oman: A Pastoral Society in Transition. Journal of Oman Studies 2:9-16.   **Birks, John Stace 1976 Some Aspects of Demography Related to Development in the Middle East with Special Reference to the Sultanate of Oman. Bulletin of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies 3(2):79-88.   ***Birks, John Stace 1985 Traditional and Modern Patterns of Circulation of Pastoral Nomads: The Duru' of South-East Arabia. In Circulation in Third World Countries. R. Mansel Prothero and Murray Chapman, eds. Boston, MA: Routledge and Kegan Paul. This is a case study of Duru pastoral nomads in Oman, in part of the Empty Quarter of the Arabian Peninsula. The traditional camel-herding of the Duru, based on transhumance between winter pasture and summer oasis is increasingly being replaced by wage-labor in the oil fields. Male out-migration has reduced the quantity of labor available for camel herding, producing a decline in the number of camels and a relative increase in the number of goats and sheep. Moreover, sedentarization has resulted in an increase in agricultural activities based on water extracted by pumps. Women's roles and activities have also changed: today, more women are involved in herding goats and sheep, and in small gardening. This study documents a good example of the feminization of pastoralism.   **Boesen, Jannik 1986 Tanzania: Crisis and Struggle for Survival. Edited by Jannik Boesen [et al.], Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.   Key Words: Tanzania/Economic Recession/Economic Recovery/Population Growth/Industrial Sector/Soil Conservation/Agricultural Engineering/Green Revolution/Nomadism/Women/Cooperatives/Small-Scale Industry/Water Management   ***Bonfiglioli, Angelo Maliki, Roselyne François, and Manuel Gomes 1988 Nomades Peuls. Paris, France: Editions l'Harmattan. This book depicts the lifeways of the 100,000 pastoralists WoDaaBe in Niger, whose cattle define for them not only their economic, but also their social viability. A series of diseases epidemics, drought, and famine have combined with the effects of the monetarisation of the economy, expansion of cultivated land, and environmental degradation, to culminate in a situation of crisis for many WoDaaBe. Forced farther and farther north into increasingly less environmentally and socially hospitable territories, they have been obliged to adopt new species of animals and modify their intrahousehold and extrahousehold relations of production. What appears more certain, claims the author, is that development efforts that do not dovetail with local social structures and thought processes will do nothing to improve the current status of pastoralists, and may well be contribuiting to their very demise.   ****Bonte, Pierre 1977 Troupeaux et familles chez les éleveurs sahéliens-Annexe 2. In Les systèmes pastoraux sahéliens. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (Etude FAO-Production végétale et production des plantes.) This discussion of the economic relations of production in a pastoral society includes theories on social reproduction, herd reproduction, and economic viability of a group. Through a study of the WoDaaBe of Niger and the Farfaru of Nigeria to represent the Peulh compared with the Kel Gress Twareg, Bonte illustrates the different characteristics of the social and herd reproduction in non-stratified and highly stratified societes. Kinship relations are contrasted, as well as animal exchange and circulation, especially with regard to marriage. He makes five major points: (1) There is a parallel reproduction of the herd and family. (2) Kinship systems are linked to livestock exchange. (3) There is a difference in the female devolution of livestock: the matrilineal Twareg has both, men and women participating in the formation of the herd whereas in patrilineal systems this type of devolution is not favored. However, the influence of Islam has favored this type of devolution because a woman has rights to half of the inheritance even if the animals are left in her parents'herd. (4) The economic difference between polygamy and monogamy for women is that in polygamy a woman has usufruct rights to animals and in monogamy (Moors and Twareg) women are livestock owners. (5) Access to labor, marriage, kinship, domestic group, generational authority, and livestock exchange are analyzed and compared to form a typology of three different models. He tries to establish a link between the fluidity of social relations and changing ecosystems in the economic reproduction of pastoralist societies. He concludes with a discussion of why the impact of the drought was so great on pastoralists. Interesting article for for comparison of economic aspects of gender roles in diverse pastoralist societies.   ***Bonte, Pierre 1987 Donneurs de femmes ou preneurs d' hommes? Les Awlad Qaylan, tribu de l'Adrar mauritanien. L'Homme 102 27(2):54-79.   ** Bonte, Pierre 1987 Sens et permanence du mariage "arabe" dans la société maure. In Transformations of African Marriage.. D. Parkin and David Nyamwaya, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Pp. 55-74.   ****Bonte, Pierre 1991 "To increase cows, God created the King" The Function of Cattle in Intra-Lacustrine Societies. In Herders, Warriors, and Traders: Pastoralism in Africa. John G. Galaty and Pierre Bonte, eds. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Many interlacustrine societies in the great lakes region of Central Africa shared the institution of sacred kingship and its related hierarchial system of values that differentiated pastoralism from agriculture, and men from women. That author concludes that the association of sacred kinship and livestock in thes complex societies generated -symbolically and ritually- political and social forms of stratification based on the direct relationship between royalty's supernatural power over their cattle and over their subject.   * Boulding, E. 1977 Women in the Twentieth Century World. New York; London: Sage Publ.; J. Wiley.   ****Bourbouze, Alain 1982 Déplacements des troupeaux et utilisation des parcours dans le Haut Atlas Central. Production Pastorale et Société 10:34-45.   ****Bourgeot, André 1987 The Twareg Women of Ahaggar and the creation of Value. Ethnos 52(I-II):103-118. This article describes the socialy inferior status among the Twareg of Southern Algeria, and attempts to explain it in relation to the hierarchial structure of control over valued means of products and exchange. The article is rich in its presentation of sources of power among womwn (e.g., sexual rejection of their husbands and refusal to do household chores). There is a little discussion of the extent to which the Ahaggar Twareg adhere to islamic rules, nor of the Islamic law on organization of social life.   ***Boutrais, Jean 1988 Des Peuls en savanes humides: Développement pastoral dans l'ouest centrafricain. Paris, France: Editions de l'Orstom/Institut Français de Recherche Scientifique pour le Développement en Coopération. (Collection Etudes et Thèses.) This study examines the migration of Fulfulde-speaking pastoralists to the humid savannas of the Central African Republic and the effectiveness, or lack thereof, of government interventions designed to increase livestock production'. Women's role in milk sales and the impact on women'contribution to household subsistence of the declining terms of trade for milk products are discussed in some details. However, the primary focus of the study is on development interventions in veterinary care, range management programs, and the organization of pastoralists into livestock producer collectives.   *Boyd, Jean 1986 The Fulani Women Poets. In Pastoralists of the West Africa Savanna. Mahdi Adamu and A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Pp. 127-142.   ***Bradburd, Daniel A. 1981 Size and Success: Komachi Adaptation to a Chamging Iran. In Modern Iran: The Dialects of Continuity and Change. Micheal Bonine and Nikkie Keddie, eds. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Pp. 123-127.   ****Bradburd, Daniel A. 1990 Ambiguous Relations: Kin, Class, and Conflict among Komachi Pastoralists. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. This book argues that the Komachi pastoralists of Iran have been involved in the world market economy for a long time and that they have in fact benefited from the increasing demand for meat in the country. Although within the larger national context, the Komachi do not enjoy any priviledge status, internally they are characterized by economic stratification based on unequal access to animals, marketing channels, and labor.   *Breeden, Robert L., ed. 1971 Nomads of the World. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. This edited collection contains brief, mostly superficial, highly romanticized pieces on a number of pastoral societies, but with the magnificent illustrations for which the National Geographic Society is justly reputated. All of the papers mention marriage and courtship customs, and women's economic and, especially, craft activities. Several of the papers touch on social change, and the incorporation of the pastoral society into larger political-administrative systems.   ***Broch-Due, Vigdis, Garfield, E, Langton P. 1981 Women and Pastoral Development. Some Research Priorities for the Social Sciences. In Galatay, J.G. et al. (Eds.): The Future of Pastoral Peoples: 251-257. Ottawa: IDRC.   ****Broch-Due, Vigdis 1983 Women at the Backstage of Development-The Negative Impact on Project Realization by Neglecting the Crucial Roles of Turkana Women as Producers and Providers: A Socio-Anthropological Case Study from Kalilu Irrigation Scheme, Turkana. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (Irrigation in Arid Zones-Kenya.) Broch-Due describes and evaluates the objectives of the Turkana Cluster of Irrigation Schemes thet were launched in response to recurrent droughts in early 1960s. Goals were set to promote food production and self-sufficiency of nomads by integrating them into the Kalilu irrigation scheme, set up to enhance agricultural productivity in a semiarid zone. The author argues that the lack of achievement of the goals was in great part due to developers' and governments' neglect of the significance of women's productive role. To increase the the likelihood of project success, this report encourages grass-roots participation of all the beneficiaries, decentralization of decision making, integration of Women into every step of the project, and sociocultural sensitivity on the part of developers. This report's gender sensitivity and concern for the plight of pastoralist women in development should be heeded by other organizations.   *** Broch-Due, Vigdis 1990 "Livestock Speak Louder than Sweet Words": Changing Property and Gender Relations among the Turkana. In Property, Poverty and People: Changing Rights in Property and Problems of Pastoral Development. P. T. W. Baxter, ed. Manchester, UK: University of Manchester, Department of Social Anthropology and International Development Centre. Pp. 147-163. *** Broch-Due, Vigdis 1991 The bodies within the body: Journeys in Turkana Thought and Practice. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bergen, Norway.   ****Broch-Due, Vigdis 1981 Women and Pastoral Development: Some Research Priorities for the Social Sciences. In The Future of Pastoral Peoples, Nairobi, Kenya, 4-8 August 1980. J. G. Galatay et al., eds. Ottawa, Ontario: International Development Research Centre. This paper calls for 1980s research on women in pastoral societies, arguing that women's subsurviant position stems from the political and social structure, and that social and economic change (commercialization, sedentarization) are altering these systems and will particularly affect women. The authors urge attention to the interaction of people and resources, including differentiation by gender and age. This requires intra- as well as interhouseholds analysis, and a recognition that external forces (technical change, governments programs) have different effects on men and women altough development projects have usually ignored or excluded impacts on women. Noting contratictory findings with respect to whether development projects help or hinder women, the authors seek an analytical social science framework for identifying variables that define women's evolving positions and potentials.   **Brown, Barbara B. 1983 The Impact of Male Labour Migration on Women in Botswana. African Affairs. 82(328):367-388. Key Words: Unmarried Women/Widows/Wage Labor/Economic Diversification/ Cattle/Migration/Demography/Botswana   ****Bruggeman, Hedwig 1994 Pastoral Women and Livestock Management: Examples from Northern Uganda and Central Chad. London, International Institute for Environment and Developemnt. Dryland Networks Programme. (Issues paper no. 50.)   Key Words: Uganda/Chad/Rural Women/Nomads/Livestock/Cattle Production/Animal Husbandry   ****Bullwinkle, Davis A., comp. 1989 African Women: A General Bibliography, 1976-1985. New York, NY: Greenwood Press.   ****Bullwinkle, Davis A., comp. 1989 Appendix A: Directory of National, Regional and International Organizations Affiliated with Africans Women's Projects and Programs. In African Women: A General Bibliography, 1976-1985. Davis A. Bullwinkle, comp. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ****Bullwinkle, Davis A., comp. 1989 Women of Eastern and Southern Africa: A Bibliography, 1976-1985. New York, NY: Greenwood Press.   ****Bullwinkle, Davis A., comp. 1989 Women of Northern, Western and Central Africa: A Bibliography, 1976-1985. New York, NY: Greenwood Press.   ****Bureau Régional de Science et de Technologie pour l'Afrique, Unité de Dakar 1989 Atelier Régional de formation en eco-développement sur; "Le rôle de la femme dans les sociétés pastorales et agro-pastorales dans le domaine de l'amélioration et de la gestion des terres arides et semi-arides d'Afrique sub-saharienne." Rapport Final (Provisoire), Dakar, Senegal, 10-15 April 1989. Dakar, Senegal: UNESCO/UNEP. The six-days workshop explored ways to increase pastoral and agropastoral women's domestic and commenrcial productivity and to augment their income, while reversing the process of environmental degradation.   ***Burton, John W. 1980 The Village and the Cattle Camp: Aspects of Atuot Religion. In Exploration of African Systems of Thought. Ivan Karp and Charles S. Bird, eds. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Pp. 268-300.   Key Words: Religion/Ecology/Pastoralism/Division of Labor-Gender/Gender Segregation/Nuer/Atuot/Sudan.   ***Buvinic, Marya 1986 Projects for Women in the Third World: Explaining Their Misbehavior. World Development 14(5):653-664.   Key Words: Development Assistance/Development Interventions/Development Policy/Poverty/Gender Differentiation/Income-Women   *Caratini, Sophie 1989 (April-June) A propos du mariage "arabe": Discours endogame et pratiques exogames-L'Exemple des Rgaybat du nord-ouest saharien. L'Homme 29(2):30-49.   Key Words: In French/Kinship Systems/Women/Marriage/Camels/Property Exchange/Reguibat/Sahara   *Casajus, Dominique 1982 Le mariage préférentiel chez les Touaregs du nord du Niger. Journal des Africanistes 52(1-2):95-117.   Key Words: In French/Marriage/Women/Kinship Systems/Bridewealth/Dowry/Tuareg/Niger   ***Casajus, Dominique 1987 La tente dans la solitude: La société et les morts chez les Touaregs Kel Ferwan. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. (Atelier d'Anthropologie Sociale.) In this ethnography of the Kel Ferwan, a Tuareg group, the author explores the relationship between gender and the tent as the symbolic expression of Tuareg social life with empphasis on marriage, kinship and ritual. Tuareg Women are the ownwr of the tents, which represent the social institutions of both marriage and family. The arrangement of the tents form the camp, which is dominated by the presence of women and girls. They work in and near the camp taking care of the sheep and goats and are responsible for milking and watering the animals. Men are responsible for camel husbandry and control the transhumance routes and animal trade.   ***Chaker, Salem 1988 Bibliographie Touaregue [Langue, culture et société]; 1977-1987. In Etudes Touaregues: Bilan des recherches en sciences sociales: Institutions-chercheurs-bibliographie. Aix-en-Provence, France: EDISUD/Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/IRENAM-LAPMO. Pp. 92-192.   ***Charles H. 1937-1938 Quelques traveaux des femmes chez les nomades moutonniers de la régon de Homs-Hama. In Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales, Beyrouth, 7/8:195-213.   ****Chatty, Dawn 1978 Changing Sex Roles in Beduin Society in Syria and Lebanon. In Women in the Muslim World. Lois Beck and Nikki Keddie, eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Pp. 399-415. In this article the autor argues that the increase importance of trucks as the primary mode of transportation among the Beduins in Syria has had important effects on male-female relations, gender roles, and the community involvement in non-pastoral activities.   ****Chatty, Dawn 1980 The Pastoral Family and the Truck. In When Nomads settle: Processes of Sedentarization as Adaptation and Response. Philip Carl Salzman, ed. New York, NY: Praeger. Pp. 80-94.   Key Words: Pastoralism/Household/Sedentarization/Division of Labor-Gender/Transportation/Division of Labor-Age/Bedouin/Syria/Lebanon   ****Chatty, Dawn 1984 Women's Component in Pastoral Community Assistance and Development: A Study of the Needs and Problems of the Harasis Population, Oman-Project Findings and Recommendations. New York, NY: United Nations. A report on the Harasiis, a nomadic pastoralist group in Oman. The project had the goal of identifying the community's needs and problems, and formulating recommendations that would ensure the development of pastoral nomadic life. Women's specific needs were taken into consideration, especially in the context of cultural constraints imposed by islamic rules.The report recommends sewing and weaving as areas of activity that might improve women's lives. The report provides little information on women'seconomic roles in pastoral activities, and how male out-migration has affected them.   **** Chatty, Dawn 1996 January Employment Generation and Marginalization in Pastoral Areas in Syria and Jordan. Revised Final Report. The Regional Centre of Agrarian Reform and Development for the Near East (CARDNE).   ***Chavangi, NA, Hanssen, A. 1983 Women in Livestock Production with Particular Reference to Dairying. Prepared for FAO Expert Consultation on Women in Food Production, held in Rome, Italy, 7-14 December 1983.   ****Cincotta, Richard, Pangare, Ganesh 1993 Pastoralism and Pastoral Migration in Gujarat: Proceedings of the Workshop on transhumant Pastoralism in Gujarat, July 24-25, 1992. Edited by Richard Cincotta and Ganesh Pangare. Institute of Rural Management, Anand, India.   Key Words: India/Livestock/Nomads/Grazing/Land Capability/Women/Traditional Technology   ***Claudot-Hawad, Hélène 1989 (July-December) Femmes touaregues et pouvoir politique. Peuples Méditerranéens 48/49:69-79. This article describes the social/political/psychological structure of Twareg society built around the woman and her ownership and identification with the tent. The role of woman as protector through her association with the shelter extends to her independence as a political force and inclusion in decision making. Concurrently with the declining influence of Tuareg people since their defeat by the french in the early 1900s and under state policies, women's power has diminished, reflecting the position of the group as a whole.   ***Cole, Donald Powell 1975 Nomads of the Nomads: The al-Murrah Bedouin of the Empty Quarter. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company.   Key Words: Sedentarization/Economic diversification/Islam/History/Kinship Systems/Migration/Ecology/Development Interventions/Women Change/Murrah/Bedouin/Saudi Arabia   **Comaroff, Jean, and John L. Comaroff 1990 (May) Goodly Beasts, Beastly Goods: Cattle and Commodities in a South African Context. American Ethnologist 17(2):195-216.   Key Words: Agropastoralism/Women/History/Gender/Economy/Property Exchange/Tswana/South Africa ****Comaroff, Jean, and John L. Comaroff 1991 "How Beasts Lost Their Legs": Cattle in Tswana Economy and Society. In Herders, Warriors, and Traders: Pastoralism in Africa. John G. Galatay and Pierre Bonte, eds. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.   This chapter examines, within a Marxist framework, some of the changes that have developed over time in the conception of cattle as a commodity among the pastoralist Tswana of southern Africa. The centrality of cattle for these peoples is associated with a division of labor built on class, gender, and rank that places women in cultivation and domestic tasks, marginalized from access to and influence over institutional power. The ownership and husbandry of cattle enables men both to dominate other men and to exercise control over female productive and reproductive labor. The authors conclude that today the Tswana are in a "female"state of subordination with respect to the global market economy, dreaming of a time again when cattle and not money command the position of power anb influence in their society.   ****Cooper Louise; Gelezhamstin, Narangerel 1994 Pastoral Production in Mongolia from a Gender Perspective. RRA Notes 20:115-123. Explains the use of matrices and mobility mapping for gathering information on seosonal labor allocation, daily time use and mobility. These methods were applied after wealth ranking and semistructered interviews, mainly with women. The matrices revealed how the women viewed their various tasks (easy, time-consuming, enjoyable etc.) and how capable they felt to perform them. Mobility maps of where, why and how often people travel from their home bases revealed the great differences between destination, distance, frequency and sesonality of men's and women's movements.   Coppock, D. Layne ***1990 (January) Water and Forage Development and Interventions: More Benefits to Pastoral Women on Their Calves? International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) Newsletter 9(1):3-4, 9. This short report is on hay-making techniques and water tanks among the Boran in Ethiopia. It argues that increased efficiency of water and forage could ease the work load of women who spend long hours hauling water and forage for calves who may not survive long treks. Women's work is, therefore, an important factor in calf survival.   ***Cordes, Rainer, and Fred Scholtz 1980 Bedouins, Wealth, and Change: A study in the Rural development in the United Arab Emirates and the Sultabnate of Oman. Tokyo, Japan: United Nations University. (Programme on the Use and Management of Natural Resources.) This document is a report on the development policies of the United Arab Emirates and the Sultanate of Oman. In the United Arab Emirates, integration of the Bedouin population has involved sedentarization, with the opening of nonpastoral productive activities such as wage labor and agriculture. Policies with regard to Bedouin women have primarily included improvement of handicraft production and marketing.   ***Corlin, C. 1978 A Tibetan Enclave in Yunnan: Land, Kinship, and Inheritance in Gyethang. In Tibatan Studies (Zurich), Zurich, Switzerland, June 26-July 1, 1977. Martin Brauen and Per Kvaerne, eds. Zurich, Switzerland: Völkerkundemuseum der Universität Zürich. Pp. 75-89. The author describes a matrilineal inheritance system among the Bod Pa (ethnic Tibetans), an agropastoralist group, living in Gyethang, in northwestern Yunnan. The undivided inheritance of land and fixed property is passed through the eldest daughter.   ***Cunnison, Ian 1963 The Position of Women among the Humr. Sudan Society 2:24-34.   Key words: Women/Inheritance/Divorce/Marriage/Division of Labor-Gender/Foraging/Formal Political Power/Informal Political Power/Briedewealth/Bagarra/Sudan   ***Cunnison, Ian 1966 Bagarra Arabs: Power and Lineage in a Sudanese Nomad Tribe. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. This is a classic ethnography on the socia organization and political structure of the Bagarra nomads of Sudan. Women's role and activities are discussed in relation to cattle as a source of economic and political power for men. Women's access to animals, though inferior to that of men, is culturally ensured through such institutional mechanisms as inheritance and marriage. Women's economic activities are marginally presented as those involving agriculture and the processing of dairy goods. Gender ideals are structured around the Bagarra cultural values of generosity, hospitality, masculine and feminine chastity and the ethos of handwork. Women's lack of access to formal political chanels is compensed for by their indirect influence, which they exercise through songs that repudiate and challenge men's honor. A woman's domestic power is exemplified where prenuptial use their mother's influence on the male guardian of the household to avoid an unwanted arranged marriage.   **Cuny, H. 1961 Les déserts dans le monde: La formation des zones désertiques, la vie dans les déserts, physionomie actuelle des déserts, l'exploitation rationelle des déserts, l'homme dans le désert. Paris: Payot.   ***Curran-Everett, Linda Susan 1990 Age, Sex, and Seasonal Differences in the Work Capacity of Nomadic Ngisonyoka Turkana Pastoralists. Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Binghamton.   Key Words: Age Groups/Gender/Health/Labor/Nutrition/Turkana/Kenya   ***Dahl, Gudrun, ed. 1979 Suffering Grass: Subsistance and Society of Waso Borana. Stockholm, Sweden: University of Stockholm, Department of Social Athropology. (Stockholm Studies in Social Anthropology.) This ethnography discusses the Waso Borana social organization and subsitence strategies. Market integration, war, and colonial policies led to the disintegration of the pastoral economy, with an increasing number of herders diversifying into non-pastoral activities. The discussion of socio relations in the pastoral economy points out the importance of women in reproduction of the herd and labor. Women's participation in animal care, food-processing, child care, and domestic maintenance indicate a men's dependence on their labor. Women's access to animals, albeit without jural rights to their ownership, is to ensure consumption needs of men and children. Motherhood is the primary avenue to social adulthood and security. Although processing in the life cycle expands women's domestic power, they remain legal minors because of their lack of ownership of productive capital, the animals.   ***Dahl, Gudrun, ed. 1987 Ethnos (Women in Pastoral Production [Issue Title] 5291-20.   ****Dahl, Gudrun 1987 The Realm of Pastoralist Women: An Introduction. Ethnos 52(I-II):5-7. Dahl introduces this issue of Ethnos, a collection of ethnographic articles with theoretical insights on issues related to women in pastoral production systems. The collection draws on a comprehensive approach to relationships between processes of production and reproduction in order to highlight the significant roles played by women in various pastoralists economies. By detailing different axes of social differentiation, division of labor, and ideological elements, most of the aiuthors clarify the economic roles and relative status of women in their communities. Contrary to earlier anthropological treatments of pastoral women as socially and productively subordinate to man, these articles point out both direct and indirect ways that women contribute to subsistence production. Special attantion is paid to presenting women as a heterogeneous social category with divergent interests that depend on such variables as class position, age, fertility, agnatic support, mobility, access to market, inheritance and residence laws, and a host of other culturally specific factors. This collection builds on the assumption that female subordination in pastoral communities is rooted in social relations and varies in nature and degree from one society to another. Most of the articles point to culturally specific channels regularly used by women to enhance their relative status in intergender hierarchies.   ****Dahl, Gudrun 1987 Women in Pastoral Production: Some Theoretical Notes on Roles and Resources. Etnos 52(I-II):246-279. This useful discussion of some of the issues relating to women in pastoral production systems argues that women's realms of activity are among the most fundamental variables in understanding pastoral labor processes and the reproduction of the economic system as a whole.   *Driberg, J.H. 1932 The Status of Women among the Nilotics and Nilo-Hamitics. In Africa (London), 5:404-421.   *Dumas-Champion, F. 1980 Le rôle social et rituel du bétail chez les Massa du Chad. In Africa (London), 50(2):161-181.   ****Duden, Birget 1995 A View from Within: Maasai Women Looking at Themselves. In Social Aspects of Sustainable Dryland Management. Edited by Daniel Stiles, UNEP, Nairobi.   Key Words: Female Perspectives/Gender Relations/Women   ***Dupire, Margherite 1960 Situation de la femme dans une société pastorale (Peul WoDaabe, nomades du Niger). In Femmes d'Afrique Noire. Denise Paulme, ed. Paris, France: Mouton and Company. Pp. 51-91. This article systematically describes aspects of gender diffrentiation in WoDaaBe society. Major topics include: the education of children: marriage conventions: social relations betwen the sexes and between co-wives; livestock rights; and legal and political rights   ****Dupire, Margherite 1962 Peuls nomades: Etude descriptive des Wodaabe du Sahel Nigérien. Paris, France: Institut d'Ethnologie. Marguerite Dupire's comprehensive and detailed ethnography of the WooDaaBe of Niger is based on fieldwork carried out in 1951. The volume includes sections on WooDaaBe history and legend, the pastoral economy, family and kinship relations, lineage relations, and social institutions. Dupire goes into some detail regarding women's activity and rights to livestock. The composition of herds reflects the overriding emphasis on milk production, which assures food and revenues daily. WoDaaBe women are thus crucial to the pastoral economy as they control the production and sale of milk and butter and also care for cows and calves when they are ill. Although men are responsible for providing millet and children's clothing, In fact they rely on women's revenues for milk and butter sales so as not to sell off livestock. The income women earn from milk and butter sales is also used to purchase salt, pimento, other condiments, clothing for the women, beads and bracelets. Dupire explains that women receive cattle from their families either as gifts or through inheritance. The cattle belong to the woman in that they control the milk, keep the animals in case of divorce, and bequeath the cattle to their children. But it is fathers and husbands who manage this livestock, and even sell the animals if the need arises. Dupire notes that until they give birth to children, WoDaabe women prefer to keep their cattle with their natal families to prevent their husbands from mismanaging the animals.   ***Dupire, Margherite 1963 The Position of Women in a Pastoral Society (The Fulani WoDaaBe, Nomads of the Niger). In Women of Tropical Africa. Denise Paulme, ed. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Pp. 47-92. In this systematic description of gender differentiation in the WoDaaBe society, Dupire discusses the education of children, marriage conventions, social relations between the sexes and among co-wives, livestock rights, and legal and political rights.   ***Dupire, Margherite 1970 Organisation sociale des Peuls: Etude d'ethnographie comparée. Paris, France: Librairie Plon.     Key Words: In French/Kinship Systems/Marriage/Women/Stratification/Age Groups/Political Power/Livestock Exchange/Dowry/Bride Service/Ethnic Relations/Sedentarization/Divorce/Inheritance/Residence Pattern/Trashumance/FulBe/WoDaaBe/Niger/Nigeria/Senegal/Gambia/Guinea/Mauritania   ***Dupree, L. 1984 Pashtun. In WEEKES, R.V. (Ed.): Muslim Peoples: 622-630. Wesport, Connecticut: Greenwood.   **Dupree, L. 1984 Tribal Warfare in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Reflection of the Segmentary Lineage System. In AHMED, A.S.; HART, D.M. (Ed.); Islam in Tribal Societies from the Atlas to the Indus: 266-286. London: Routledge & Keagan Paul.   **Dyson-Hudson, Neville 1966 Karimojong Politics. Oxford, UK: Clarendon press. This ethnography discusses in detail the political structure of the Karimojong, an agropastoral group in Ouganda. Gender-based divisions of labor and political roles are not discussed. Women's involvement in economic activities revolves around gardening, which contributes substantially to the household diet. Their husbands and fathers allocate parcels to them to cultivate, land being abundant. An unmaried woman's access to arable land is secured through her mother's rights. At marriage this privilege is abrogated, but the bride gains similar rights to her mother-in-law's land. Women participate in milking, processing dairy products, and domestic tasks. This ethnography, in the tradition of early anthropological writings, omits substantive discussion of women's contribution to economic and political life of the community.   ****Dyson-Hudson, R. 1960 Men, Women and Work in a Pastoral Society. In Natural History, 69(10):42-57.   ****Dyson-Hudson, Rada, and Neville Dyson-Hudson 1980 Nomadic Pastoralism. Annual Review of Anthropology 9:15-61.   Key Words: Pastoralism/Research Methodology/Kinship Systems/Women/Ecology/Stratification/Marketing/Livestock/Africa/Southwest Asia/Central Asia   *Edgerton, Robert B., and Frances P. Conant 1964 Kilipat: The "Shaming party" among the Pokot of East Africa. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 20:404-419.           *** El-Assal, Mohamed M. 1995 Sociological Considerations. In Suitable Range- Dependent Small Ruminant Production Systems in the Near East Region. FAO Publication, Regional Office for the Near East. Cairo, Egypt.       ***El Bushra, J. 1986 (July) Programming for Women's Development in Sablaale, Somalia: Report of a Consultancy for Euro Action ACORD. London, UK: ACORD (Agency for Cooperation and Research in Development.) The outcome of a rapid but a carefully documented review of the productive activities and difficulties of women in Sablaale District (Somalia), a planned settlement established in 1975 for pastoral and semi-pastoral people from northern and north central Somalia who were displaced by devastating drought in 1974.   ***Elam, Yitzchak 1973 The Social and Sexual Roles of Hima Women: A Study of Nomadic Cattle Breeders in Nyabushozi County, Ankole, Uganda. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. This is an ethnography on the social and sexual lives of Hima women, a pastoral group in Uganda. Strict gender divisions of labor prohibit married women from taking any active role in animal husbandry, even milking.   ***Ensminger, Jean Evelyn 1984 (October) Theoretical Perspectives on Pastoral Women: Feminist Critiques. Nomadic Peoples (Theoretical Approaches in the Study of Nomadic and Pastoral Peoples [Issue Title]) 16:59-72.   Key Words: Women/Sedentarization/Gender Differentiation/Economic Differentiation/Household/Information Access/Galla/Kenya   *** Ensminger, Jean Evelyn 1987 Economic and Political Differentiation among Galole Orma Women. Ethnos 52(I-II):28-49. This is a comparative study of the conditions of women among two groups of Galole Orma: a relatively self-sufficient nomadic sector and a highly market-oriented one.   Key Words: Women/Gender/Religious Organizations/Islam/Marketing/Sedentarization/Pastoralism/Livestock Marketing/Galla/Kenya   *Epha'al, I. 1982 The Ancient Arabs. Nomads on the Border of the Fertile Crescent. 9th-5th Centuries B.C. Jerusalem; Leiden: Magnes Pr.; Brill.   ****Ezeomah, Chimah 1985 (May) The Work Roles of Nomadic Fulani Women: Implications for Economic and Educational Development. Jos, Nigeria: University of Jos. (Postgraduate Open Lecture series 2(8).) Discusses nomadic FulBe women's participation in pastoral production through an analysis of livestock ownership, work roles, and services performed for the economy.   ****Fazel, G. Reza 1977 Social and Political Status of Women among Pastoral Nomads: The Bohr Ahmad of Southwest Iran. Anthropological Quaterly 50(2):77-89. Among the earliest ethnographically well-documented arguments that challenged the poor understanding of the economic and political roles of pastoral women in soutwest Asia, this article argues that although the Bohr Ahmadi tribal structure is formally divided into hierarchically organized public and private spheres of activities, in reality, women-especially those of elite ancestry-enjoy a high degree of political and economic autonomy. Women's indipendence in this seemingly patriarchal context originates from their position in the social relations of production, distribution, and exchange of Bohr Ahmadi pastoral economy.   **Ferdinand, Klaus 1982 Marriage among Pashtun Nomads of Eastern Afghanistan. Folk 24:65-87.   Key Words: Marriage/Bride Service/Kinship Systems/Pasthun/Afghanistan   **Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 1979 Women in Food Production, Food Handling, and Nutrition with Special Emphasis on Africa: A Report of the Protein-Calorie Advisory Group (PAG) of the United Nations System (June 1977). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.       Key Words: Nutrition/Food/Reproduction/Health/Labor/Marketing/Women/Demography//Development Assistance/Children/Division of Labor-Gender/Africa   ***Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 1977 Les Systèmes pastoraux sahéliens: Données socio-démographiques de base en vue de la conservation et de la mise en valeur des parcours arides et semi-arides avec le concours du Fonds des Nations Unies pour les Activités en matière de population. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (Etude FAO: Production Végétale et Protection des Plantes No. 5.) This useful and detailed 1977 study conducted by FAO examines the changing nature of Sahelian pastoral production systems as a consequence of drought and commoditization of the economy. Although the situation of women is only briefly touched on, the information and data presented in the report provide insight into the factors affecting women's changing roles and status.   ***Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 1983 Integrating Crops and Livestock in West Africa. Rome: FAO. (Animal Production and Health, Paper no. 41.)   ****Fazel, G.R. 1977 Social and Political Status of Women among Pastoral Nomads. The Boyr Ahmad of Southwest Iran. In Anthropology Quarterly (Washington), 50(2):77-89.   ****Fazel, G.R. 1978 Social and Political Status of Women among Pastoral Nomads. In Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies (Kuwait), 14(4): 232.   **Forni Elisabetta 1980 Women's Role and Status in the Baraawe Settlement. In ADAM, H.M. (Ed.): Somalia and the World, Vol.2:251-264. Mogadishu: State Printing Pr. (2nd Halgan Publication.)   ***Forni, Elisabetta 1980 Women's Role in the Economic, Social and political Development of Somalia. In Afr. Spektrum 15(1):19-28.   ***Forni, Elisabetta 1984 Una nuova vita in Somalia: Note sulla condizione femminile e su un' esperienza di sedentarizzazione dei nomadi nella Somalia socialista. Milano, Italy: Franco Angeli Editore. Elisabetta Forni's book documents the effects of the 1969 socialist revolution and government-sponsored sedentarization on pastoral women. Forni presents women's opinions regarding the settlement. Ninety percent of women interviewed explained that they chose to live in the settlment so that their children could be educated and support them in their old age.   ***Fratkin, Elliot 1989 (June) Household Variation and Gender Inequality in Ariaal Pastoral Production: Results of a Stratified Time-Allocation Survey. American Anthropologist 91(2):430-440.   Key Words: Women/Pastoralism/Household/Labor/Division of Labor-Age/Baseline Data/Research Methodology/Ariaal/Kenya   ****Fratkin, Elliot, Smith Kevin 1995 Women's Changing roles with pastoral sedentarization: Varing Strategies in alternate Rendille Communities. In Human Ecology: An Interdisciplinary Journal (US) 23(4):433-454.   Key Words: Key Words: Nigeria/Rural Women/Nomads/Women's Role/Household Income/Women Workers/Work at Home   **Frehn, B., Krings, T. 1986 Afrikanische Frisuren. Symbolik und Formenvielfalt traditioneller und moderner Haartrachten im westafrikanischen Sahel und Sudan. Köln: DuMont. (DuMont Taschenbücher 175.)   ****Galatay, John G. 1982 (February) Being "Maasai": Being "People of Cattle": Ethnic Shifters in East Africa. American Ethnologist 9(1):1-20.   Key Words: Women/Division of Labor-Gender/Migration/Life Cycle/Household/Gender Differentiation/Poverty/Maasai/Eastern Africa   ****Galatay, John G., D. Aronson, P.C. Salzman, et al., eds. 1981 The Future of Pastoral Peoples: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, Kenya, 4-8 August 1980. Ottawa, Ontario: IDRC.   Key Words: Pastoralism/Development Assistance/Political Power/Livestock/Education/Marketing/Women/Sedentarization/Bedouin/Africa/Southwest Asia   ****Galatay, John G., and Douglas Johnson, eds. 1990 The World of Pastoralism. New York, NY: Guilford Press.   Key Words: Herd Management/Division of Labor-Age/Division of Labor-Gender/Land use/Land Tenure/Marriage/Environmental Degradation/Livestock/Pastoralism/Women/Drought/FulBe/Tuareg/Bedouin/Pasthun/   **Gallais, Jean 1974 (20 May) Translation of Text from "Project for Livestock Development in the Region of Mopti" (SEDES 1972). Paris, France: SEDES.   Key Words: Women/Development Policy/Herd Management/Offtake/FulBe/Mali   **Garrigues-Cresswell, M. 1985 Pasteurs-agriculteurs du Haut Atlas Occidental: tibesmen ou peasents? In Production Pastorale et Société (Paris), 16:5-31.   ***Gast, Marceau 1979 Pastoralisme nomade et pouvoir: La société traditionelle des Kel Ahaggar. In Pastoral Production and Society (Production pastorale et société), Paris, France, 1-3 December 1976. L'Equipe Ecologique et Anthropologie des Sociétés Pastorales, ed. Cambridge, Uk: cambridge University Press/ Editions de la maison des sciences de l'Homme, Pp. 201-220. Demonstrates historically how a kinship system based on matrilineality among the Kel Ahaggar Tuareg was the foundation for relations of production. Endogamous marriages reinforce the suzerain's rights. Gast believes this is due to the need to replace men lost to wars and raids, as they often are among the Tuareg. Inheritance follows islamic law. With french colonization, the imposition of taxes, borders, and the new social and economic order, paralized the Kel Ahaggar. Gast notes that the aristocratic women have accepted new roles in performing domestic work and guarding the herds. Assessing precolonial gender roles helps in assessing current gender relations and how they have recently changed for both aristocratic and servile class Tuareg Women.   ***Gast, Marceau 1986 L'Encêtre féminine clé de l'organisation sociale des Touaregs. L'Exemple de Mertûtek. In BERNUS, E. et al. (Eds.): Le fils et le neveu. Jeux et enjeux de la parenté touarègue: 159-189. Cambridge; Paris: Cambridge University Press; Maison des Sciences de l'Homme.   *Gaudry, M. 1929 La Femme chaouia de l'Aurès. Paris: Librairie Orientale, Geuthner.   ***Gebre-Mariam, Ayele 1987 (23 November) Labour Inputs and Time Allocation among the Afar. Nomadic Peoples 23:37-56. This article presents a detailed discussion of the labor requirements for herding among the Afar of Ethiopia. Pastoral production tasks, supervised by the male head of the household, are organized around the principles of sex and age. Women are closely in such reproductive tasks as food processing, cooking, fetching water, and gathering firewood. Their productive activities generally revolve around herding and watering sheep and goats. The information in this article is valuable because it pays special attention to the much-neglected topic of the labor input of women and children in discussing pastoral production systems.   *** Gintzburger, G. 1996 The Battle for the Steppe: Animals on Trial. In ICARDA/CAROVAN Issue No. 3 Spring/Summer 1996. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). Aleppo, Syria.   ***Glatzer, Bernt, and Micheal J. Casimir 1983 (October) Herds and Households among Pashtun Pastoral Nomads: Limits of Growth. Ethnology 22(4):307-326. This article discusses herd management, herd growth, labor, household, and budgeting among a small group of herders in West Afghanistan. These nomads do not form corporate groups along the patrilineal descent line to have access to pasture, which is primarly state owned. Although the article does not elaborate extensively on gender-based division of labor, it states that such divisions are not absolute. Women do most of the milking, processing of animal products, food preparation, and textile work. While men in the absence of women may do some of their work, women never participate in shepherding that may keep them outdoors over night. Women on the other hand help care for stock animals on cold winter nights when the animals are kept in the tents, or in spring when the lambs and kids that are also kept in the tents must be brought to their individual mothers for nursing.   ****Goldstein, Melvyn C., and Cynthia M. Beall 1989 (June) The Remote World of Tibet's Nomads. National Geographic: 752-781 This exposé is the outcome of one of the first western research activities allowed to be conducted in the autonomous region of Tibet in China. Cultural adaptation to the ferocious ecological constraints involve pastoral nomadic activities previously organized under a quasi- feudal system controlling access to land and animals. Indigenous practices of animal husbandry shrouded in cultural mechanisms and ideologies, along with natural calamities, established a system of checks and balances against the abuse of the lands. Among Tibet's nomadic peoples, task allocation entails a measure of gender complementarity. Women are particularly involved in milking and dayiring of pastral products, with men working as herders and traders of pastoral goods and salt collected as source of cash.   ****Graham, Olivia 1988 (May) Pastoral Women and Drought: Social Dislocation in Central Somalia. Oxford, UK: Oxfam. (GADU [Gender and Development Unit] Newspak No. 6.) This short and insightful article reports on both economic responses to the drought and subsequent psychological effects experienced by its victims. While migration to towns and refugee centers is a common strategy, many pastoralists ventured into unknown territories, often facing hostile and unpredictable conditions. Although divorce is typically practiced in Somalia, high rates of marriage dissolutions due to stressful circumstances are reported, leaving women in a precarious position because their natal families are reluctant to care for them. Women's plight is especially worthy of attention because they are the primary caretakers of children. Widespread divorce has increased the number of female-heated households in towns.   **Grandin, Barbara E. 1988 Wealth and Pastoral Dairy Production: A Case Study from Maasailand. Human Ecology 16(1):1-21.   Key Words: Meat Stock/Dairy Stock/Offtake/Women/Herd Management/Gender/economic Differentiation/Maasai/Kenya **Grayzel, John Aron 1977 (September) The Ecology of Ethnic-Class Identity among an African Pastoral People: The Doukoloma FulBe. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oregon, Department of Anthropology. This dissertation focuses on the ethnic identity of FulBe pastoralists through a consideration of their values and life cycle. Grayzel includes a discussion of gender differences. Men dominate agriculture, animal husbandary, and marketing. Although men milk the cattle, women depend on the marketing of milk for their economic livehood.   **Gruenbaum, E. 1978 (August) Women's Labour in the Subsistence Sector: The Case of the Central Nuer Area of Jonglei Province. Khartoum, Sudan: University of Khartoum. (Development Projects of the Jonglei Area Report No. 9.)   Key Words: Agropastoralism/Division of Labor-Gender/Nuer/Sudan   ****Hafkin, Nancy J. 1977 Women and Development in Africa: An Annotated Bibliography. New York, NY: United Nations, Economic Commission for Africa.   Key Words: Women/Bibliography/Health/Nutrition/Education/Communication/Nongovernmental Organizations/Financial Issues/Demography/Pastoralism/Development Interventions./Africa   **Håkansson, N. Thomas 1988 Briedewealth, Women and Land. Social Change among the Gusii of Kenya. Stockholm: Almkvist & Wiksell. (Acta Univ. Upsaliensis; Diss.1987, Uppsala; Uppsala Studies in Cultural Anthropology no. 10.)   **Håkansson, N. Thomas 1989 (April) Family Structure, Briedewealth, and Environment in Eastern Africa: A Comparative Study of House-Property Systems. Ethnology 28(2):117-134.   Key Words: Bridewealth/Livestock/Inheritance/Kin Relations/Livestock Exchange/Political Conflict/Women/Jie/Samburu/Gusii/Karamojong/Kenya/Tanzania **Hassaballa, Omar Hassaballa 1991 Displacement of Women in Irrigated Sector: The Case of Kenana Scheme. In Ahfad Journal: Women and Change (SD) 8(1): 55-73.   Key Words: Sudan/Women's Role/Irrigation Development/Labour Mobility/Nomadism/Women Workers   **Hedlund, Hans 1979 Contradictions in the Peripheralization of a Pastoral Society: The Maasai. Review of African Political Economy 15/16:15-34   Key Words: Stratification/Sedentarization/History/Economic Diversification/Age Groups/Property Exchange/Political Process-Indigenous/Social Differentiation/Political Conflict/Women/Gender Differentiation/Maasai/Eastern Africa   **Henin, R.A. 1969 Marriage Patterns and Trends in the Nomadic and Settled Populations of the Sudan. Africa 39:238-259.   Key Words: Marriage/Women/Demography/Fertility/Bagarra/Sudan ****Herren, Urs J. 1990 (November) The Commercial Sale of Camel Milk from Pastoral Herds in the Mogadishu Hinterland, Somalia. London, UK: Overseas Developmewnt Institute. (ODI, Pastoral Development Network Paper 30a.) An example of a commercial milk-chain that collects camel milk from pastoral nomads for consumption in Somalia's capital, Mogadishu. This article usefully documents variation in the process of negotiation involving female sellers and traders of different economic strata. Development planners should pay attention to economic cleavages that cut across gender unity.   ***Hewitt, Farida 1989 Women's Work, Women's Place: The Gendered Life-World of a High Mountain Community in Northern Pakistan. Mountain Research and Development 9(4):335-352 This paper documents specific gender divisions using written source material and evidence from four months of fielwork in 1986. It describes women's workloads, tool use and socialization. Animal husbandry tasks are divided: "Only men milk yak and goats, and only women milk cows, which are considered impure". The essay mentions how the impurity of women is based on ideas of Shiite Islam, Buddhism and other believe systems. Hewitt critiques development interventions that have marginalized women: cash cropping has forced women into secondary roles as producers, men's out migration has increased the workload of women.   ***Hill, Allan G., ed. 1985 Population, Health and Nutrition in the Sahel: Issues in the Welfare of Selected West African Communities. Boston, MA: Routledge and Kegan Paul.   Key Words: Demography/Pastoralism/Women/Children/Land Tenure/Household/Food/Widows/Kinship Systems/Bamana/WoDaaBe/Gourma/Tuareg/Mali/Mauritania/Niger   ***Hjort af Ornäs, Anders 1989 Environment and Security of Dryland Herders in Eastern africa. In Ecology and Politics: Environmental Stress and Security in Africa. Anders Hjort af Ornäs and M.A. Mohamed Salih, eds. Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies. Pp. 66-68. With examples from northern Kenya and northeastern Sudan, the author explores the concept of ecological stress. The Amar'ar Beja in the Sudan try to survive in an extremely difficult environment through a combination of camel, sheep, and goat herding, sorghum cultivation, and wage labor in Port Sudan and other towns in the region. The major problem is to have enough labor at hand to herd efficiently without making undue consumptive demands on livestock. Women have traditionally not been involved, and according to the author, are not supposed to milk any animals. The Kenya example shows Samburu herders-especially widowed heads of households-who have become impoverished through loss of livestock due to raiding, or loss of access to pasture due to expansion of farming and a game park, and who cannot invoke kinship relations to borrow livestock for herd reconstruction. They migrate to the town of Isiolo in search of employment. The author makes some suggestions about the interrelations between "micro" (i.e., individual, household, and community) and "macro"(i.e., national state) notions of security. As an example, he notes that an international frontier may be closed to increase security at the macro level, but this will decrease security at the micro level for those who are denied access to critical natural resources, such as pastures, that lie on the wrong side of the frontier.   **Hjort af Ornäs, Anders 1990 Town-Based Pastoralism in Eastern Africa. In Small Town Africa: Studies in Rural-Urban Interaction. Jonathan Baker, ed. Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies. Pp. 143-160. (Seminar Proceedings No. 23.) The author explores development roles of small towns in Kenya, Somalia, and the Sudan in the context of rural-urban linkages. He focuses particularly on persons who migrate from pastoral communities affected by population pressure, war, drought, herd loss, and the need to reduce consumptive pressure on resources. "Many single Meru women combine small-scale trade with prostitution, since this is a prime income source for a woman without permanent employment" (P.150). Female-Headed Turkana households are more likely to be employed in irrigated farming.   *** Hjort af Ornäs, Anders, and Gudrun Dahl 1991 Responsible Man: The Atmaan Beja of North-Eastern Sudan. Uppsala, Sweden; Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. (Stockholm Studies in Social Anthropology.) This short ethnography traces the historical developmemnt of Beja Herders as a community with a strong sense of self identity vis-à-vis the surrounding non-Beja tribal groupings. Gender segregation and division of labor are maintained with symbolism and evaluative cultural ideals. A man's social representation hinges on his ability to protect and support his female dependents, both wives and sisters. Herding and trade are male prerogatives, with milking and distribution of the milk the symbol of a man social standing as provider to his family. Women are segregated and barred from milking. Their economic role revolves mainly around processing and distributing food.     ***Hogg, Richard 1986 The New Pastoralism: Poverty and Dependency in Northern Kenya. Africa 56(3):319-333. Colonial rule among pastoralist groups in Northern Kenya, using such mechanisms as taxation, reinforced and consolidated the traditional differences in wealth among pastoralists, who previously had achieved a measure of equity through indigenous strategies. Confinement to small grazing areas led both poor and rich pastoralists to sedentarize. A number of women, especially those who are widowed and divorced, concentrate in peri-urban areas, involving themselves in a range of activities such as roof matting, beer making, prostitution, and the collecting of firewood, herbs, and incense.   ***Hogg, Richard 1990 (October) An Institutional Approach to Pastoral Development: An Example from Ethiopia. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute. (ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper 30d.) A set of recommendations-results from the Ethiopian/World Bank funded Pilot Project among the Boran-is put forward here for future pastoral development projects. The Pilots Project's recommendations include: close attention to traditional Boran resource management units that could act as bases for Scs, fluidity in SC membership based on minimal residence of two years, involvement of Boran traditional leaders in managing Scs, and the like. The Project did not make any recommendations to increase women's participation, although initially attention is paid to their absence from the governmentally established SCs.   ***Holden, Sarah J., D. Layne Coppock, and Mulugeta Assefa   1990 (September) Pastoral Dairy Marketing and Household Wealth Interactions and Their Implications for Calves and Humans in Semi-Arid Ethiopia. Unpublished Manuscript. In view of the income-generating potential of dairy marketing for women, this article warns against hasty adoptation of such projects before any analysis of nutritional welfare of calves and humans are made.   Key Words: Development Interventions/Income-Women/Dairy Marketing/Economic Diversification/Nutrition/Galla/Ethiopia   ***Holme-Ottensen, Gerd, Ophelia Mascarenhas, and Margareta Wandel 1989 (May) Women's Role in the Food Chain: Activities and Implications for Nutrition. New York, NY: United Nations. (Nutrition Policy Discussion Paper 4.) This paper carefully discusses the underlying assumptions in policy-oriented research on the role of women in food production and nutrition in Asia and in Africa. Along with an increased recognition of the need to integrate women into agricultural development, there has been a call for a more culturally sensitized approach to the mediating role of women between food production and the nutritional needs of the household members. The autors suggest that future research should pay special attention to intervening factors determining women's use and control of labor, land, food, and cash at levels of production, distributing and consumption. Social economic and political processes involving urbanization, commoditization, migration, rural differentiation, and ecological and demographic imbalances have to be taken into account in future studies. The universal role of women in intrahousehold food distribution should be the key to improving the nutritional status of the hole community. Although this document is an important guide to research and policy priorities, it provides little information on the role of women in pastoralist food chains and nutrition.   ***Holter, Uta 1988 Food Consumption of Camel Nomads in the North West Sudan. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 21:95-115.   Key Words: Women/Diet/Food/Sedentarization/Bagarra/Sudan   ***Holter, Uta 1988 Die Rolle der Frau beim Übergang vom Nomadismus zur Seßhaftigkeit, dargestellt am Bereich Ernährung bei den Maria (Kamel-nomaden in Norddarfur/Sudan). In Die Erde (Berlin), 119(4):227-234.   **Hooglund, Mary 1977 (Spring) Social Soundness Analysis of Final Design Report-Eastern Senegal Bakel Range Livestock Project: Social and Cultural Aspects. State University of New York-Binghamton Anthropology Course. Unpublished manuscript.   Key Words: Women/Pastoralism/Dairy Production/Nutrition/Development Interventions/Division of Labor-Gender/FulBe/Senegal   **Hopen, C. Edward 1958 The Pastoral FulBe Family in Gwandu. London, UK: International African Institute.   Key Words: Division of Labor-Gender/Women/Men/Intrahousehold Differentiation/Property Exchange/Boys/FulBe/Nigeria   ****Hoppe, T. 1988 Kazak Pastoralism in the Bogda Range. In The Kazaks of China: Essays on an Ethnic Minority. L. Benson and I. Svanberg, eds. Stockholm, Sweden: Almquist and Wiksell International. Pp. 201-239. (Studia Multiethnica Upsaliensia No. 5.) Hoppe's interesting essay provides some preliminary information regarding the effects of state control upon the changing social and economic life of both male and female Kazak pastoralits in Bogda Köl, Xinjian Province. Hoppe's research is based on ten case study families, interview in 1985, and it specifically explores women's work roles, household income, and stratification. Collectivization led to a decline of pastoralism and a shift in owenership distribution. Women work long and hard processing milk, caring for cattle, preparing meals, and producing felt and carpets, according to Hobbes. This overview of Kazak pastoralism demonstrates how the sdtate had a dual interest in increasing the commenrcial productivity of herding while decreasing pasture areas available, thereby, capturing the labor of displaced herders. Hobbes asserts that these policies have had negative effects on both the environment and Kazak cultural identity.   ***Horowitz, Michael M. 1972 Ethnic Boundary Maintenance among Pastoralists and Farmers in the Western Sudan (Niger). In Perspectives on Nomadism. William Irons: Neville Dyson-Hudson, eds. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.   Key Words: Women/Ethnic Differentiation/Decision making/Economic Diversification/FulBe/Manga/WoDaaBe/Niger   ***Horowitz, Michael M. 1976 Colloquium on the Effects of Drought on the Productive Strategies of Sudano-Sahelian Herdsmen and Farmers: Implications for Development. Binghamton, NY: Institute for Development Anthropology.   Key Words: Drought/Pastoralism/Women/Children/Natural Resource Management/Agricultural Production/Development Assistance/Migration/Demography/Fertility/Mortality/Tuareg/Hausa/FulBe/Niger/Nigeria/ Mali       ****Horowitz, Michael M. 1979 (May) The Sociology of Pastoralism and African Livestock Projects. Washington, DC: USAID. (AID Program Evaluation Discussion Paper No. 6.) This is perhaps the first document to examine a range of development interventions among african pastoral peoples to determine the relationship between project outcomes, on the one hand, and socioeconomic and environmental realities, on the other. The author focus on the myths and realities of desertification and land degradation, "the tragedy of the commons", productivity and offtake, pastoral mobility, relationships with sedentary peoples, and the role of women. He concludes with recommendations for action.   ***Horowitz, Michael M. 1981 Research Priorities in Pastroral Studies: An Agenda for the 1980s. In The Future of Pastoral Peoples. J. Galatay, D. Aronson, and P.C. Salzman, eds. Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre. Pp. 61-88.   Key Words: Research Methodology/Pastoralism/Political Process/Demography/Ecology/Environment/Sedentarization/Women/Development Interventions/Economic Policy/Africa   ****Horowitz, Michael M, Jowkar Forouz 1992 (August) Pastoral Women and Change in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia. A Report from the "Gender Relations of Pastoral and Agropastoral Production." Project for United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). IDA Working Paper No. 91. Institute for Development Anthropology, Binghamton, NY.   Key Words: Pastoralists/Production Systems/Gender-Based Division of Property/Gender-Based Division of Labor/Gender-Based Status/Women/Commercialization   ****Horowitz, Michael M, Jowkar Forouz 1995 Gender and Participation in Environment and Development Projects in the Drylands. In Social Aspects of Sustainable Dryland Management. Edited by Daniel Stiles, UNEP, Nairobi.   Key Words: Political Change/Ecological Change/Pastoralism/Rangelands/Labor Migration/Economic Diversification/Commercialization/Gender     ***Hoskins, John A. 1978 Upper Volta: Training of Women in the Sahel. Washington, DC: USAID.   Key Words: Women/Financial Issues/Development Interventions/Economic Diversification/Livestock/FulBe/Tuareg/Burkina Faso   ***Humphrey, Caroline 1978 (January) Pastoral Nomadism in Mongolia: The Role of Herdsmen's Cooperatives in the National Economy. Development and Change 9(1):133-160. The central focus of this article is a discussion of the transformation of Mongolian extensive pastoral economy to intensive herding practices under the organizational leadership of state collectives. It appears that at the herding-unit level, tasks are differentiated by gender with women primarily being in charge of milking and daiying.   **Hundt, G. 1978 Women's Power and Settlement: the Effect of Settlement on the Position of the Negev Bedouin Women. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh. Unpublished thesis.   ****Ibraahim, Sulekha A. 1987 Enclosures and Their Impact on Nomadic Women in Erigavo. Oxford, UK: Oxfam (GADU [Gender and Development Unit] Newspack No. 4.)   Key Words: Women/Development Interventions/Land Use/Somalia   ****Ibraahim, Sulekha A. 1988 (February) Women's Role in Production in Erigavo. Oxford, UK: Oxfam. (GADU [Gender and Development Unit] Newspack No. 5.)   Key Words: Women/Division of Labor-Gender/Herd Management/Somalia   ****Ibrahim, Fouad N. 1981 The Role of Women Peasants in the Process of Desertification in Western Sudan. In Geo-J. (Wiesbaden), 6(1):25-30. [And in Environ.Res. Paper Series no. 2, I.E.S., University of Khartoum.]   ****Ibrahim, Fouad N. 1984 The New Burden Laid on Women as a Result of the Settlement of Nomads and Semi-Nomads. In Ecological Imbalance in the Republic of Sudan-With Reference to Desertification in Darfur. Fouad N. Ibrahim. Bayreuth, Germany: Druckhaus Bayreuth Verlagsgesellschaft. Pp. 144-146. (Bayreuther Geowissenschaftliche Arbeiten 6.) The basic premise underlying the recommendations outlined in this paper is that women are more affected by desertification than men and in Sudanic pastoral societies men are not particularly concerned about women's increased workload due to this change. Women's increased burden and responsibility to provide for her family is the result of sedentarization and the impoverishment of pastoralists.   ****Ibrahim, Fouad N. 1988 Rural-Urban Migration and Identity Change Case Studies from the Sudan. Bayreuth, Germany: Druckhaus Bayreuth Verlagsgesellschaft. (Bayreuther Geowissenschaftliche Arbeiten 11.) Key words: Migration/Political Conflict/Marriage/Pastoralism/Ethnic Groups/Zaghawa/Miri/Beja/Sudan   **Irons, William 1972 Variation in Economic Organization: A Comparison of the Pastoral Yomut and the Basseri. Journal of Asian and African Studies 7(1-2):88-104.   Key Words: Adoption/Agropastoralism/Birth Order/Bridewealth/Childlessness/Economic Differentiation/Goats/Kinship Systems/Marriage/Pastoralism/Political Process-Change/Residence Pattern/Sheep/Sedentarization/Transhumance/Baseri/Turk/Yomut/Iran   **Jagchid, Sechin, and Paul Hyr 1979 Mongolia's Culture and Society. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.   Key Words: Life Cycle/Political Power/Agricultural Production/Food Processing/Demography/Household/Trade/Education/Women/History/Marriage/Polygamy/ Division of Labor-Gender/Gender Differentiation/Livestock/Pastoralism/Descent Systems/Camels/Sheep/Cattle/Migration/Medicine/Religion/Mongolia   ***Jakubowska, Longina A. 1984 The Bedouin Family in Rahat: Perspectives on Social Changes. In Notes on the Bedouin. Marx, Emanuel, ed. Sede Boqer, Israel: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research. 1E-24E This article is an ethnographic description of some of the major changes experienced by the Bedouins in the Negev area. The author focuses on two major changes. First, the increasing individualization of the nuclear family unit, a process facilitated by the settlement pattern and changes in the employment structure. Second, an increased sense of group cohesiveness expressed through marriage patterns, group politics, and social control.   *Jaulin, Robert 1966 La Distribution des femmes et des biens chez les Mara. Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines 23:419-462.   Key Words: In French/Women/Kinship Systems/Mortality/Household/Food Distribution/Reproduction/Marriage/Residence Pattern/Mara/Chad   ****Joekes, Susan, and Judy Pointing 1990 (November) Women in Pastoral Societies in East and West Africa. Unpublished manuscript. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies. The authors argue that in spite of cultural variability, pastoral communities have gone through a major transformation, involving increased internal social differentiation and marginalization. Decline in land access, resulting from colonial and development policies advocating land privatization, combined with the effects of drought, have undermined the economic viability of pastoral households, forcing a mass exodus of young men from pastoral activities. Legal changes have ignored the traditional usufruct rights of women to milch animals, and not compensated them with new channels of access to income producing activities. Further pastoral women have been differentially affected by change, with poorer women finding it more difficult to maintain their households. Women's traditional rights to dairying could provide them with a source of income, but in most of Africa dairy production of mass consumption has been based on capital-intensive technologies, with the resulting exclusion of women. Male migration has increased women's work load, especially in dry seasons when animals demand more labor. This article includes an agenda for future research and suggests a number of recommendations for developers to include women in pastoral projects.   ***Johnson, Brook Ronald 1990 Nomadic Networks and Pastoral Strategies: Surviving and Exploiting Local Instability in South Turkana, Kenya. PH.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Binghamton.   Key Words: Livestock Exchange/Women/Property Exchange/Kinship Systems/Turkana/Kenya   ****Jowkar, Forouz, Maliha Khan and Ajmal Khan 1996 (July) Socioeconomic Dimensions of Resource Management in Cholistan. IDA Working Paper No. 98. Institute for Development Anthropology, Bingham, NY.   Key words: Desertification/Pakistan/Climate and Vegetation Change/Livestock/Habitat Degradation/Local Populations/Agricultural Production/Water Resources/Nomadic Pastoralism/Social Organization/Gender Division of Labor and Property/Social Hierarchy/Nomadic-Sedentary Conflict   ****Kapteijns, Lidwien 1991 Women and the Somali Pastoral Tradition: Corporate Kinship and Capitalists Transformation in Northern Somalia. Boston University, African Studies Center. Working Papers, no. 153.   **Katakara, Motoko 1977 Bedouin Village: A Study of a Saudi Arabian People in Transition. Tokyo, Japan: University of Tokyo Press.   Key Words: Environment/History/Water Resources/Land Tenure/Economy-Change/Kinship Systems/Marriage/Divorce/Demography/Bedouin/Saudi Arabia   ***Katuwal, S. 1990 The Role of Women in Livestock Production. Kathnmandu, Nepal: Pakhribas Agricultural Center. (PAC Technical Paper No. 129.)   Key Words: Women/Livestock/Division of Labor-Gender/Nepal   **Kawai, Kaori 1990 (March) What does Marriage Mean to Each Gender of the Il-Chamus? Husband-Wife Relationship of an East African Agro-pastoral People. African Study Monographs Suppl. 12:35-49. Marriage among the Il Chamus of Kenya sets up the institutional context in which labor and animals are exchanged: men access women's labor and women access livestock. Women continue their farming activities after an event of separation. While a widower is allowed to remarry, a widow can adopt a sexual partner without marrying him.   **Keenan, Jeremy 1977 Power and Wealth are Cousins: Descent, Class and Marital Srategies among the Kel Ahaggar (Tuareg-Sudan)- Part II Marital Strategies: The Manipulation of the Rules. Africa 47(4):333-343.   Key Words: Marriage/Women/Castes/Kinship Systems/Tuareg/Sahara ****Kelly, E. 1972 Women's Chance for Power in Two Sudanese Nomadic Tribes. London. (M.Ph.)   ****Kelly, H. 1986 Uncounted Labour: Women as Food Producers in East African Pastoral Community. In Moses, Y.T. (Ed.): Proceeding of the African Agricultural Development Conference, Pomona, California: California State Polytechnic University.   ***Kerven, Carol M. 1987 (February) Some Research and Development Implications for Pastoral Dairy Production in Africa. International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) Bulletin 26:29-35. This document discusses the comparative advantage of commercial meat production versus commercial dairying among pastoralists. It argues that the traditional reliance of African pastoralists on milk is ecologically viable, because it is the most efficient system for converting feed energy and land unit to protein output. The author argues thet since women are commonly involved in dairying, national policies emphasizing commercial meat production will act to their economic detriment.   ****Kerven, Carol M. 1987 (April) The Role of Milk in a Pastoral Diet and Economy: The Case of South Darfur, Sudan. International livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) Bulletin 27:18-27.   Key Words: Dairy Marketing/Herd Management/Women/Income-Women/Nutrition/Food Processing/Pastoralism/Productivity/Baggara/FulBe/WoDaaBe/Sudan   ***Kettel, Bonnie 1986 The Commodization of Women in Tugen (Kenya) Social Organization. In Women and Class in africa. Claire Robertson and Iris Berger, eds. New York, NY: Africana Publishing Company. Pp. 47-61. Change in gender stratification among the Tugen of Kenya is discussed as a consequence of colonial policies and commoditization of production systems. A decline in pastoral activities, increased participation of men in wage labor, and privatization of land were reinforced by colonial taxation and settlement policies. Intrahousehold productive collaboration and access to land became increasingly marked by differential access of men and women to property in livestock, cash, land, and by a new pattern of power distribution in the household at the expense of woman's domestic autonomy. Women's increased dependence on men was asociated with a decline in traditional mechanisms of female solidarity such as age-sets.   *Khuri, F.I. 1970 Parallel Cousin marriage Reconsidered: A Middle Eastern Practice that Nullifies Effects of Marriage on the Intensity of Family Relationships. In Man, 5:597-618. **Kintz, Danielle 1989 (December) Formal Men, Informal Women: How the Fulani Support Their Anthropologists. Anthropology Today 5(6):12-24.   Key Words: Gender Segregation/FulBe   ****Kipuri, Naomi N.Ole 1989 Maasai Women in Transformation: Class and Gender in the Transformation of a Pastoral Society [East Africa]. Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University. In this refreshing reconsideration of Maasai culture, Naomi Kipuri, a Kenyan Maasai, sets out to reframe the debate about gender inequality in Maasai society. "Using historical and ethnographic information, we showed that women werw guaranteed access to the productive resources of their communities as daughters, wives and mothers. Despite the patrilineal organization, they also had a series of roles which allowed them to participate in whatever "political" interaction there was and desplay a high degree of autonomy in production and distribution" (p. 320). Colonialism resulted in an impoverished Maasai as land was expropriated, taxes raised, labor recruited, and livestock movements restricted. Capitalism has reinforced and exacerbated this impoverishment by eroding women's rights. Kipouri questions the underlying assumptions of feminists and ethnographers who have studied the Maasai society and find it to be based on a gender inequelity: common misconceptions, she finds. Kipuri counters these generalizations by pointing out the interdependence between men and women and women's important roles in men's rituals. She cites examples of how sedentarization undermined milk production, land registration undermined women's rights to common property resources, and group ranches increase the nuclear family. "As they assumed the role of mere workers on what has progressively become their husband's livestock and lands (where applicable) they found themselves marginalized in economic, ideological, and in political terms.". (p.310).   **Klima, George J. 1979 Jural Relations between the Sexes among the Barabaig. In Women and Society: An Anthropological Reader. Sharon W. Tifany, ed. St. Albans, VT: Eden Press Woman's Publications. Pp. 145-162.   Key Words: Women/Bridewealth/Pastoralism/Cattle/Dowry/Barabaig/Tanzania   ***Krader, Lawrence 1963 Social Organization of the Mongol-Turkic Pastoral Nomads. The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton. (Indiana University Publications Uralic and Altaic Series 20.)   Key Words: History/Cattle/Sheep/Goats/Camels/Pastoralism/Agropastoralism/ecology/Adoption/Descent Systems/Divorce/Kin relations/Marriage/Polygamy/Residence Pattern/Property Exchange/Bridewealth/Dowry/Children/Interhusehold Differentiation/Mogol/Buryat/kalmuck/Kazakh/Monguor/Mongolia/Soviet Union   ***Kressel, Gideon M. 1986 Latent Payments and Gains Implied in the Confinement of Women to the household Setting: The Case of Reproduction among the Negev Bedouin. Israel Social Science Research 4(1):51-64.   Key Words: Sedentarization/Wage Labor/Women-Change/Education/Household/Bedouin/Negev/Israel     **Kressel, Gideon M. 1986 (July) Prespective Patrilateral Parallel Cousin Marriage: The Perspective of the Bride's Father and Brothers. Ethnology 25(3):163-180.   Key Words: Marriage/Bridewealth/Kinship Systems/Islam/Bedouin   *Krige, Eileen Jensen 1979 Woman-Marriage, with Special Reference to the Lovedu-Its Significance for the Definition of Marriage. In Women and Society: An Anthropological Reader. Sharon W. Tiffany, ed. St. Albans, VT: Eden Press Woman's Publications. Pp. 208-237.   Key Words: Bridewealth/Marriage/Women/Nuer/Lovedu/Sudan/South Africa   *Kuper, Adam 1982 Wives for Cattle: Bridewealth and Marriage in Southern Africa. Boston, MA: Routledge and Kegan Paul. (International Library of Anthropology.)   Key Words: Cattle/Kinship Systems/Women/Bridewealth/Political Process/Venda/Lovedu/Nguni/Tsonga/Sotho/Tswana/Southern Africa   *Kuper, Adam 1987 On the Price of Women and the Value of Cattle: A Rejoinder to Luc de Heusch. In South Africa and the Anthropologist. Adam Kuper, ed. London, UK: Routledge and Kegan Paul.   Key Words: Marriage/Bridewealth/Cattle/Nguni/Tsonga/Lovedu/Eastern Africa/Southern Africa   ***Lane, Charles, and Jeremy Swift 1989 (June) East African Pastoralism: Common Land, Common Problems. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development. (IIED Dryland Programme Issues Paper 8.) This is a succint discussion of a workshop held in Tanzania on pastoral land tenure. Judging from empirical cases, the greatest needs of pastoralists were in the areas of law and institutions, information, education and training, and policy. It is recommended that governments and development organizations take advantage of existing mechanisms of traditional rules in order to ensure the equitable accessibility of land by pastoralists. Any lack of information on this issue should soon be ameliorated by research, and then communicated in simple layman language through publications to pastoralists, administrators and policymakers. Pastoralists need to have access to the critical information on their statutory rights to land. The rights of women and children have to be recognized and researched in the context of changes affecting these groups.   **Langton, Patti 1982? Vulnerable Breadwinners: Larim Women in East africa. IDRC Reports: 8-9.   Key Words: Women/Division of Labor-Gender/Stratification/Development Assistance/Larim/Eastern Africa   ****Langton, Patti 1984 The Importance of Women in Pastoral Societies. In The IDRC-Reports, 13(2):8-10.   **Laya, D. 1986 La Brousse est morte. In ADAMU, M., Kirk-Greene, A. (Eds.): Pastoralists of the West Africa Savanna: 161-174. Manchester:: Manchester University Press (International African Seminar, 1979, Zaria, Nigeria.)   ***Layish, A. 1984 The Islamization of the Bedouin Family in the Judaen Desert, as reflected in the Sijill of the Shari'a Court. In MARX E., SHMUELI, A.(Eds.): The Changing Bedouin: 39-58; New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Trans. Books. (Anthropological Middle East Studies.)   ***Leacock, Eleonor, and Helen I. Safa, eds. 1986 Women's Work: Development and the Division of Labor by Gender. South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey Publishers.   Key Words: Women/Division of Labor-Gender/History/Economy-Change/Domestic Work/Migration/Marketing/Reproduction/Stratification/Gender Differentiation/Wag Labor/Mamasani/Iran/Asia/Africa   ****Lesorogol, Carolyn K. 1990 (28 November) A Little Tea, A Little Sugar: The Role of Women's Networks in Pastoral Production and Reproduction. Unpublished Manuscript. Using the conceptual categories of production and reproduction, the author challenges the conventional view of pastoralist women as being essentially non-productive. She argues that among the Samburu, although women do not have jural rights over the ownership of animals, as primary providers and distributors of food, they enjoy a measure of control over animal products. Once established in their husband's householdes, they receive a number animals in the form of delayed dowry from their natal families. These, in addition to animals allotted to them by their husbands, belong to women, although they do not have disposal rights over them.. Women, however, are consulted in events of sale or exchange of animals. The women's role in herding is substantial, as milkers and tenders of animals. As the forces of market economy have spread, male migration has become common. Women have become involved in petty commodity production of beer to compensate for the loss of control over animal products that are now commonly marked.   ****Lewando-Hunt, Gillian 1984 The Exercise of Power by Bedouin Women in the Negev. In The Changing Bedouin. Emanuel Marx and Avshalom Shmueli, eds. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books. Pp. 83-123. In this discussion of Negev Bedouin in Israel, women's absence from the public political scene appears to be compenseted for by their various domestic roles modified by their life cycle. Among the Nomadic and seminomadic groups the imperative of women's productive labor entitles them to a measure of autonomy in the community. Agnatic bonds, islamic laws, and the legal protection offered by the state are uesed by women to protect themselves against potential domestic abuse by their husbands. Sedentarization and increased men's involment in wage labor have ad contradictory effects on women. Women have become reliant on income their husband earn outside of the pastoral economy.   **Lewis, I.M. 1961 A Pastoral Democracy. A Study of Pastoralism and Politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. New York: Africana Publications. C. [And International African Institute, London, 1982.]   *** Leybourne, Marina. 1994 The Dynamics of the Agro-pastoral Population in the Northern Syrian Steppe. In Pasture, Forage and Livestock Program. Annual Report for 1994. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). Aleppo, Syria.   *Lindholm, Charles, and Cherry Lindholm 1979 (October) Marriage as Warfare. Natural History 88:11-20.   Key Words: Marriage/Brides/Girls/Men/Sexual Access/Pashtun/Pakistan   **Lindholm, Cherry 1980? The Swat Pashtun Family as a Political Training Ground. Unpublished manusript.   Key Words: Women/Life Cycle/Men/Boys/Girls/Gender Segregation/Pashtun/Pakistan   ***Little, Michael A., Kathleen Galvin, Karen Sheley, et al. 1988 Resources, Biology and Health of Pastoralists. In Arid Lands: Today and Tomorrow-Proceedings of an International Research and Development Conference, Tucson, AZ, 20-25 October 1985. Emily E. Whitehead, Charles F. Hutchinson, Barbara N. Timmermann, et al., eds. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Pp. 713-726.   Key Words: Diseases/Nutrition/Health/Women/Children/Turkana/Kenya   ****Little, Michael A., and Paul W. Leslie 1990 (June) Report of the Government of Kenya, Office of the President: The South Turkana Ecosystem Project, Binghamton, NY: State University of New York at Binghamton, Department of Anthropology; and Colorado State University, Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory.   Key Words: Pastoralism/Ecology/Livestock/Transhumance/Demography/Natural Resource Management/Food/Seasonal Migration/Drought/Division of Labor-Gender/Religion/Health/Life Cycle/Turkana/Kenya   ****Little, Peter D. Forthcoming (1992?) The Elusive Granary: Herder, Farmer, and State in Northern Kenya. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Considering Africa's food and environmental crises, the author shows how a pastoral people has become dependent on food imports largely because of: privatization of pasture by absentee herd owners, which deprives others of access: the entry of herders into the wage labor economy; and sedentarization that results in an overutilization of some range areas and an underutilization of others. The author analyzes relationships among social, political, and economic variables, and concludes that the government and donors have done little to alleviate poverty and underdevelopment in the area.   ****Little, Peter D. 1985 Absentee Herd Owners and Part-Time Pastoralists: The Political Economy of Resource Use in Northern Kenya. Human Ecology 13(2):131-151. The author discusses the different paterns of absentee herd ownership in the Baringo district of northern Kenya. In the past the Il Chamus had devised a rotational system of land use in which the most productive swampy areas were used only in the time of drought. Among the Il Chamus, although women, girls, and young boys all herd, the management of long treks is almost strictly the responsibility of males aged 15-30. During the wet season, when labor demands decline, women, girls and young boys assist with cattle herding. Abuses of the lands normally utilized during crises, and a lack of herd mobility, have particularly contributed to environmental degradation.   ****Little, Peter D. 1987 Women as Ol Payaian (Elder). Ethnos 52(I-II):81-102 This article pays attention to disparities in privileges and duties enjoyed by women at different stages of their life cycle, in the context of both traditional subsistence economy and its trasformation.. Widows, as an especially ambiguous social category, have been chosen to demonstrate the effects of the introduction of irrigated farming to a pastoral economy.   **Little, Peter D. 1989 The Dairy Commodity System of the Kisnmayo region, Somalia: Rural and Urban Dimensions. Binghamton, New York: Institute for Development Anthropology. (Institute for Development Anthropology Working paper No. 52.)   Key Words: Women/Dairy Marketing/Camels/Cattle/Somalia   ****Llewelyn-Davies, Melissa 1979 Two Contexts of Solidarity among Pastoral Maasai Women. In Women United, Women Divided: Comparative Studies of Ten Contemporary Cultures. Patricia Caplan and Janet M. Bujra, eds. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. This article is a discussion of age and sex as the main principles of social hierarchy among the Maasai. It argues that women's socially inferior status is because of a lack of jural rights granting them the ownership of animals. Although at the time of marriage women may be given a number of animals to whose milk they have disposal rights, women can never dispose of their stock. Ruled by a seniority principle, women are subordinate to older men who have property rights to animals. Restrictions imposed by gender-based relations of seniority are subverted by women who regularly engage in adulterous relations.   *** Llewelyn-Davies, Melissa 1981 Women Warriors and Patriarchs. In Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality. Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, eds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 330-358. The author describes in detail the social structure and socialization of men and women in Maasai society with relation to their rights to dispose of property. Women's status is seen as inferior and extremely oppressed, enjoying no benefits from their social organization.   ***Logashova, B.R. 1982 Transformation of the Social Organization of Iranian Tribes. Studies in the Third World Societies (Contemporary Nomadic and Pastoral peoples: Asia and the North [Issue Title]) 18:53-60.   Key Words: Kinship Systems/Marriage/Political Organization/Qashqa'i/ Iran   **Longhurst, Richard, Robert Chambers, and Jeremy Swift 1986 (July) Seasonality and Poverty: Implications for Policy and Research. IDS Bulletin 17(3):67-70. This paper briefly discusses the importance of seasonality and seasonal stress on different communities. With reference to pastoralist groups, this argument has the advantage of reminding policymakers of the differential impact on men and women of both patterned and unanticipated changes in seasonality.   ***Loude, Jean-Yves 1980 Kalash: Les Derniers "infidèles" de l'Hindu-Kush. Paris, France: Berger-Levrault. (Espace des Hommes.) On the basis of 1976 fieldwork, Loude describes the culture and belief of the Kalash agropastoralists who live in the mountainous northwest region of Pakistan. Loude recounts two significant instances of socially enforced gender separation in Kalash society: during the summer transhumance and during women's menese and childbirth. Men are exclusively associated with animal husbandry, which is considered "pure", while women who are "impure" stay in a special house, the bashali, which is prohibited to men.   ***Loutan, Louis 1982 (October) Les Soins de la mère et de l'enfant en zone pastorale: Propositions (Rapport préliminaire). Niamey, Niger: USAID/République du Niger, Ministère du Développement Rural. (Niger Range and Livestock Project.) This report on maternal and infant care delivery to pastoral populations in Niger completed for the Niger Range and Livestock Project critiques the traditional health extension model. Because of the social organization of pastoralists and their mobility, traditional midwives do not exist. The author proposes the general diffusion of health techniques through a more limited training that better responds to pastoral women's needs and that integrates traditional practices. ***Mackenzie, Fiona 1990 (July) Gender and Land Rights in Muranga'a District, Kenya. Journal of Peasant Studies 17(4):609-643. Although this article does not refer to pastoral subsistence activities and related customary laws on rights to resources, it provides a useful frame of analysis in dealing with complexities associated with inerlocking relationships among: land tenure; organization of labor based on sex, age, and clan membership; and the various mechanisms of distribution and exchange in Murang'a district of Kenya. Using familiar Kinship idioms, men interpret various state laws that legitimate individualization of land ownership to their own benefit, without commensurately remunerating women's increased work load. Women, in turn, resist their growing subordination by participating in voluntary collective action groups to counter male solidarity based on kinship ideology.   *Maconi, V. 1979 L'uomo e il bue. Una cultura resistente. Genova: Libreria Mondini e sicardi Ed. (Collana di Studi Etnologici 5.)   ***March, Kathryn S., and Rachelle Taqqu 1982 Women's Informal Associations and the Organizational Capacity for Development. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, Center for International Studies. (Rural Development Committee Monograph Series No.5.) A valuable discussion of Women's informal associations and groupings. It argues that although the number of studies on women's economic roles in the household has burgeoned, few systematic efforts have focused on women's informal associations and their potential for political and economic mobilization. Although the study does not primarily focus on empirical cases drawn from pastoralist communities, it is of substantive value especially in the context of African pastoralism, where polygyny, age-sets, and religeous associations may provide cultural mechanisms through which potential benefits of development interventions can reach women.   **Marcoux, Richard 1985 Fécondité et mortalité chez les nomades et les sédentaires (Travail de Session présenté à l'Université de Montréal). Unpublished manuscript.   Key Words: In French/Demography/Fertility/Mortality/Marriage/Bamana/FulBe/Tuareg/Mauritania/Mali   ****Martin, M. Kay, and Barbara Voorhies 1975 Women in Pastoral Society. In Female of the Species. M. Kay Martin, ed. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Pp. 333.425. An early anthropological discussion of the roles and the status of women in pastoralist communities based on an evolutionary model of development of different systems of subsistence. It argues that women in pastoral societies take a relatively small part in productive activities, but their participation in the daily affairs and structural hierarchy of their communities does not definitively follow the same pattern.   ***Martin, C. 1956 Nomad Women of the Sahara. In Geogr.Mag., 28: 451-457.     ***Martins, Christine 1990 (October ) Zür Rolle von Frauen in der Tierproduktion der Driten Welt: Literaturübersicht. (GTZ-Projekt 90.9127.3-91.100.) Berlin, Germany: GTZ. (Arbeitspapier zum GTZ-Projekt "Frauenförderung in de Tierproduktion.") A bibliographic review of the literature on women's role in animal production in Latin America, The Carribean, North africa and Southwest Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.   ***Marty, André 1990 Les oraganisations coopératives en milieu pastoral: Héritage et enjeux. In Cahiers Sciences Humanines 26(1-2):121-135. Review of experience in promoting pastoral cooperatives in francophone West Africa, with groups based on either kinship or territory. The cooperatives are most effective in managing groups based on cereal banks and distributing food aid. In hierarchical societies such as the Tuareg, democratic decision-making is difficult to attain although some evidence of youth and women exercising countervailing power is emerging. Pastoral organizations are in a good position to negociate with government bodies and representatives of external markets, and are partners for development agents in analysing, planning, implementing, evaluating and replanning. This process approach to pastoral developments demands firm but flexible commitment by donors, over a period of at least a decade and without quantitative objectives fixed in advance.   ***Marx, Emanuel 1967 Bedouin of the Negev. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. This books covers in detail the functions served by kinship and corporate groups among the Bedouin of the Negev and offers information on ecology and the administrative environment as well. The influence women wield in each group is substantial. The Negev Bedouin are a patrilineal society in which only men inherit land, cisterns, and herds. Women's possessions are few: ornaments, clothings, bedding and sometimes a sheep or goat. If a woman's husband dies, responsabilities for her, rests with her sons or her agnates. Women cannot participate in the political system, but have distinct rights in the domestic one.   ***Marx, Emanuel 1986 Bedouin Labour Migrants of South Sinai: Cash and Security Economics. Paper presented at African Studies Association Conference on Migration and the Labour Market, Canterbury, UK, April 1986. The article discusses the pattern of migration among men in Israel. Bedouin women are briefely mentioned as involved in herding and gardening. The author argues that their segregation is not a sign of social subordination. In fact, women are in charge of the domestic economy, which draws its cash resources primarly from remittances.   ***Marx, Emanuel 1986 Labour Migrants with a Secure Base: Bedouin of South Sinai. In Migrants, Workers, and the Social Order. Jeremy Eades, ed. London, UK: Tavistock. Pp. 148-164. (Association of Social Anthropologists Monograph No. 26.) Marx discusses how male migration for wage labor has affected the organization of work and the conception of work among the Bedouin herders of the South Sinai. He makes several interesting points about the gender division of labor. When men migrate to work for wages, women and children are obliged to tend flocks and gardens. Both women and children herd goats. Because of long-term migration, men and women have different social networks and sources of information, and, Marx postulates, women can obtain power through controlling access to this information.   **Marx, Emanuel 1987 Relations between Spouses among the Negev Bedouin. Ethnos 52(I-II):156-179.   Key Words: Labor/Gender/Women/Kinship Systems/Household/Islam/Bedouin/Negev/Israel   ***Massae, E. E. 1990 Women in Livestock Development: Tanzanian Experience. Paper presented at the Women in Livestock Development (WILD) Conference (Sponsored by Heifer Project International), Little Rock, AR, 20-22 May 1990. This short report discusses the integrated dairy programs in the Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions of Tanzania, which aim to develop smallholder dairy activities. Because of the concentration of coffee-banana plantations, pasture is scarce in the region. As a result, an intensive cattle-rearing system is practiced through zero grazing accompanied by the cut-and-carry method of feeding. Women, in addition to carrying fodder, are involved in cleaning cowshed and calf pens. Women also milk and carry milk to dairy plant collection centers or to markets. The data indicate a disparity between men's and women's work loads: in 1989 women worked 1,842 hours per year, which is equal to 71.6 percent of their lifetime; on the other hand, men worked only 492 hours per year, or 19.1 percent of their lifetime.   **Meeker, Michael E. 1989 The Pastoral Son and the spirit of the Patriarchy. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.   Key Words: Pastoralism/Religion/Political Power/Kinship Systems/Life Cycle/Men/Women/Gender Differentiation/Age Groups-Male/Livestock Exchange/Cattle/Hima/Kikuyu/Nguni/Nuer/Dinka/Sotho/Somali/Somalia/Sudan   ***Meillassoux, C. 1976 Die wilden Früchte der Frau.Über häusliche Produktion und Kapitalistische Wirtschaft. Frankfurt am Main.   **Meillassoux, C. 1979 Femmes, greniers et capitaux. Paris: Maspero.   ***Meir, Avinoam 1987 Nomads, Development and Health: Delivering Public Health Services to the Bedouin in Israel. Geografiska Annaler 69 B(2): 115-126. This description of the provision of public health service to pastoral nomads in Israel discusses difficulties involving availability, accessibility, and cultural compatibility of these services to sedentarized nomads. The absence of any culturally appropriate medical services is especially apparent in the case of bedouin women who have less access to medical facilities. Barred by cultural values, women are segregated and have access to medical facilities only through te mediating roles of Bedouin male relatives. The author rightfully argues that the problem with Bedouin health care is in part an outcome of an inadequate Bedouin education system that leads to difficulties in recruiting qualified Bedouin health-care personnel who could bridge cultural and ethnic boundaries.   ***Meir, Avinoam, and Dov Barnea 1987 The Educational System of the Israeli Negev Bedouin. Nomadic Peoples 24:23-35. This article discusses the role of formal education services provided to the Negev Bedouin following their sedentarization in the 1950s and 1969s. In particular, an analysis of girls'participation in education demonstrates that despite advances in the agregate numbers of girls attending schools from 0% in the 1960s to 40% in 1986, these numbers hide both inter-tribal and inter-school differences. In addition, the age-sex structure of scool enrollment shows a steady decrease in females especially after the eight grade.   ****Merryman, J. 1978 Ecology, Economy and Women's Changing Roles: An Extermination of Drought-Induced Settlement of Pastoral Nomads (Ms.).   ****Merryam, Nancy Hawk 1984 Economy and Ecological Stress: Household Strategies of Transitional Somali Pastoralists in Northern Kenya. Ph.D, dissertation, Northwestern University. This dissertation, based od fieldwork undertaken between 1972 and 1983, includes a great deal of data on women, children, women's work, and status among Somali pastoralists who have to settle because of social and ecological crises.   ***Michael, Barbara J. 1988? Extending the models: Gender Roles in Segmentary Societies. Unpublished Manuscript.   Key Words: Women/Intrahousehold Differentiation/Life Cycle/Bagarra/Sudan   **Michael, Barbara J. 1987? Pastoral Nomadic Cheesemaking and Marketing-Consultancy Report. Unpublished Manuscript.   Key Words: Women/dairy Marketing/Trade/Information Access/Income/Bagarra/Sudan   ***Michael, Barbara J. 1985? Production and Consumption by Gender and Role among Transhumants in Western Sudan: The Bagarra (Hawazma) of Kordodfan. Pullman, WA: Washington State University. (Western Sudan Agricultural Research Project [WSARP] Publication No. 52.)   Key Words: Gender/Household/Women/Pastoralism/Bagarra/Sudan   ***Michael, Barbara J. 1984 Hawazma Women's Roles and Development. Paper presented at the Kordofan Women in Development Seminar, El Obeid, Sudan, 19-21 June 1984.   Key Words: Women/Dairy Marketing/Bagarra/Sudan ***Michael, Barbara J. 1987 Cows, Bulls and Gender Roles: Pastoral Strategies for Survival and Continuity in Western Sudan. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas, Department of Anthropology.   Key Words: Women/Health/Gender/Environment/Household/Agricultural Production/Sedentarization/Veterinary Services/Education/Bagarra/Sudan   ***Michael, Barbara J. 1987 Milk Production and Sales by the Hawazma (Baggara) of Sudan: Implications for Gender roles. Research in Economic Anthropology 9:105-141. A descriptive account of socioecological organization of the Oulad Nuba lineage of the Hawazma, one of the Baggara peoples of western Sudan. Women's seclusion in what is called the private domain is, however, countered by a degree of autonomy that is rooted in their traditional rights over the distribution of milk for household consumption. Increase in the societal demand for chese and other dairy products has opened an avenue for women to earn income, as a similar increase in the demand for meat has provided potential cash opportunities for men who traditionally have been responsible for animal husbandry. This study indicates few signs of conflict between men and women over competing sources of cash income, and, in fact, claims a continuity in women's roles.   ****Michael, Barbara J. 1990 Baggara Women as Market Strategists. Paper presented at the American Anthropological Association Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, 1990 (November). This document discusses the role of Baggara Women in the production and marketing of milk and dairy products. Baggara women's participation in all stages of this economic activity contrasts with the only partial participation of other nomadic women in similar income-generating activities. Marketing skills of women are not a new phenomenon resulting from Baggara integration into the cash economy. Women's cash contributions to household budgets account for up to two-thirds of total annual household incomes.   ****Michael, Barbara J. 1991 The Impact of International Wage Labor Migration on Hawazma (Baggara) Pastoral Nomadism. Nomadic Peoples 28:56-70. Michael dicusses the causes and effects of international labor migration among the Hawazma (Baggara) pastoralists in Sudan. Because of the economic autonomy of Baggara women, who draw cash from their dairy marketing activities, income generated by labor migrants are used to expand their livestock holdings or to purchase gifts for a wide network of relatives who will act as security buffer in case of environmental calamities. Male migration does not affect the social status of Baggara women, who are placed under the protection of a male relative. Migration can be economically lucrative, allowing women increased access to milk and dairy goods. ***Michael, Barbara J. 1989 Fertility Patterns among Pastoral Nomads: Problems of Data Quality Control: A Baggara Case. Unpublished Manuscript.   Key Words: Fertility/Women/Research Methodology/Baggara/Sudan   **Mihayl, Marion 1969 The Changing Status of Women in the Middle East: A Statement of Culture Change. Greeley, CO: Colorado State College. (Museum of Anthropology Miscellaneous Series No. 6.) An evaluation of the common Muslim Practice of purdah (seclusion of women) from a western point of view. Discussion of Quranic literature pertinent to women. The roots of change in contemporary female status in southwest Asia are traced to education and exposure to western values. Progress is also attributed to those Muslim national leaders who publicly rejected the veiling of women and other symbols of purdah. Examples are drawn mostly from Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Morocco, and Turkey.   ***Mohsen, Safia Kassem 1967 The Legal Status of Women among Awlad 'Ali. Anthropological Quarterly 40(3):153-166. This article describes the political rights of women among the Awlad 'Ali Bedouin in Egypt. These rights are closely tied to marriage and kinship relations.   ***Mohsen, Safia Kasem 1975 Conflict and Law among Awlad 'Ali of the Western Desert. Cairo, Egypt: National Center for Social and Criminological Research. Trained in both anthropology and jurisprudence, the author carried out field research in 1965-1966, focusing on judicial processes among an agropastoral Bedouin group with neither centralized authority nor a formal court system. Mohsen points out the disadvantages she faced as a woman anthropologist in a "strongly male centered" society, but she was able to obtain excellent case materials relating to marriage and to the position of women within the community.   ****Monimart, Marie 1989 Femmes du Sahel: La Désrtification au quotidien. Paris, France: Karthala/OCDE/Club du Sahel. Monimart examines the effects of desertification on women in the Sahel. The book is organized into chapters on rural women and: desertification, male migration, development activities, jural rights to land and resources, successful projects, organization and trainig, overwork, fertility, and politics. Besides describing the major problems that women face, she proposes alternative strategies, policies, and methodologies to force development rhetoric to match reality. Noting that studies of women in pastoralism are rare, she does use several case studies of pastoral women in her book. Her conclusion that women must be involved in the fight against desertification and in family planning is well taken.   ****Monimart, Marie 1989 (December) Women in the Fight against Desertification. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development. (IIED Dryland Programme Issues Paper No. 12.) This document argues that any development effort to combat deforestation should closely integrate women as active partners in decision making and implementation. Women in the sahel are increasingly aware of the adverse effects of the twin problems of population growth and environmental degradation. Male out-migration has increased women's labor load in agricultural activities. Women more often than not crop family plots at the expense of their own, often without being awarded the legal appropriation rights. Most afforestation projects have involved women by using their labor without incorporating them into decision-making processes. A negative attitude toward women's capabilities is a feature of both the local ideologies and the development agents, although women have proven to be reliable recipients of loans and participants in different collaborative works. Female participants in reforestation projects are often compensated under "food for work" arrangements rather than more valued wages.   ***Moris, Jon R. 1988 (September) Oxfam's Kenya Restocking Projects. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute. (ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper 26c.) Moris describes Oxfam's experiences with four livestock restocking projects in east Africa in the mid-1980s. The projects were implemented in order to enable pastoralist families to return to a transhument life style. Moris reviews the difficulties encountered by Oxfam and other donor agencies with restocking projects as well as some figures on cost. He mentions that women heads of houseolds successfully participated in the project. In addition, women responded that they could manage to care for nontraditional animals such as camels.   ***Morton, John 1990 (November) Aspects of Labour in an Agro-Pastoral Economy; The Northern Beja of Sudan, London, UK: Overseas Development Institute. (ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper 30b.) A discussion of the Beja agropastoral society. The economy of agropastoralism is the outcome of interaction among ecological constraints, household labor organization along sex and age variables, patterns of migration affected by household wealth, and the felt needs of herding units for hired labor. Cultural norms prohibit women from taking part in milking and most agricultural work. Labor migration, an important aspect of agropastoral economy, may contribute substantial cash to the household budget and allow families to purchase additional animals.   ***Müller, Julius Otto 1985 (May) Etude sur la sensibilisation de la population locale en vue de sa participation active à des mesures agroforestières: Compte tenu des structures socio-économiques et politico-administratives. (Projekt GTZ 75.2003.4.) Göttingen, FRG: Institut für Rurale Entwicklung, Universität Göttingen. (Reboisement des alentours des puits dans le nord du Sénégal"; Secteur reboisement communautaire dans l'arrondissement de Yang-Yang.) This project document presents findings of a reconnaissance trip to Yin Yang "arrondissement" in the Ferlo region of Senegal. Professor Müller held discussions with Wolof and FulBe political and religeous leaders, women's groups, and villagers on agroforestry. The document acknowledges the critical socioeconomic role of women, and notes that within the high rate of out-migration of young men, wpmen will execute an important portion of the project tasks. But no mention is made of the time constraints women face, or how these will be taken into account by the project.   ***Müller, Julius Otto 1990 Untersuchung zum traditionellen Kultur- und Weidesystem der Peul im Umfeld des GTZ-Projektes "Destifikationsbekämpfung" in Vidou-Thiengoli, Sahel des Senegal: Materialien und Interpretionsansätzeaufgrud von Einzelfallstudien. Göttingen, FRG: Institut für Rurale Entwincklung. Universität Göttingen.   Key Words: In German/Agropastoralism/Environmental Degradation/Division of Labor-Gender/Women/Herd Management/Land Use/Water Management/Marketing/FulBe/Senegal   ***Munei, K. 1990 Grazing Schemes and groups Ranches as Models for Developing Grazing Lands in Kenya. In BAXTER, P.T.W., HOGG, R. (Eds.): Property, Poverty and People: Changing Rights in Property and Problems of Pastoral Development: 110-120. Manchester: University of Manchester, Department of Social Anthropology/International Development Centre.   **Murray, Colin 1981 Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labor in Lesotho. Johannesburg, South Africa: Ravan Press.   Key Words: Migration/Land Use/Women/Household/Marriage/Polygamy/Division of Labor-Gender/Domestic Work/Kinship Systems/Lesotho   ***Musse, Fouzia Mohamed 1988 (October) Situation of Women (Ex-Herder) in Settled Areas. Paper presented at the ACORD Workshop on Pastoral Systems and Social Change, (Agency for Cooperation and Research in Development) Mogadishu, Somalia, October 25-27, 1988. In this paper, Musse delineates the lives of two Somalian women, widowed heads of families, who moved (originally to live with their husbands) from pastoral to urban settings. Women's responsabilities, skills, rights, and aspirations in the two settings are compared: their responsabilities are greater in the pastoral setting, but not all their skills are transferable to the city; city dwellers tend to understand their rights more fully and have higher aspirations, especially for their children. The movable, temporary housing of pastoral life provides more privacy butperhaps les comfort than an urban dwelling; both tend to be crowded. Musse recommends that programs to help alleviate female poverty concentrate on providing low-interest credit and trining in skills other than those common to pastoral women.   ****Nelson, Cynthia 1973 Women and Power in Nomadic Societies in the Middle East. In The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the Wider Society. Cynthia Nelson, ed. Berkeley, California: University of California at Berkeley, Institute of International Studies. Pp. 43-59. (Institute of International Studies Research Series No. 21.) The author explores male ethnographers' conceptions of nomadic women in the Middle Eastern societies. She quotes extensively from such ethnographers as Barth and Asad to demonstrate their reductionist approach regarding women's spheres of influence and political power. Cunnison provides an exception in the literature by describing Baggara women as playing a significant role in politics. Nelson includes several female accounts of Middle Eastern women, which describe them as having a variety of important roles and influences regarding war, marriage, divorce, and the supernatural. Nelson identifies Islam as a possible factor in increased gender separation and sedentarization as a cause of women's increased workloads.   ****Nelson, Cynthia 1974 (August) Public and Private Politics: Women in the Middle Eastern World. American Ethnologist 1:551-563.   Key Words: Women/Research Methodology/Gender/Stratification/Pastoralism/Households/Southwest Asia   ***Nestel, Penelope S. 1985? Nutritional Status of Maasai Women and Children in Relation to Subsistence Food Production (Draft). Unpublished manuscript.   Key Words: Nutritional/Women/Health/Food/Maasai/Kenya/Tanzania   ***Nestel, Penelope S., and C. Geissler 1986 Potential Deficiencies of a Pastoral Diet: A Case Study of the Maasai. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 19:1-10   Key Words: Women/Children/Health/Nutrion/Food/Maasai/Kenya   **Ngubane, Harriet 1987 The Consequences for Women of Marriage Payments in a Society with Patrilineal Descent. In Transformations of African Marriage. D. Parkin and David Nyamwaya, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Pp. 173-182.   Key Words: Bridewealth/Marriage-Change/Descent Systems/Women/Cattle/Zulu//Nguni/Eastern Africa   ***Niamir, Maryam 1980 The Dinka of the Sudan: A Theoretical Framework. Unpublished manuscript.   Key Words: History/Migration/Animal Husbandry/Agropastoralism/Agricultural Production/Property Relations/Women/Division of Labor-Gender/Property Exchange/Marriage/Kinship Systems/Political Process/Trade/Development Interventions/Dinka/Sudan   ***Niamir, Maryam 1990 Community Forestry: Herders' Decision-Making in Natural Resources Management in Arid and Semi-Arid Africa. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (Community Forestry Note 4.) This informative discussion, initiated with the help of FAO, is based on the recognition that the failure of development projects directed at pastoralists communities is in part due to developers' neglect of local knowledge and management systems related to african pastoralists. It argues in favor of herders as active managers of natural resources whose decisions regarding livestock and rangeland are often directed at the long-term productivity of their environment while fulfilling their social and biological need. The economic role of women in pastoralist society is mentioned , but not extensively elaborated.   ****Niamir, Maryam 1994 (December) Women Livestock Managers in The Tird World: A Focus on the Technical Issues Related to Gender Roles in Livestock Production. Technical Issues in Rural Poverty Alleviation. International Fund for Agricultural Development, Technical Advisory Division. (Staff Working Paper 18).   *Njeru, Enos Hudson Nthia 1984 The Farming Herders: Irrigation, Reciprocity and Marriage among the Turkana Pastoralists of North-Western Kenya. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Santa Barbara.   Key Words: Irrigated Agriculture/Bridewealth/Property Exchange/Marriage/Sedentarization/Economic Diversification/ Turka/Kenya   ***Noel, Jan C., and Barbara Michael 1990? The Interaction of Physical, Biological and Socio-Economic Factors in Determining Human Roles in a Dynamic Agricultural Production System: The Hawazma Transhumants of Western Sudan (Draft). Unpublished manuscript. A short report on traditional agricultural production systems in the Western Sudan, with special empasis on the Hawazma, a transhumant subtribe of the Baggara. Contrary to the image of Islamic Pastoralist groups, Hawazma women enjoy a relatively great degree of mobility and customary rights over decisions regarding the ownership and transaction of animals and their products. As sedentarization has been taking place, women's involvement in crop production has increased, while their mobility, and therefore access to markets where they traditionally traded their dairy goods, has declined. Although the importance of women's role is mentioned as the mediating link in development efforts, no concrete strategy is suggested to improve their status.   ***Nolte, Marianne 1985 (July) Women's Work: The Ignorance Persists. Sudanow 1405:28-30. This document argues that in hierarchial societies where every day privileges are distributed unequally, a crises, for example drought, can aggravate the already low access of women to food and other critical elements of survival. In the western region of Sudan, where eating habits forbid women to eat in male comapany and leave them with small quantity of leftovers from men, famine has worsened women's inferior nutritional status. At the time of drought, women inadvertently contribute to environmental degradation because they have to travel longer distances to procure fuelwood and water. To enhance women's coping capacity during drought, extension services should make special eforts to reach women who, because of cultural values, may not be allowed to interact with male extension officers. Attention should be devoted to the social position of women in the household and the society. Women's traditional skills can be mobilized as a source of income.   ***Nyerges, A. Endre 1987 (25 February) Mali Livestock Sector Project: A Mid-Term Evaluation Report. Binghamton, NY: Institute for Development Anthropology. This document results from the evaluation of the Mali Livestock Sector Project. Objectives to be accomplished involved a Cattle Feeding Credit Program, Forage and Livestock Production Research, Vaccine Production and Improvement of Diagnostic Skills, and Improvement of the Veterinary Services Delivery System. Although the project was evaluated as being successful in fulfilling its goals, the neglect of women's needs in relation to improvement of small ruminants was judged as a shorcoming.   ***Nyerges, A. Endre, and Muneera Salem-Murdock 1988 (April) Socioeconomic Methodology for Base-Line Studies of Pastoral Communities. Binghamton, NY: Institute for Development Anthropology. (UNDP/FAO Regional Range Management Project.) This document discusses methodology and makes recommendations for field researchers and planners working with pastoralists in various regions of Southwest Asia and North Africa. The importance of male out-migration on gender division of labor is also discussed.   ***Nyhus, Sheila 1984 The Cycle of Women's Lives: Culture and Economy among the Rahanweyn of Somalia. African Studies Association Twenty-Seventh Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, CA, 25-28 October 1984.   Key Words: Women/Domestic Work/Property Exchange/Socialization of Children/Division of Labor-Children/Divorce/Widows/Pastoralism/Rahanweyn/Somalia   ***Nyhus, S.M., Massey, G. 1986 Female-Headed Households in an agropastoral-Society. Presented at the Conference on Gender Issues on Farming Systems Res. and Extention. Gainesville: University of Florida.   **O'Mahony, F., and Ephraim Bekele 1985 (October) Traditional Butter Making in Ethiopia and Possible Improvements. International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) Bulletin 22:9-14. This article discusses the results of a survey of traditional butter making in the ethiopian highlands. Although the authors did not incorporate a gender analysis into their discussion, any improvement in butter making has the potential of benefiting women's labor-time allocation and the income derived from their sale of butter.   **Oboler, Regina Smith 1985 Women, Power and Economic Change: The Nandi of Kenya, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. This ethnographic study of gender relations among the Nandi, a semipastoral people of Western Kenya, argues that women's conditions in present-day Nandi culture have resulted from a unique conjunction of such historical processes as colonialism, world capitalism, and certain preexisting social, cultural, economic, and ecological features.   Oshuag, Arne 1992 La situation alimentaire et nutritionnelle au niveau des ménages et le rôle des femmes dans la gestion des ressources naturelles en vue de la sécurité alimentaire au Gourma et Koutiala. Arne Oshaug [et al.]. Oslo: Université d'Oslo, Institut des Recherches Nutritionnelles (Rapport d'étape sécurité alimentaire-femmes). Programme de recherche Sahel, Soudan, Ethiopie- Projet de recherche "Environnement et Développement au Mali.   Key Words: Mali/Food Security/Agricultural Projects/Women's Role/Resources management/Rural Women/Villages/Nomads/Human Nutrition/Surveys/Norway   ***Ould Cheikh, Abdel Wedoud 1989 Nomadisme et capitalisme périphérique en Mauritanie. In AIT AMARA, H., FOUNOU-TCHUIGOUA, B. (Eds.): L'agriculture africaine en crise, dans ses rapports avec l'état, l'industrialisation et la paysannerie: 225-275. Paris: L'Harmattan/Institut de Recherche des Nations Unies pour le Développement Social (UNRISD.) (Forum du Tiers Monde.)   ***Overholt, Catherine, Mary B. Anderson, Kathleen Cloud, et al. 1985 Women in Development: A Framework for Project Analysis. In Gender Roles in Development Projects: A Case Book. Catherine Overholt, Mary B. Anderson, Kathleen Cloud, et al., eds. West Harford, CT; Kumarian Press. In response to the persistant failure of project designers to incorporate women into developments plans, this article attempts to establish a coherent framework that would facilitate the intedgration of women into the development process. This model is a flexible instrument on which development plans could be designed and applied in accordance with each case's specific conditions and constraints.       ***Oxby, Clare 1975 Pastoral Nomads and Development/Les Pasteurs nomades face au développement. London, UK: International African Institute. Clare Oxby brought together in 1975 a short bibliography of literature on herding societies, focused particularly on those peoples residing in the African sudanian and sahelian zones. Its brief overview in both french and english is a good introduction for students and project techniciens.   ***Oxby, Clare 1982 (January) Group Ranches in Africa. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute. (ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper 13d.) Group ranches are distinguished from other types of ranches. A group ranch is defined as a demarcated area of rangeland to which a group of pastoralists, who graze their individually owned herds on it, have official land rights. However, the traditional rights of women and children to the ownership of livestock in some pastoralist communities may be eroded by the institutionalization of group ranches that require the registration of all the animals in the name of the household head, thereby increasing sex and age inequalities.   ****Oxby, Clare 1983 Women's Contribution to Animal Husbandry and Production. World animal Review No. 48:2-11. The notable absence of pastoral women in development projects does not reflect their actual involvement in the care and management of livestock. There is a general lack of information on the social organization and division of labor in the pastoralist household. Development planners and animal husbandry technicians generally work more with settled agricultural communities in devising complementary economic activities, and do not address pastoralist societies. In a few projects attemps are being made to address some of the issues through the addition of female extension workers and project focused on women livestock holders. However, important cultural restrictions remain on women's decision making regarding livestock management in the absence of men.   ****Oxby, Clare 1986 Women and the Allocation of Herding Labour in a Pastoral Society (Southern Kel Ferwan Twareg, Niger). In Le fils et le neveu: Jeux et enjeux de la parenté touarègue. S. Bernus, P. Bonte, L. Brock, et. al., eds. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 99-127. This is a short article on the crucial role of women in the reproduction of labor relations among the Twareg in Niger. Although men formally represent their households and own and manage the herd, women's ownership of the tent and their managerial role in the allocation of milk are important variables in residence and consumption patterns.   ****Oxby, Clare 1987 Women Unveiled: Class and Gender among Kel Ferwan Twareg. Ethnos 52(I-II):119-136. Oxby illustrates in detail how gender inequalities among the Kel Ferwan Twareg are intrinsically conditioned by the more fundamental axes of stratification, namely, class inequalities. While among the Kel Ferwan women's movements in general are more constrained than men's, within the household hierarchy the rights and privileges of high status women are in sharp contrast to those of the servant class. Class inequalities are articulated in terms of both the number and types of animal owned. The Kel Ferwan's nominal adherence to Islam is depicted by the rarity of polygamy, by the presence of divorce initiated by women, and by deviation from islamic inheritance laws in favor of indigenous practices. Although there exists a sexual division of labor, women's relative status is influenced by jural rights allowing them to own animals. This article includes the social category of servants, often neglected in debates about social stratification in pastoral nomadic societies.   ****Oxby, Clare 1989 (June) The Involvement of Pastoralists and Agropastoralists Women in Livestock Programmes. Oxford, UK: Oxfam. (GADU [Gender and Development Unit] Newspak No. 9.) This short article critiques the commonly held rhetoric within NGOs about the need to include women in the process of program design and implem,entation. It rightfully suggests that more data are needed on gender divisions of labor and different indigenous mechanism of property exchange, which may provide culturally acceptable channels for restocking projects that involve women.   ****Oxby, Clare 1989 (September) African Livestock-Keepers in Recurrent Crisis: Policy Issues Arising from the NGO Response. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development.   Key Words: Women/Drought/Development Interventions/Pastoralism/Development policy/Economic Diversification/Research Methodology/Sedentarization/Natural Resource Management/Africa   ****Oxby, Clare 1990 The "Living Milk" Runs Dry: The Decline of a Form of Joint Ownership and Matrilineal Inheritance among the Tuareg (Niger). In Property, Poverty and People: Changing Rights in Property and Problems of Pastoral Development. P. T. W. Baxter, ed. Manchester, UK: University of Manchester, Department of Social Anthropology and International Development Centre. Pp. 222-228. The matrilineally transmitted institution of "living milk"among the Twareg is discussed as a compensatory form of property exchange that would enhance women's access to property in the context of discriminatory Muslim inheritance laws, which grant a woman half of what a man's share might be. As pre-Islamic practice, this form of women's access to property was tolerated by Muslim Scholars.   ****Oxby, Clare, and ACORD (Agency for Cooperation and Research in Development) 1990 Peuples Pasteurs en crise: Les réponses des organisations non giouvernementales en Afrique. Paris, France: Syros-Alternatives. In this richly documented volume on the nongovernmental response to the crisse in African Pastoralism, Clare Oxby clearly describes the major issues arising in agropastoral and pastoral development interventions in the 1980s. Oxby draws on the experiences of 13 NGO projects in Africa to analyze the Strengths and weakness of their strategies to reach the poor. Focal in her argument is the lack of attention given to women. Women pastoralists are singled out for special attention by Oxby because they are overlooked and stereotyped as only involved in milk production. She asks NGOs to create a special position for a woman who would evaluate every project for its impact on women. She makes seven recommendations concerning women. Four are directed at the NGO project cycle: understand the gender division; note the number of female-headed households; encourage women's participation in animal husbandry activities; and place women in decision-making roles. Finally, she suggests several strategies for reaching women: (1) don't let the cultural myths of what is proper pastoralist woman's role impede social change projects-these cultures are changing, she points out, and women are in need of attention; (2) support women through existing women's groups; and (3) try using existing customs of female inheritance in order to give women access to animal loans/ownership.   ***Oxfam 198? [Pastoralist Bibliography prepared by Oxfam (File No. 104)]. Unpublished manuscript.   Key Words: Bibliography/Women/Livestock/Development Interventions/Nongovernmental Organizations/Tuareg/Turkana/Larim/Pokot/Kenya/Ethiopia/Somalia/Niger   ****Oxfam 1988 Minutes and Comments from Pastoralist Development Working Group, Khartoum, 26-27 October 1988.   Key Words: Development Interventions/Nongovernmental Organizations/Project Implementation/Environmental Degradation/Veterinary Services/Water Resources/Food/Community Participation/Women/Somalia/Sudan   ****Oxfam 1989 Pastoral Women's Workshop, Nakita Center, Lodwar, Kenya, 8-12 May 1989. Oxford, UK: Oxfam. The first workshop of a group of East Pastoral Women sponsored by Oxfam to discuss issues of gender, development, an change. The report gives an informal description of the workshop proceeding, which included;cultural exchanges, a comparison of the work day, gender analysis of common proverbs, and a discussion of development. No description of the funder's goals was included in the report.   ****Oxfam 1989 Pastoral Women's Workshop (Pictures only-Report for a non-literate women), Nakita Center, Lodwar, Kenya, 8-12 May 1989. Oxford, UK: Oxfam.   Key Words: Women/Development Interventions/Maasai/Turkana/Samburu/Kenya   ****Oxfam Kenya 1989 Second Pastoral Women's Workshop [Oxfam-Minutes of the Meeting], Baragoi, Kenya, 3-8 December 1989. The second meeting of a group of East African Pastoral women under the sponsorship of Oxfam to discuss issues of gender, development, and change, is here described.   ***Panter-Brick, C. 1986 Women's Work and Child-Bearing Experience: Two Ethnic Groups of Salme, Nepal. Contributions to Nepalese Studies 13(2):137-148. Reporting on continuous observation in 1982-1983 of a sample of 78 pregnant, lactating, and nonchildbearing women, Panter-Brick examines differences in the work and family rearing experience of two ethnic groups in Salme village in central Nepal. Tamang women's tasks are varied and spatially wide-ranging; farming, herding (of cattle, sheep, and goats), pounding crops, grinding flour, cooking, housekeeping, and child care, but except for pounding crops, men also perform these tasks with moderate frequency. These women go far into the forest for fuelwood, medicinal hersbs, and special grasses for their cattle, and are sometimes stationed at temporary, movable cattle shelters on the mountainside to keep the animals away from the growing crops while they graze (and their dropping fertilize) the fallow fields. Division of labor by gender is much sharper among the Kami; women engage in farm chores and care for the home, the children and the family's few domestic animals (which are kept close to home), but their small plots are near the village and they do not venture farther than the edge of the forest. Women's status is more equal to men's, divorce easier, and sexual behavior less restrained among the predominantly Buddist Tamang than among the Hindu Kami, though family size is larger on average for the Kami who marry earlier.   **** Pape-Christiansen, Andrea 1996 Livestock: the Women are the Experts. In ICARDA/CAROVAN Issue No. 3 Spring/Summer 1996. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). Aleppo, Syria.     ****Pape-Christiansen, Andrea 1994 The Contribution of Women to Labor and Decision Making Processes in Bedouin Farming Systems in Northern Syria. In Pasture, Forage and Livestock Program. Annual Report for 1994. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). Aleppo, Syria.   ***Park, Thomas 1989 (Fall) Select Bibliography on Pastoralism with a Focus on Arid Lands. Unpublished manuscript.   Key Words: Bibliography/Pastoralism/Southwest Asia/Central Asia/Asia/Africa   ** Parking, D., and David Nyamwaya 1987 Introduction: Transformations of African Marriage: Change and Choice. In Transformations of African Marriage. D. Parking and David Nyamwaya, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Pp. 1-34.   Key Words: Marriage-Change/Kinship Systems/Descent Systems/Divorce/Polygamy/Bridewealth/Africa   *Pastner, Carroll M. 1972 A Social Structural and Historical Analysis of Honor, Shame, and Purdah. Anthropological Quarterly 45(4):248-261.   Key Words: Religion/Gender Segregation/Baluch/Pakistan/Baluchistan   *Pastner, Carroll M. 1974 Accomodatons to Purdah: The Female Perspective. Journal of Marriage and the Family 36(2):408-414.   Key Words: Women/Gender Differentiation/Baluchistan/Pakistan   **Pastner, Carroll M. 1978 The Status of Women and Property on a Baluchistan Oasisin Pakistan. In Women in the Muslim World. Lois Beck and Nikki Keddie, eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Pp. 434-450. This article explores the relationship between Muslim (Koranic) dictates concerning women's economic and inheritance rights and actual practices among the people of the Makrani oasis community. The general conclusion is that while women do in fact inherit property in the village studied, according to islamic prescriprions there is a distinction to be made between legal transmission of property and actual control.   **Pastner, Carroll M. 1981 The Negotiation of Bilateral Endogamy in the Middle Eastern Context: The Zikri Baluch Example. Journal of Anthropological Research 37(4):305-318.   Key Words: Marriage/Religion/Kinship Systems/Baluch/Southwest Asia   **Pastner, Carroll M. 1982 Rethinking the Role of the Woman Field Worker in Purdah Societies. Human Organization 41(3):262-264. In this brief article, the author adresses the problems faced by women anthropologists doing ethnographic fieldwork in areas where purdah (the sexual segragation and seclusion of women) is observed. As a point of interest, she notes that purdah is not as strictly observed among urbanites or nomads as among rural villages in Pakistan.   ***Pastner, Stephen Lane 1971 Camp and Territory among the Nomads of Northern Makran District, Baluchistan: The Role of Sedentary Communities in Pastoral Social Organization. Ph.D. dissertation, Brandeis University. This document results from a field research conducted in the Baluchistan region of Pakistan and focuses on the relationship between sedentary groups, political interests reflected in the policies of central political power, and their subsequent effects on the internal social organization of the nomadic groups in the region. Women's status and arenas of social activities are conditioned by the ideology of male honor whose fulfillment rests on gender segregation ensuring female chastity.   ***Pastner, Stephen Lane 1971 (July) Ideological Aspects of Nomad-Sedentary Contact: A Case from Southern Baluchistan. Anthropological Quarterly (Comparative Studies of Nomadism and Pastoralism [Issue Title]) 44(3):173-184. The writer examines the ways in which Baluch ideologies of feminine and masculine honor, in the context of nomad-sedentary interaction, have helped to shape aspects of Makrani nomad social organization. Such organizational features reflect the nomad's desire to shield his woman from sexual breaches that reflect on male status-a concern that is hightened during periods of nomads-sedentary contact, such as the yearly date harvest or when drought forces nomads to turn to the settlements for survival.   ***Paulme, Denise, ed. 1963 Women of Tropical Africa. H.M. Wright, trans. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.   Key Words: Division of Labor-Gender/Precolonial Period/Widows/Divorce/Polygamy/Women/Political Power/Kinship Systems/FulBe/WoodaaBe/Guinea/Niger/Central African Republic/Burundi/Senegal   ***Pehrson, Robert N. 1966 The Social Organization of the Marri Baluch. Fredrik Barth, ed. Chiacago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company. (Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology No. 43.)   Key Words: Pastoralism/Kinship Systems/Political Power/Stratification/Marriage/Women/Baluch/Pakistan   ***Pelant, Robert 1990 Health Hazards for Women. Paper presented at the Women and Livestock Development (WILD) Conference (Sponsored by Heifer Project International), Little Rock, AR, 20-22 May 1990.   Key Words: Health/Diseases/Women/Livestock   ***Perregaux, C. 1990 Femmes Sahraouies. Femmes au désert. Paris: L'Harmattan.   ***Peters, E.L. 1978 The Status of Women in Four Middle East Communities. In Women in The Muslim World. Lois, C. Beck, Nikki Keddie (Eds.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.   **Pin (La), D. (Ed.) 1987 Women and Children in Somalia: A Situation analysis. Mogadishu: UNICEF.   ****Pointing Judy 1995 The Impact of Social and Economic Change on Pastoral Women in East and West Africa. Edited by Daniel Stiles, UNEP, Nairobi.   Key Words: Division of Labor/Pastoral Societies/Livestock/Property Resources/Use Rights/Environmental Degradation/Women   **Pommerol, Jean 1900 Among the Women of the Sahara. London, UK: Hurst and Blackett. A travel document written in the tradition of nineteenth century orientalism, showing an early interest in the conditions of women's lives in the region. The author recounts her experiences with both sedentary and nomadic groups in North Africa.   **Potash, Betty 1986 Widows in Africa: An Introduction. In Widows in African Societies: Choices and Constraints. Betty Potash, ed. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.   Key Words: Women/Widows/Kinship Systems/Divorce/Residence Pattern/Life Cycle/Africa   **Potash, Betty 1989 Gender Relations in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Gender and Anthropology: Critical Reviews for Research and Teaching. Sandra Morgen, ed. Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association. Pp. 189-227.   Key Words: Women/Political Process/Economic Activities/Kinship Systems/Labor/Gender/Sub-Saharan Africa   ***Pouillon, François 1988 Cens et puissance, ou pourquoi les pasteurs nomades ne peuvent pas compter leur bétail. Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines 28(2):177-205. In this fascinating essay, Pouillon examines the apparent contradiction between the objective western notion of counting the herd and the pastoralists'inability to count their herds.   Key Words: In French/Herd Size/Inheritance/Livestock Exchange/Women/Bedouin/FulBe/Sahel/Southwest Asia   ****Poulsen, Ingrid 1996 Tuareg Women in Ahaggar. In IDOC Internazionale. International Documentation and Communication Centre (IT) 27(4):29-33.   Key Words: Algeria/Nomads/Women's Status/Social Change/Sex Roles/Traditional Culture   ***Quale, G. Robina 1988 Marriage in Pastoral-Herding Societies. In A History of Marriage Systems. G. Robina Quale, ed. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Pp. 111-126.   Key Words: Marriage/Pastoralism/Women/Property Exchange/Framework   **Quale, G. Robina 1988 Mariage in the Transition to Agriculture and Pastoral Herding: General Considerations and Early Developments. In A History of Marriage Systems. G. Robina Quale, ed. Wesport, CT: Greenwood Press. Pp. 49-79.   Key Words: Marriage/Kinship Systems/Household/Gender/Socialization of Children   **Quechon, Martine 1985 L'Instabilité matrimoniale chez les Foulbé du Diamaré. In Femmes du Cameroun: Mère pacifiques, femmes rebelles. Jean Claude Barbier, ed. Paris, France: Karthala. Pp. 299-312.   Key Words: In french/Marriage-Change/Women/Men/FulBe/Cameroon   **Radcliffe, Sarah A. 1988 (December) Gender in the Third World: A Geografical Bibliography of Recent Work. Sussex, UK: Institute of Development Studies. (Development Bibliographies No.2)   Key Words: Bibliography/Gender/Development Policy/Agricultural Production/Household/Demography/Labor/Rural-Urban Migration/Political Process/Social Differentiation/Third World   ***Randall, Sara, and Michhael Winter 1985 The Reluctant Spouse and the Illegitimate Slave: Marriage, Household Formation and Demographic Behavior amongst Malian Tamasheq from the Niger Delta and the Gourma. In Population, Health and Nutrition in the Sahel: Issues in the Welfare of Selected West African Communities. Allan G. Hill, ed. Boston, MA: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Pp. 152-183. In two communities, Tuareg women's fertility levels are lower than in comparable agricultural comminities. These fertility rates are similar if corrected for nonmarriage among Tuareg women who have high rates of singlehood due to late marriage age, divorce and widowhood. The authors demonstrate that the social relations that determine marriage, such as economic security, male-to-female ratios, age at first marriage and caste status, greatly determine fertility levels.   ***Randolph, Richard R. 1988 The Beni Meklaab Over the Horizon: Males and Females, Dogs and Bedouin. In Dialectics and Gender: Anthropological Approaches. Richard Randolph, David M. Schneider, May N. Diaz, eds. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Pp. 260-272.   Key Words: Religion/Gender Segregation/Women/Bedouin/Israel   ***Rao, Aparna 1986 (December) Roles, Status and Niches: A Comparison of Peripatetic and Pastoral Women in Afghanistan. Nomadic Peoples (Peripatetic Peoples [Issue Title]) 21/22:153-177. This article compares pastoralist and peripatetic women in Afghanistan. Pastoralists and peripatetic belong to the same macrosociety, but pastoralist women are more confined to the domestic domain of their households and enjoy less ecnomic freedom than peripatetic women, whose ethnic groups perform group-specific activities (e.g., peddling, bloodletting, fortuine telling) and occupy low status in the social hierarchy of the larger society.   *Raqiya Haji Dualeh, A. 1982 Sisters in Affliction. Circumcision and Infibulation of Women in Africa. London: Zed. (Women in the 3rd World.)   ***Rasmussen, Susan J. 1987 (January) Interpreting Androgynous Women: Female Aging and Personhood among the Kel Hewey Tuareg. Ethnology 26(1):17-30. The complexity of women's roles and derived status among theKel Ferwan Ewey Tuareg is amply dcumented in this article, and it leads one to ask how these roles have changed, in view of the economic and political forces that have constrained Tuareg influence and wealth during the last century. Refuting theories about Islam, purity, and maleness versus pre-islamic belief about pollution and youthful femalenessm, Rasmussen counters that gender takes on different meanings in different class, kinship and age categories.   ***Rasmussen, Susan J. 1991 (April) Veiled Self, transparent Meanings: Tuareg Headdress as Social Expression. Ethnology 30(2):101-117. Rasmussen interprets the significance of Tuareg headwear in the context of their social organization. Central to her argument is that the face veil among Tuareg men is simbolically homologous to female head scarfs in social relations.   ***Rauber, Hanna 1987 Stages of Women's Life among Tibetan Nomadic Traders: The Humli-Khyampa of Far Western Nepal. Ethnos 52(I-II):200-228.   Key Words: Women/Labor/Domestic Work/Humli-Khyampa/Nepal   ***Reintjens, H. 1975 Die soziale Stellung der Frau bei den nordarabischen Beduinen unter besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer Ehe- und Familienverhältnisse. Bonn: University of Bonn, Oriental Sem. (Bonner Orient. Stud. N.S. 30).   ***Reinjtens, H. 1988 Jeder Herr seines eigenen Bereiches. Mann und Frau bei nordarabischen Beduinen. In Im Gespräch, 2:26-27.   ***Reyna, Stephan P. 1980 Sahelian Social Development. Abidjan, Ivory Coast: USAID-West Africa.   Key Words: History/Pastoralism/Division of Labor-Gender/Herd Management/Land Use/Agricultural Production/Savannah/Development Assistance/Political Power/Demography/Economy-Change/Cooperatives and Associations/Household/FulBe/Kusasi/Hausa/Africa   ****Reyna, Stephen P. 1991 Introduction. In The Political Economy of African Famine. Stephen P. Reyna, ed. New York: Gordon and Breach. This chapter introduces a volume of thirteen essays that presents anthropological perspectives on famine and prevention of food crises in Africa, emphasizing the analytical importance of the intersecting variables of gender, age, class, and ethnicity.   ****Richard, Matthiew J. 1989 (May) Pastoral Development: Implications for Women [SUNY-Binghamton Anthropology Course 581 D]. Unpublished manuscript. The author gathers a wealth of information on the negative effects of development on pastoral production systems, with particular reference to women. Projects emphasizing meat offtake and conservation of the rangelands involve restrictions on herders'territorial mobility and require breeding of fast-growing varieties of animals. Traditional reliance of women on milk and dairy products as a source of exchange is gradually undermined as changes in herd composition has reduced the number of milch animals. Male out-migration in search of cash income has increased women's labor load without compensating them with full ownership rights to animals and their products.   ***Riesman, Paul 1971 Defying Official Mortality: The Example of Man's Quest for Women among the Fulani. Cahiers d'Etude Africains 11(4):602-13. In this brief article, Riesman outlines man's view of woman among the Jelgobe of Upper Volta, and in doing so presents freedom as experienced by the Jelgobe. For the Jelgobe, beauty more than other characteristic is what defines a woman and makes her the objective of men's desires. They see women as belonging to two worlds, the natural and the social.   ***Riesman, Paul 1977 Freedom in Fulani Social Life: An Introspective Ethnography. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Riesman's work is an insightful account of life as lived by the Jelgobe of Burkina Faso, an agropastoral Fulani group. The book includes chapters on the social organization of the Jelgobe, relations between people, and climate and technology. Riesman differentiates freedom as experienced by men, by women, and by children. Although the socioeconomic dimensions of Jelgobe society are not the focus of the study, it contains valuable information on agropastoral production practices, men's and women's work and status, transhumance, the living unit, cattle ownership and use rights, herd management, household viability, and the importance of children.   ****Riesman, Paul 1978 The Fulani in a Development Context: The Relevance of Cultural Traditions for Coping with Change and Crisis. (Contract No. REDSO/WA 78-138.) Washington, DC: USAID. (Sahelian Social Development Series.) This essay outlines the lifeways of Fulani, the results of development interventions in the livestock sector, and potential appropriate strategies for future change. "I would be willing to bet," he writes on p. 24, "that up to this point in this paper not one reader will yet have begun to wonder about the economic contribution of women in nomadic life and what their role is maintaining that life might be." Fulani are oriented toward milk, not beef production. Nomadic Fulani women milk the cows, prepare milk and butter for sale in the market, build and take down houses, prepare meals, collect water and firewood, wash dishes and clothes, and tend children. Fulani are tied to the agricultural economy through women. Increased orientation toward beef production would necessarily affect women's role. Western intervention has resulted in increases in both human and livestock populations, and rangeland degradation. Riesman wonders if there are ways of increasing beef production for export without diminishing milk production (which diminishment he claims may have serious effects on husband-wife relations and on the viability of the family as a productive unit.)   ***Rigby, Peter 1979 "Olpul and "Entoroj": The economy of Sharing among the Pastoral Baraguyu of Tanzania. In Pastoral Production and Society (Production pastorale et société), Paris, France, 1-3 December 1976. L'Equipe Ecologique et Anthropologie des Sociétés Pastorales, ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press/Editions dela Maison des Sciences de l'Homme. Pp. 329-347.   Key Words: Age Groups/Economy/Religion/Mrriage/Descent Systems/Maasai/Tanzania   **Robertson, Claire 1986? Food distribution in Africa: A Question of Gender? Unpublished manuscript. This analysis of different patterns of intra- and interhousehold food distribution in Africa argues that although food produced by womwn is important from the houosehold level up to the national and international levels, women's distributive roles have been ignored. The author suggests recognizing the traditional rights of women in food production and distribution, and rearranging governments priorities to favor food producers and distributersa with loans, capital inputs, and provision of such infrastructure as well-sited markets, roads, and storage facilities. Although pastoralist women are not included in the discussion, the overwhelming incorporation of these economies into market exchange requires the same type of critical inquiry into women's roles in the organization of distribution of pastoral food and products.   **Rodriguez, G. 1987 (February) The Impacts of Milk Pricing Policy in Zimbabwe. International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) Bulletin 26:2-7.   Key Words: Dairy Production/Dairy Marketing/Marketing Boards/Zimbabwe   **Rosman, A., Rubel, P.G. 1976 Nomad-sedentary interhethnic relations in Iran and Afghanistan. In International Journal of Middle East Studies, 7(4):545-570.   **Rubel, Paula 1969 Herd Composition and Social Structure: On Building Models of Nomadic Pastoral Societies. Man (New Series) 4(2):268-275.   Key Words: Herd Composition/Herd Management/Kinship Systems/Marriage/Women/Bedouin/Cyrenaican/Somali/Saudi Arabia/Libya   ***Rupp, Marianne 1973 The Men and their Herds (Working Document-Preliminary Report on the Sociology of the Maures, Peul, Guerga, Bambara and Soninke in the Nara-Niono Plain in the Pilot Zone of UNDP Project Mali 523). Unpublished manuscript.   Key Words: Herd Management/Livestock Marketing/Gender/Islam/Decision Making/Transhumance/Meat Marketing/Climate and Weather/Water Resources/Moor/FulBe/Guerga/Bamana/Soninke/Mali   ****Rupp, Marianne 1976 (June) Observations sur la situation générale des éleveurs après la sécheresse. Washington, DC: USAID. (Projet de Range Ménagement et de l'Elevage.)   This is one of the first evaluations of the effects of the 1969-1974 drought on the WoDaaBe and Tuareg pastoralist communities of Niger that specifically adresses gender. During a three-week period, Rupp collected data that indicate some of the major difficulties experienced by pastoralists, and documented their changing economic situation. Rupp notes that WodaaBe women can be seen watering, herding, and marketing animals, unlike Tuareg women. Supplemented by many direct quotes from pastoralists, this study, although brief, gives a good introduction to both community-identified and research-oriented questions arising from the drought crisis.   ***Rybinski, Adam 1984 Economie pastorale des Bédouins algériens et possibilités de sa monétisation: Aperçu général [The Pastoral Economy of algeria's Bedouins and Prospects for Their Monetarization: General Review]. Africana Bulletin 32:57-64.   Key Words: In French/Economic Policy/Livestock Marketing/Cattle/Sheep/Goats/Camels/Wage Labor/Economic Differentiation/Division of Labor-Gender/Dairy Production/Environmental Degradation/Bedouin/Algeria   ***Safilios-Rothschild, Constantina 1985 (May) Socioeconomic Development and the Status of Women in the Third World. New York, NY: The Population Council. (Center for Policy Studies Working Paper No. 112.)   Key Words: Framework/Women/Research Methodology/Gender Differentiation/Social Differentiation/Third World   **Salem-Murdock, Muneera 1989 Arabs and Nubians in New Halfa: A Study of Settlement and Irrigation. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press.   Key Words: Sedentarization/Division of Labor-Gender/Division of Labor-Ethnic/Irrigated Agriculture/Pastoralism/Halfawi Nubian/Bedouin/Beja/Sudan   **Salih, H.M. 1987 Uxorilocal residence among the Hedendowa. In MOHAMMED SALIH, M.A.; MOHAMED SALIH, M. (Eds.): Family Life in the Sudan, London: Ithaca Press. (Graduated College Publications, University of Khartoum).   ***Salih, Mohamed A. Mohamed 1985 (August) Pastoralists in Town: Some Recent Trends in Pastoralism in the North West of Omdurman District. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute. (ODI Pastoral Development Network 20b.) Salih discusses the process of sedentarization of pastoralist groups in Omdurman district of North Western Sudan. He argues that although desertification is an important factor in forcing herders to diversify their economic activities, broader economic and political forces such as: worldwide recession, taxation by the state, and the national and international demend for meat also also separate herders from their traditional systems of social interdependence. Special attention is devoted to changing activities of women in the context of the commoditization of pastoral products. Men's involvements in nonherding cash-producing activities have increased women's domestic work load, including their contribution to livestock-related tasks, but women's control of the herd and its products has not increased. Dairy marketing is now done by male heads of the households and through middlemen, which deprives women of their traditional rights over milk animals and participation in sales decisions. Commercialization has reiforced gender hierarchies and made women more dependent on men for cash.   ***Salzman, Philip Carl 1988 Labour Formations in a Nomadic Tribe. In Who Shares? Co-operatives and Rural Development. D. W. Attwood and B. S. Baviskar, eds. Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. Pp. 233-258.   Key Words: Agricultural Production/Animal Husbandry/Domestic Work/Household/Labor/Camels/Goats/Sheep/Men/Division of Labor-Children/Division of Labor-Gender/Pastoralism/Baluch/Iran   ***Samatar, Ahmed Ismail 1994 The somali Challenge: From Catastrophe to Renewal? Edited by Ahmed I. Samatar. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.   Key Words: Somalia/Politics/Social Conditions/Agricultural Economy/Civil War/Development Aid/International Relations/Traditional Culture/Cultural Identity/Women's Role/Nomadism   ***Santoir, Christian 1986 Peul et aménagements hydroagricoles dans la Vallée du Fleuve Sénégal. In Pastoralists of the West African Savanna. Mahdi Adamu and A. H. M. Kirk Greene, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Pp.191-213. Before the establishment of large irrigated perimeters in the lower valley and delta of the Senegal River, FulBe agropastoralists practiced a transhumance in which animals were herded on sandy uplands in the rainy season, where dryland millet farming was also carried out, and moved onto the valley floodplain in the later dry season after the harvest of flood-recession sorghum. FulBe women, who had responsability for milking stock, on their own behalf carried out an active trade with sedentary Wolof and Halpulaar villages, selling dairy produce (soured milk and butter.)   ***Sawadogo, P. 1974 Situation médico-nutritionelle des nomades refoulés par la sécheresse. Dakar: IDEP/UNEP/SIDA. (Programme Formation pou l'Environnement).   ****Scarcia-Amoretti, B. 1987 Women in the Western Sahara. In LAWLESS, R.; MONAHAN, L. (Eds.): War and Refugees. The Western Sahara Conflict: 186-193. London: Pinter.   ****Scholz, F. 1992 Nomadismus. Bibliographie. Das Arabische Buch. Berlin, Germany.   ****Schroeder, Richard 1987 Gender Vulnerability to Drought: A case Study of the Housa Social Environment. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado. (Institute of Behavioral Science, Natural Hazard Research Working Paper Series No. 58.) Schroeder succinctly illustrates how social relations, specifically those that are the outcome of class and gender, differentially mediate the effects of environmental uncertainities on various groups of people. The greater vulnerability of Hausa women to drought is explicated in terms of interceding social variables that include: (1) the unremunerative nature of women's work; (2) their lack of ownership or control of the means of production; (3) restrictions on their education; (4) competitive disadvantage vis-à-vis new industrial commodities; (5) greater vulnerability to seasonal effects; and (6) spatial restrictions on their ability to sell their labor. Women's vulnerability to drought is especially felt working-class women whos spatial seclusion deprives them of mobility, and thus of access to a range of income-generating activities.   ***Sharani, M. Nazif Mohib 1979 The Kirkhiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. This book is a descriptive analysis of the evolution of economic interdependency between two ethnic groups in Afghanistan. In spite of ethnic distinction based on occupational specialization and physical features, the Khirgis pastoralists have experienced a growing economic dependence on the agricultural Wakhi, who provide them with labor and agricultural goods. In a scanty discussion of gender-based division of labor, this book notes the complementary roles of men and women among the Khirgiz. Women do not regularly participate in herding, although they milk and tend animals in the encampment. Men are in charge of collecting wood from sparsely covered areas, while provision of dung cakes for daily cooking is women's responsability.   ***Shashahani, Soheila 1986 Mamasani Women; Changes among the Division of Labor among a Sedentarized Pastoral People of Iran. In Women's Work: Development and the Division of Labor by gender. Eleonor Leacock and Helen I. Safa, eds. South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey Publishers. Pp. 111-121.   Key Words: Agropastoralism/Division of Labor-Gender/Trade/Reproduction/Domestic Work/Development Interventions/Children/Women-Change/Artisanal Production/Agricultural Production/Foraging/Theft/Mamasami/Iran   ***Shashahani, Soheila 1986 Women Whisper, Men Kill: A Case study of the Mamasami Pastoral Nomads of Iran. In Visibility and Power: Essays on Women in Society and Development. Leela Dube, Eleonor Leacock, and Shirley Ardener, eds. Dehli, India: Oxford University Press. Pp. 85-98. This paper describes the ideological and economic status of women among the Mamasami pastoral nomads of Iran. The ideological system of the society, presented in poetic forms, indicates the importance of women's economic roles.   ****Shashi, S.S. 1993 The Nomadic Women of Himalayas: with reference to the Girl Child. In Journal of Education and Social Change/Indian Institute of Education (IN) 6(4):61-68.   Key Words: Rural Women/Nomads/Ethnic Groups/Mountains/Women's Status/Rural Sociology   ***Shoup John 1985 (Spring) The Impact of Tourism on the Bedouin of Petra. Middle East Journal 39(2):277-291.   Key Words: Tourism/Women/Wage-Labor/Sedentarization/Artisanal Production/Literacy/Education-Differential Access/Bedouin/Jordan   **Schukla, Vibha 1991 Victims of the State: Yayavar Women Describe Government Oppression. In Manushi: A Journal about Women and Society (IN) 66:3-7.   Key Words: India/Women's Status/Tribes/Nomads/Governments Policy/Police   **Sebai, Z.A. 1974 Knowledge Attitudes and Practice of Family Planning. Profile of a Bedouin Community in Saudi Arabia. In Journal of Bio-soc. Sci. (Oxford; Edinburgh), 6(4): 453-461.   ***Shostak, M. 1982 Niza erzählt. Das Leben einer Nomadenfrau in Afrika -Roman-. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verl. (Neue Frau 4978).   ****Sikana, Patrick M., and Karol M. Kerven 1991 (July) The Impact of Commercialization on the Role of Labour in African pastoral Societies. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute. (ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper 31 c.)   Key Words: Labor/Pastoralism/Commercialization/Division of Labor-Children/Household/Children/Division of Labor-Gender/Migration/Livestock/Africa   ***Silberman, Leo 1959 Somali Nomads. UNESCO International Social Science Journal 11(4):559-571.   Key Words: Camels/Pastoralism/Development Interventions/History/Trade/Sedentarization/Agricultural Production/Women/Labor/Nutrition/Diseases/Education/Economy/Somali/Somalia   ***Skramstad, Heidi 1990 (December) The Fluid Meanings of Female Circumcision in a Multi Ethnic Context in Gambia: Distribution of Knowledge and Linkages to Sexuality. Fantoft, Norway: Christie Michelsen Institute. (Working Paper D 12.)   Key Words: Women/Circumcision/Knowledge-Indegenous/Mandinka/FulBe/Gambia   ***Smale, Melinda 1980 (31 October) Women in Mauritinia: The Effects of Drought and Migration on Their Economic Status and Implementations for Developing Programs. Washington, DC: USAID-Office of Women in Development.   Key Words: Women/Pastoralism/Agricultural Production/Drought/Migration/Labor/Wage Labor/Income/Division of Labor-Gender/Household/Land Tenure/Financial Issues/Soninke/FulBe/Mauritania   **Smith Oboler, R. 1980 Is the Female Husband a Man? Women/Women, Marriage among the Nandi of Kenya. In Ethnology (Pittsburgh), 19(1): 69-88.   **Sollod, A.E.; Knight, J.A.; Wolfgang, K. 1984 Veterinary Anthropology: Interdisciplinary Methods in Pastoral Sytems Research. In SIMPSON, J.R.; EVANGELOU, P. (Eds.): Livestock Development in Subsaharan Africa: 285-302. Boulder, Col.: Westview Press (A Westview Replica Editions).   **Sørensen, Anne 1990 (June) Women's Organizations and Changing Gender Relations among the Kipsigis of Kenya. Copenhagen, Denmark: Center for Udvikingsforsking/Center for Development Research. (CDR Project Paper 90.5.)     This document discusses the significance of women's traditional solidarity groups among the Kipsigis of Kenya. Although these traditional women's units may provide a structure to enhance women's access to resources and rights of various kinds, their potential may be limited because of the divergence in interests among women from different socioeconomic strata. Similar caution needs to be applied to the use of women's solidarity groups among pastoral communities that are facing integration into the market economy and are experiencing economic differentiation.     ***Sperling, Louise 1985 (May) Recruitment of Labor among Samburu Herders. Montreal, Quebec: McGill University, Department of Anthropology. (East African Pastoral Systems Project Discussion Paper No. 2.) Sperling's paper focuses on the organization of labor among the Samburu of Kenya. Herd management strategies relate to the household's life cycle and the number of available workers. The central theme of this article is not the roles of women in the organization of pastoral economy, but it offers snippet of relevant information.   ****Sperling, Louise 1987 Wage Employment among Samburu Pastoralists of Northcentral Kenya. In Research in Economic Anthropology. Barry L. Isaac, ed. Greenwich, CT: Jai Press. Pp. 167-190. This excellent essay describes the growth of wage employment among the Samburu of Kenya. A brief mention of women indicates that the Samburu women are less likely to migrate and , if they do, they become partially estranged from the pastoral economy. Male out-migration has intensified women's workloads and responsabilities in child-rearing. It has involved them more directly in many aspects of herd care, such as fencing, watering, curative regimes, and forage allocation. In case of migration, the tendency for women is to concentrate in food-for-work projects, or engage in odd jobs on the fringes of towns.   ***Sperling, Louise 1987 (August) The Labor Organization of Samburu Pastoralism. Ph.D. dissertation, McGill University, Department of Anthropology.   Key Words: Labor/Wage Labor/Pastoralism/Drought/Household/Decision Making/Life Cycle/Ecology/Animal Husbandry/Knowledge-Indigenous/Livestock/Kinship Systems/Gender Differentiation/Trade/Herd Management/Samburu/Kenya     *Spring, Anita 1986 Men and Women Smallholder Participants in a Stall-Feeder Livestock program in Malawi. Human Organization 45(2):154-162.   Key Words: Extension Services/Livestock/Women/Technical Assistance/Malawi   ****Statut (Le) des femmes dans trois sociétés pastorales saharo-sahéliennes. 1984 Dossier in Production Pastorale et Société (Paris), 14: 91-124.   ***Steady, Filomine Chioma 1991 Report of the UNCED/UNICEF/UNFPA Symposium on Poverty and Environmental Degradation Entitled "Women and Children First", Geneva, Switzerland, 27-30 May 1991. New York, NY: United Nations.   Key Words: Poverty/Women/Children/Environmental Degradation/Environment/Development Policy   ****Stenning, Derrick J. 1958 Household Viability among the Pastoral Fulani. In The Development Cycle in Domestic Groups. Jack Goody, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 92-119. Among the Pastoral Fulani, a household is viable when it has enough males properly to manage the herd, enough females to manage the dairying, and a herd large enough to support these people.   Key Words: Life Cycle/Animal Health/Herd Management/Livestock/Boys/Girls/Women/Dairy Stock/Herd Composition/Household Production/Divorce/Marriage/Polygamy/Residence Pattern/Reproduction of Labor/Kinship Systems/Cattle/Goats/Sheep/Seasonal Migration/Diet/Pastoralism/Transhumance/Sexual Access/Reproduction/Unmarried Women/Childnessness/Division of Labor-Gender/Gender Segregation/FulBe/Nigeria   ***Stenning, Derrick J. 1959 Savannah Nomads: A Study of the Wodaabe Pastoral Fulani of Western Bornu Province, Northern Region, Nigeria. London, UK: Oxford University Press.   Key Words: Pastoralism/History/Diseases/Household/Sedentarization/Property Exchange/Cattle/Fertility/Widows/Divorce/Famine/Savannah/FulBe/WodaaBe/Nigeria   **Stordahl, Vigdis 1990 (July) Why Are They So Few in Numbers? Women Leaders in a Sample of Saami Institutions. In Indigenous Women on the Move. International Workgroup for Indegenous Affairs, ed. Copenhagen, Denmark: IWGIA. (IWGIA Document No. 6.)   Key Words: Socialization of Children/Gender Segregation/Division of Labor-Gender/Life Cycle/Education/Women/Saami/Norway   ****Stordahl, Vigdis 1989 Technology, Human Pressure, and Ecology in the Arid and Semi-Arid Tropics. In Environment and the Poor: Development Strategies for a Common Agenda. H. Jeffrey Leonard, ed. Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council. (US-Third World Policy Perspectives No. 11.) Stryker essay addresses the environmental crisis in relation to pastoralism and proposes alternative development strategies. Women are identified as crucial players in food allocation, fuelwood gathering, and maintaining household integrity because of male out-migration. Measures to promote environmental conservation, such as taxing fuelwood, must involve women because they would bear much of the impact. He identifies the major forces of change as: population growth, the commercialization of animals products, the introduction of technology, and the displacement of traditional political authority.   **Stucki, A. 1978 Horses and Women: Some Thoughts on the Life Cycle of Ersari Turkmen Women. Afghanistan Journal 5(4):140-149.   Key Words: Women/Gender/Life Cycle/Property Exchange/Turk/Afghanistan   **Sudarkasa, Niara 1986 (Spring) "The status of Women" in Indigenous african Societies. Feminist Studies 12(1):91-103.   Key Words: Women/Gender Differentiation/Africa   ****Swift, Jeremy, and Angelo Maliki Bonfiglioli 1984 (september) A Cooperative Development Experiment among Nomadic Herders in Niger. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute. (ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper 18c.) The main causes of failure in Sahelian projects are identified: first, problems are generally perceived as technical, with a focus on animals and grazing environment rather than on herders; and second, an appropriate institutional framework for pastoral development is usually lacking.   ****Talle, Aud 1987 Women as Heads of Houses: The Organization of Production and the Role of Women among the Pastoral Maasai in Kenya. Ethnos 52(I-II):50-80. This study of the transformation of women's roles, rights, and status among the Maasai in Kenya is convincingly detailed in the context of contradictory effects of capitalst penetration into the indigenous economy. This article successfully highlights the female role in the labor processes of a pastoralistr economy, and is a scholarly example of recent feminist writings on the diminishing status of African women in the context of a market economy.   ****Talle, Aud 1988 Women at a Loss: Changes in Maasai Pastoralism and Their Effects on Gender Relations. Stockholm, Sweden: Department of Social Anthropology. Provides an excellent account of the impact of state land alienation on Maasai society in general, and on women in particular. The economic and social position of women has deteriorated for a number of reasons. First, women derive little benefit from livestock sales because market transactions are generally the domain of men, who often deny women any of the revenue. Second, women;'s purchasing power is dwindling as goods and services are increasingly obtained only with cash. This situation is exacerbated by the scarcity of money among women. Third, impoverishment of pastoral households is forcing men to migrate for wage labor and women to take on formerly tasks. Finally, subdivision of group ranches has broken up the Maasai homestead and isolated women from each other, making it difficult for them to share household and child-rearing responsability.   ****Talle, Aud 1990 Ways of Milk and Meat among the Maasai: Gender Identity and Food Resources in a Pastoral Economy. In From Water to World-Making: African Models and arid Lands. Gísli Pálsson, ed. Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies. This article discusses the impact of market integration and commoditization of pastoral products on the Maasai notions of personhood, gender identity, and the ethos of equality and cooperation. The principal role of women in milking and distributing the milk and other dairy goods has been a source of identity and power for women, even though the right to slaughter and dispose of animals has been reserved for their male relatives.   ****Tapper, Nancy 1977 Pashtun Nomad Women in Afghanistan. Asian Affairs 8(2):163-170. The life of Durrani Pashtun nomad women revolves around the events of migration and demands of the pastoral economy. Stages of migration regulate their activities, the summer trek to mountains being the most arduous and labor demanding. Domestic tasks such as milking, and processing of such pastoral products as milk and wool, are women's responsability. For the Durrani women, especially those of higher economic status who have little contact with sedentary ethnic agricultural groups, self identity is formed along stereotypes defining te non-Pashtuns as inferior.   ****Tapper, Nancy 1978 The Women's Subsociety among the Shahsevan Nomads of Iran. In Women in the Muslim World. Lois Beck and Nikki keddie, eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Pp. 374-398. Nancy Tapper's chapter discusses women of the Shahsevan, pastoral nomads and seminomads of northeastern Iranian Azerbaijan. In a division of labor by gender, men do the herding, milking, shearing, and marketing, and erect and maintain the tents. Women remain in the camp raising children, baking making cheese, yogurt and butter, and spinning and weaving the wool. Women's social relationships center on the camps and on the institution called Kheyr-u-sharr (good and evil), which encompasses a network of friends and relations who attend feasts celebrating life-cycle events: circumcisions, betrothals, weddings, and occasions of mourning. Status ascribed to women depends on the status of their husbands and on their life-cycle stage. Divorce and polygyny are both rare, the former being discouraged by a premarital contract (Kabin) that guarantees the huband will make a considerable property payment to the wife if he divorces her. In addition to ascribed status, women can achieve status as specialists in three fields: magico-medical (midwifery and herbal and magical cures for illnesses of women and children); domestic (as cooks at ceremonies); and religeous-and as leaders among women in either of the latter two. Women's leaders'opinions are usually heeded; they attend many more feasts than other women; and through their wider networks they gather and diffuse valuable information about social and economic events important to the group and to their own families.   ****Tapper, Nancy 1980 Matrons and Mistresses: Women and Boundaries in Two Middle Eastern Tribal Societies. Archieves Européennes de Sociologie 21(1):59-79.   Key Words: Women/Gender Segregation/Kinship Systems/Life Cycle/Women's Solidarity Groups/Stratification/Pashtun/Shahsevan/Afghanistan/Iran   ****Tapper, Nancy 1983 Acculturation in Afghan Turkistan: Pashtun and Uzbek Women. Asian Affairs 14(1):35-44.   Key Words: Women/Ethnic Groups/Ethnic Relations/Marriage/Islam/Uzbek/Pashtun/Afghanistan   ****Tapper, Nancy 1991 Bartered Brides: Politics, Gender and Marriage in an Afghan Tribal Society. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. (Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology No. 74.) This is an excellent ethnography on the relationship between marriage and economic and political competition among the Durrani Pashtun of Aghanistan. It discusses marriage as a flexible institution through which contradictory ideologies of equality and hierarchy are negociated circumstantially.   ****Tapper, Richard L. 1979 Pasture and Politics: Economics, Conflict and Ritual among the Shasevan Nomads of Northwestern Iran. New York, NY: Academic Press. (Studies in Anthropology.) This excellent ethnography discusses pasture rights among the Shasevan tribes in Northern Iran. Border conflicts between Iran and Russia and state policies of tribal pacification and land reform have constrained nomadic mobility and led to a system of private grazing rights. A strict gender division of labor is articulated through principles of age, kinship and wealth. Women's spheres of activities are limited to domestic tasks and weaving. Strict moral values involving sexual morality, fecundity, and patrimonial boudary encourage a gender-segregated society in which women are exluded from active participation in herd-related activities.   **Tauxier, L. 1912 Foulbé. In TAUXIER, L.: Le Noir du Soudan. Pays Mossi et Gourounsi, 5: Pasteurs, 1: 609-631. Paris: Larose.   ****Tavakolian, Bahram 1984 (Summer) Women and Socioeconomic Change among Sheikhanzai Nomads of Western Afghanistan. Middle East Journal 38(3):433-453. This article uses the case of Sheikhanzai nomadic pastoralists in Afghanistan to argue against Western stereotypes of Muslim women as powerless, oppressed victims of Islamic ideology. In spite of the seemingly patriarchal nature of the Sheikhanzai society, which does not allow women to own livestock, women's economic contribution through milk production responsability is socially recognized. Women wield and broker power in both the household and the community. Women especially showed reluctance toward the implementation of a sedentarization scheme that would ignore and undermine their economically derived political status.   ****Tavakolian, Bahram 1987 Sheikhanzai Women: Sisters, Mothers and Wives. Ethnos 52(I-II):180-199.   Key Words: Women/Ecology/Household/Gender Segregation/Sheikhanzai/Aghanistan   ****Tauzin, A. 1984 Statuts féminins dans une société pastorale: Les Maures de Mauritanie. In Production Pastorale et Société (Paris), 14:79-91.   ****Teitelbaum, Joel Mathless 1980 (November) Nutrition Impacts of Livestock Development Schemes among Pastoral Peoples. Washington, DC: USAID. This comprehensive document examines the diet and nutrition of pastoralist groups, assesses the impact on these of livestock development policies and range management schemes, reviews case studies in Morocco and Senegal, and provides recommendations for nutrition impact guidelines and project design criteria. Development policy aimed at increasing meat production or eliminating goat or sheep husbandry may have serious detrimental effects on the health of pastoralists and on women's economic contribution and status.   ****Teitelbeum, Joel Mathless, and Barbara J. Michael. 1984 (August) Social Science Report: February 1982-March 1983- Kadugly Research Station. Pullman, WA: Washington State University. (Western Sudan Agricultural Research Project (WSARP) Publication No. 25.) This report on "transhumant production systems" covers more than fourteen months of research in Sudan. A section on "Gender, Role and Labor Allocation" states that among the Hawazma (Baggara), roles are "assigned according to sex and age", but these roles include some flexibility. Women's roles are "not hemmed in to the point of subjugation." Cattle husbandry and cultivation are "primarly male activities." Women, responsible for milking, decide how much milk to "keep for household consumption" and how much to sell. This report includes an Appendix by barbara J. Michael entitled "Wood Fuel Gathering and Land Clearing by Transhumant Women at the WSARP Farm." Trees were being felled as part of land clearing project, and Michael organized the collection of the lumber as fuelwood. During the process, she learned that transhumant Baggara women can and do fell large trees.   ***Tobisson, Eva 1986 Family Dynamics among the Kuria: Agro-Pastoralists in Northern Tanzania. Göteborg, Sweden: Acta Universitatis Gothburgensis. (Gothenburg Studies in Social Anthropology No. 9.)   Key Words: Offtake/History/Household/Women/Division of Labor-Gender/Marriage/Livestock/Agricultural Production/Community Organizations/Agropastoralism/Gusii/Tanzania   **Tubiana, Marie-José 1985 Des troupeaux et des femmes: Mariage et transfert de biens chez les Beri (Zaghawa et Bideyat) du Chad et du Soudan. Paris, France: Editions l'Harmattan. (Bibliothèque Peiresc No. 4.) Extremely detailed ethnographic account of marriage among the Zaghawa from fiekd research carried out since 1957. Islamization is identified as one of the major factors changing traditional patterns of marriage. These changes include: allowing women to share in marriage wealth; decreasing the amount of bridewealth; and narrowing marriages to within a lineage.   ***Tubiana, Marie-José 1987 Mariages zaghawa: Les Changements liés à l'économie et à l'idéologie. In Transformations of African Marriage. D. Parkin and David Nyamwaya, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Pp. 93-109. Two forces, the penetration of the market economy and the influence of Islam, have effected chenges in marriage petterns among Zaghawa pastoralists in Tchad and the Sudan. Two implications for women are discussed: they feel their status will be lower as a result of reduced bridewealth, and they may no longer be able to use divorce as a means of escaping abusive behaviour.   **** Tubiana, Marie-José 1990 Problèmes posés par l'arrivée massives des Nomades dans une zone occupée par les sédentaires et par la naissance de groupements d'un type nouveau. In BAXTER, P.T.W.; HOGG, R. (Eds.): Property, Poverty and People: Changing Rights in Property and Problems of Pastoral Development: 217-221. Manchester: University of Manchester, Department of Social Anthropology; International Development Centre.   ***UNDP 1980 (June) Rural Women's Participation in Development. United Nations Development Program. (Evaluation Study No. 3.)   Key Words: Children/Credit/Development Assistance/Development Interventions/Development Policy/Domestic Work/Education-Differential Access/Girls/Health/Household Production/Labor/Project Evaluation/Pumps/Water Supply/Women/Bedouin/Rwanda/Syria   ****UNESCO-IPAL 1981 Human Ecology: Consultancy Reports on the Rendille Samburu and the Role of Women. Nairobi: UNESCO; MAB. (MAB 60140, accession 03).   ****UNICEF 1984 Women and Children in Somalia: A Situation Analysis. New York, NY: UNICEF/Republic of Somalia, Ministry of National Planning.   Key Words: Poverty/Demography/ Pastoralism/Stratification/Women/Children/Nutrition/Health/Education/Water Resources/Health/Somalia   ****United Nations, Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, Statistical Office and International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women. 1984 Improving Concepts and Methods for Statististics and Indicators on the Situation of Women. New York, NY: United Nations.   Key Words: Women/Research Methodology/Household/Health/Education/Gender Differentiation/Economic Differentiation   ****United Nations 1984 Women's Component in Pastoral Community Assistance and Development: A Study of the Needs and Problems of the Harasus Population, Oman. Project Findings and Recommendations. New York: U.N. (Rep.tcd/oma-80-W01/1).   ****USAID 1976 Project review Paper: Non-Formal Education-Women in Sahel. Washington, DC: USAID.   Key Words: Training/Development Assistance/Development Interventions/Women/Sahel   ****USAID 1977 Niger Range and Livestock Project: Project Paper. (Project 683-0202.) Washington, DC: USAID.   Key Words: Project Planning/Productivity/Range Management/Development Interventions/Health/Animal Husbandry/Herd Composition/Water Resources/Development Interventions/Livestock Marketing/Extension Services/Economy/Veterinary Services/Women/Tuareg/FulBe/Niger   ****USAID 1989 The Gender Information Framework: Gender Considerations in Development-Executive Summary (Draft). Washington, DC: USAID Office of Women in Development.   Key Words: Framework/Gender/Development Assistance/Research Methodology/Women   ***Vainshtein, Sevyan 1980 Nomads of South Siberia: The Pastoral Economies of Tuva. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. (Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology.) This book discusses the technical features of the Tuva agropastoral economy in Siberia. Ecological constraints of high altitude created migratory animal husbandry and herd diversification. A minimal discussion of household labor allocation indicates that men were primarily responsible for herding, with women participating in similar tasks during the men's departure from camps to hunt or engage in lowland cropping. It appears that women would involve themselves closely in herd migration in the absence of male members of the households.   **VerEecke, Catherine 1989 (January) From Pasture to Purdah: The Transformation of Women's Roles and Identity among the Adamawa FulBe. Ethnology 28(1):53-73. This is a discussion of the effects of islamization on the transformation of gender relations, especially women's roles, among the sedentary FulBe.   ***VerEecke, Catherine 1989 (August) Nigeria's Experiment with a National Programme for Nomadic Education. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute. (ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper 28 d.) This document examines the Nigerian government's attempt to educate the nomads. The program has failed to achieve its objectives because its operation is hampered by competing interest groups in state bureaucracy. Pastoralist unwillingness to partecipate in the programis partly because schooling diverts the labor of children away from herding, affecting the astoral production system as a whole.   ***Von D. Miller, Judith 1976 Boran Women: Film Essay. Hanover, NH: Wheelock Educational Resources/American Universities Field Staff [AUFS]. (Faces of Change.)   Key Words: Photographs/Women/Gender/Household/Marriage/Pastoralism/Children/Galla/Kenya   ***Wakefield, F.M. 1949 Twareg Women of the Sahara. In Muslem World, 39:6-10.   ***Walker, Sheila S. 1976? Fulbé Women of Northern Cameroon: Their Place and How It Is in Changing, Albeit Slowly. Berkeley, CA: University of California at Berkeley.   Key Words: Gender Segregation/Division of Labor-Gender/History/Women/Pastoralism/Sedentarization/Education-Differential Access/Marriage/Cattle/Islam/FulBe/Cameroon   ****Walker Sheila, S. Spring 1980 From Cattle Camp to City: Changing Roles of the Fulbé Women in Northern Cameroon. Journal of African Studies 7(1):54-63. Using comparative data, Walker describes the evolution in female roles among different groups of FulBe in Cameroon. The complementary male and female gender roles and high degree of women's freedom and mobility characteristic of the pastoralist FulBe decline drastically as communities settle in rural and urban areas, engaging, respectively, in agricultural and urban economic activities. The article supports the theory in social sciences that sedentarization and agricultural activities correlate with a decline in women's rights and status.   ****Walz, G. 1991 Nomadenfrauen als Unternehmerinnen. Die Samburu Nord-Kenias als Beispiel. In SCHOLZ, F. (Hg.): Nomaden. Mobile Tierhaltung. Zur gegenwärtigen Lage von Nomaden und zu den Problemen und Chancen mobiler Tierhaltung: 355-369. Berlin: Das Arabische Buch.   **Waters-Bayer, Ann 1985 (August) Dairying by Settled Fulani Women in Central Nigeria and Some Implications for Dairy Development. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute. (ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper 20C.)   Key Words: Dairy Production/Women/FulBe/Nigeria ****Waters-Bayer, Ann 1983 Sedentarization and the Role of Women in Pastoral Economy. Addis Abeba: ILCA. (Work Document).   **Waters-Bayer, Ann 1985 (September-October) Modernising Milk Production in Nigeria: Who Benefits? Ceres 19(5):34-39.   Key Words: Dairy Marketing/Women/Dairy Stock/dairy Production/Development Interventions/FulBe/Nigeria   **Waters-Bayer, Ann 1988 Dairying by Settled Fulani Agropastoralists in Central Nigeria: The Role of Women and Implications for Dairy Development. Kiel, Federal Republic of Germany: Wiessenschaftsverlag Van Kiel. (Farming Systems and Resource Economics in the Tropics Volume 4.)   Key Words: Dairy Marketing/Women/Development Interventions/FulBe/Nigeria   ***Waters-Bayer, Ann, Wolfgang Bayer 1994 Planning with Pastoralists: PRA and More. A review of Methods Focused in Africa. Deutsche Geselschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GTZ) GmbH. German Agency for Technical Cooperation. Göttingen-Holtensen, Germany. (Working Paper).   ***Watson, Catherine 1987 (November) Approaching Turkana Women. Oxford, UK: Oxfam. (GADU[Gender and Development Unit] Newspak No. 5.)   Key Words: Women/Development Interventions/Training/Research Methodology/Water Resources/Nongovernmental Organizations/Turkana/Kenya   ***Watson, Catherine 1989 The Consequences of the 1980-1981 Famine (Lopiar) on the Domestic Roles of Women in Northern Turkana, Kenya. M.A. Thesis, University of Manchester, Department of Economics. The content of this thesis resembles the report, "The Development Needs of Turkana Women" by cathy Watson et al., for Oxfam.   Key Words: Famine/Women/Household/Cereals/Education/Labor/Livestock/Gender/Sedentarization/Pastoralism/Turkana   ****Watson, Catherine 1989 (January) Turkana Women: Their Workloads in a Pastoralist Society. (GADU[Gender and Development Unit] Newspack No. 8.) In this analysis of how workloads are distributed among Turkana family members, Watson finds that both men and women work more hours per dayin the dry season than in the wet season. Annually, men work more hours than women, but women perform a greater varieties of tasks. Women are responsible for watering and milking the animals. Other female tasks include cooking, building shelters, collecting wild fruits, collecting firewood, making utensils, leatherwork, food-for-work projects, agricultural work, and charcoal production.   ****Watson, Catherine, Margaret Ezra, Arupe Lobuin, and Esther Ekuwan 1989 Turkana Women: Their Contribution in a Pastoral Society. Unpublished manuscript. The authors briefly evaluate the impact of maize food-for-work projects on the gender division of labor among Turkana pastoralists. By contrasting a pastoralist woman's day with that of a sedentary Turkana woman, the authors demonstrate that sedentarization increases the burdens on Turkana women and decreases their power, for, they lose access to resources because of the cash economy.   ****Watson, Catherine, Margaret Ezra, Arupe Lobuin, and Esther Ekuwan 1988 (August) The Development Needs of Turkana Women (First Draft). Oxford, UK: Oxfam/Public Law Institute.     A report on a small research project undertaken by Oxfam to examine the social and economic status of Turkana women. Household economics, food supply, labor, society and law were areas chosen for evaluating the relative status and needs of women. The results indicate that as some of the Turkana concentrate in urban centers in search of nonherding activities, the significance of the kin-based household economy declines, paralleling a deterioration in the status of Turkana women, Food security constitutes the core concern of the each group, however; this leads to the recommendation that any effort to increase women's welfare should consider their vital role in dietary practices. Cognizant of the importance of women in the pastoral household economy, the authors suggest that ay effort toward empowering women must be embedded in strengthening the economic viability of herding households.   ***Wedderburn, Agnes 1986 The Koyam. In Pastoralists of the West African Savanna. Mahdi Adamu and A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Pp.74-83. The history of the Koyam People dates from before the thirteenth century, during which time they provided queen mothers and Koranic scholars to the great kingdoms of the Sudan. The high status of Koyam women stems from their alliance formation through marriage, but their power is limited within the patrilineal structure of the group.     *Weidler, C. 1933 Tuareg und Tibbu. Männerschleier und Mutterrecht. In Koralle (Berlin): 480-484.   ****White, Cynthia 1991 Increased Vulnerability to Food Shortages among Fulani Nomads in Niger. In The Political Economy of African Famine. Stephen P. Reyna, ed. New York: Gordon and Breach. This chapter examines the factors behind the extreme vulnerability of WoDaaBe cattle herders of central Niger to the Sahelian drought of 1968 to 1974. White draws upon her own and others' research to describe the transfornmation of previously successful adaptive survival strategies of these pastoralists, and their downword spiral into poverty. Women and children in particular, lacking conections from the outside world, suffered from the effects of drought and famine. Important shifts in livestock property ownership from nomads to wealthier members in the region, and labor migration undermined the viability of the whole society; many WoDaaBe are currently dependent on government aid for survival. Range management policy should, but too often don't , reflect the fact that pastoralism is the most economically and ecologically viable use of the pastoral zone, and that nomads' adaptive strategies should be supported.   ****Wienpahl, Jan 1984 Women's Roles in Livestock Production among the Turkana of Kenya. Research in Economic Anthropology 6:193-215. Uses the Turkana case to document fundamental errors in anthropological studies of women in pastoralist production systems. Although the previous neglect of women's roles and rights originated from anthropologists' lack of interest in small-stock management, among the Turkana there is scanty evidence of a de facto association between women and small stock. Turkana women ideally may not own or control the right to dispose of any animals, but they enjoy usufruct rights over large and small animals allotted them by their husbands. They also have authority over the management of animal products. The article suggests that a more accurate depiction of the complexity of women's positions in different pastoral communities depends on a more precise examination of the definition of ownership, a distinction between the de jure and the de facto rights of women to means of production, and an investigation of the degree of control over pastoral products.   ***Wilson, R. Trevor, P. N. De Leeuw, and C. De Haan 1983 (May) Recherches sur les systèmes des zones arides du Mali: Résultats préliminaires. Addis-Ababa, Ethiopia: CIPEA. (Rapport de Recherche No. 5.)   Key Words: In French/Climate and Weather/Ecology/Environmental Degradation/Agricultural Production/Agropastoralism/Pastoralism/Division of Labor-Gender/Herd Management/Herd Composition/Development Interventions/Mali     ****Wilson, Wendy 1991 Gender Relations in pastoral Production Systems: The Fulbe Peoples (Draft). Paper presented at Women in Pastoral Societies Seminar, Institute fo Development Anthropology, Binghamton, NY, May 4, 1991.   Key Words: History/Women/Economic Differentiation/Political Conflict/Labor/Drought/FulBe/West Africa   ****Wilson, Wendy 1991 Women Pastoralists amnd Project Participation. Newbury park, CA: Sage Publications. The author argues that technical changes brought about by development projects in pastoral communities affect the relations of production, composition of the herd, and pattern of mobility. To emphasize meat production in pastoral communities, where usually women have control over milk production and distibution, will undermine women's economically based spheres of power and control, and often neglecting the rights of pastoral women.   ***Wilson, Wendy, and Asmarom Legesse 1990 (October) Nomad's Dialogue-Development Instead of Relief: A Meeting of Herders, Farmers, and Artisans from East and West Africa-held in Ndutu, Tanzania. Washington, DC: African Development Foundation. The results of a workshop sponsored by the African Development Fund on drought and its destabilizing ecological consequences for a wide range of African herders. The workshop discussion indicated that herders in Africa were affected differentially by drought, in part because of dissimilar ecological constraints and varied indigenous methods of coping. The participants were primarily males, whose explanation for the absence of women indicated that pastoralist men give very slight recognition to the importance of women in pastoral productive activities and risk management.       ****Worley, Barbara A. 1987 (23 November) Property and Gender Relations among Twareg Nomads. Nomadic Peoples 23:31-36. This article uses the life history of a women to present the institution of ikhabus among the Kel Fady Twareg. This is a custom that is normally used to draw off herds from a parent's estate before the death of the parent, so that daughters will not be impoverished through the effect of Muslim inheritance law. The author mentions the significant range of influence wieled by the Twareg women in both political and economic activities. Women's broad spectrum of skills and knowledge allow them to perform men's work, even in such tasks as herding camels.       ****Worley, Barbara A. 1988 Bed Posts and Broad Swords: Twareg Women's Work Parties and the Dialecticts of Sexual Conflict. In Dialectics and Gender: Anthropological Approaches. Richard Randolph, David M. Schneider, and May N. Diaz, eds. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Pp. 273-287. This short article discusses the rights and status of the Twareg Women. Despite their adherence to Islamic law, which has often been the primary cause of female subordination among muslim pastoralists, the Twareg women enjoy a great deal of financial and social autonomy. Gender division of work does not preclude women's involvement in herding activities of small and even large ruminants.   ****Worley, Barbara A. 1991 Broad Swords, war Drum, Women's Health: The Social construction of Female Autonomy and Social prestige among the Pastoral Kel Fadey Twareg. Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University. This thesis discusses the high status of Kel Fadey Twareg women in the context of the indigenous prestige system, which traces its historical roots to the high position of women in ancient Libyan society. Women's access to productive resources-livestock and animal products-is positively correlated with women's high social position. Not only can Twareg women have access to small ruminants, a feature common to most pastoral communities, but they alsso may own large, prestigeous livestock such as camels. In spite of the appearance of gender hierarchy, the Twareg's gender division of labor is flexible and allows men and women to cross gender specific duties.   **Young, William Charles 1984 (Summer) Cultural Changeand Women's Work: The Sedentarization of the Rashiidy Bedouin in the Sudan. Cultural Survival Quarterly 8(2):28-29. This is a brief discussion of the negative effects of sedentarization and integration into the market economy of Rasaayda pastoral nomads in Sudan. Although nomadic women did not engage heavily in herding or agricultural activities, their domestic activities were an important aspect of daily life. Women processed food, tanned leather, made household tents, and sewed. With sedentarization in progress, the Rashaayda have become market reliant for their basic needs, especially those previously filled by women's labor.   ****Zawada, Anna 1990 Goals and Objectives of Meeting. Paper presented at the Women in Livestock Development (WILD) Conference (Sponsored by Heifer Project Internation), Little Rock, AR, 20-22 May 1990. A product of the Women in Development Conference (May 20-22 1990) was this one-page itemization of goals and objectives including: determine the role of livestock in family nutrition, health, and child survival; environmental responsabilities of women; analysis of both failed and successful livestock development projects; the role of education and training of women; women's participation in community organizing; special needs of target groups (elderly, handicapped, etc.); and building self-esteem and confidence in women through livestock production.