1. INTRODUCTION

The paper attempts in a very brief manner to review the various ways that rural communities can have sustainable access to new and high yielding technologies. It uses seed as a tool for technology transfer.

The costs, benefits, strengths and weaknesses - as well as the opportunities for strengthening the technology transfer model via seed - are appropriately discussed.

The paper starts by discussing the ideal seed policy setting, in order to put in proper context or perspective the technology transfer to rural communities using seed as a tool.

2. SEED POLICY

Policy is defined as the course of action chosen by government towards an aspect of the economy, including the goals the government seeks to achieve, and the choice of methods to pursue those goals. Seed policy goals include, but are not limited to:

• Promote an efficient seed provision system;
• Ensure equitable access to seed;
• Protect the nation’s plant genetic diversity; and
• Link the seed system to national development goals.

To achieve these goals, a seed policy programme will normally set various targets which may include the following:

• Yield improvement of staple crops;
• Reduction of food insecurity;
• Income improvement for rural people (farmers, processors, dealers);
• Independence from food or seed imports;
• Development of farm management skills and agricultural production know-how;
• Use of available natural resources;
• Generation of foreign currency; and
• Low food prices for the non-farming population.

These targets are usually a constituent part of all government programmes and are regarded as those which can be realized most effectively in a liberalized and privatized seed market. However, a certain conflict of interest may arise, under certain circumstances, that may impose a political constraint on the free development of the price of seed which could render state subsidies necessary and thus stifle seed industry growth.

3. METHODS TO SUPPORT SEED POLICY

The following are considered some of the key tools for supporting seed policy:

• Information;
• Training;
• Research;
• Technology transfer;
• Infrastructure; and
• Regulations.

This paper addresses in a brief manner seed utilization and technology transfer support systems, that bring about increased seed use, seed security and, hence, food security in the rural communities.

4. SEED UTILIZATION BY SMALLHOLDERS

Improving smallholder access to new crop varieties has long been recognized as a critical step for increasing agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Adoption of improved varieties that resist pests and drought can often yield a crop, even when farmers are unable to adopt more costly inputs such as chemicals and fertilizer.

Over the past 30 years, substantial resources have been invested in crop breeding programmes at international and national research centers serving Africa, and hundreds of new varieties have been released. However, except for a few commodities such as hybrid maize in Southern Africa, sustained adoption of improved varieties has been very limited.

One explanation given for the lack of adoption is the inefficiency of seed supply systems put in place by governments in the 1970s and 1980s. These usually consisted of single distribution channels, dominated by public agricultural departments, parastatals, or large private seed companies. Beginning in the late 1980s, many countries introduced economic reforms that included liberalization of the seed industry. Little is known about how these reforms have affected seed sector structure and performance, in particular how smallholder’s access to seed of improved varieties has changed.

A recent study in Zambia and Zimbabwe found that improved varieties are available, but sustained adoption by smallholders is linked to subsidized or free distribution of seed. Since 1950, Zimbabwe’s national agricultural research system (NARS) has released 35 maize hybrids, 8 sorghum and 11 groundnut varieties. Zambia’s NARS has produced 18 maize hybrids, 8 sorghum and 8 groundnut varieties since 1965.

Adoption of hybrid maize by smallholders is high in both countries: an estimated 98% of maize area in Zimbabwe and above 60% of area in Zambia was planted to hybrids by the early 1990s. The adoption of hybrid maize using fertilizer increased smallholder yields by an estimated 46-64%. The high adoption rate was facilitated by stable, state-subsidized, and geographically dispersed input and output markets for maize in both countries. The programmes proved to be financially unsustainable because of credit defaults and the expense of maintaining an extensive network of market depots, and programmes were sharply reduced in the early 1990s. The effect of their elimination was felt most severely in Zambia, which liberalized more rapidly yet has a weaker private sector than Zimbabwe. In 1994/95, hybrid seed sales fell to less than 3,400 tons from an annual average of 8,000 tons between 1981 and 1993.

Adoption of improved groundnut varieties has been extremely limited in Zambia and Zimbabwe despite the availability of variety releases that yield up to 80% more than local varieties under on-station conditions. Nearly all of the groundnut crop in Zambia is produced from farmer-retained seed.

On the other hand, grain legumes are characterized by low multiplication factors and high seeding rates, and these are consequently the least attractive crops for large centralized seed companies to handle. The extreme example is groundnut, which has a multiplication factor of less than 10 and a sowing rate of 100 kg per hectare. These bulky seed crops are more amenable to production by localized seed companies that can minimize transport costs at each stage. They are very suitable for on-farm seed multiplication.

There are many factors influencing the acceptance of new varieties by farmers. They include, but are not limited to the following:

• Profitability;
• Yield stability;
• Simplicity of cultivation; and
• Limited risk.

On the other hand, farmers in rural communities have always cited many constraints as in relation to increased seed absorption or seed use. The following factors are some of the reasons for a low seed uptake/use by farmers in these communities:

• Price of seed;
• Price of other inputs;
• Relative price of crops;
• Farmers’ forecast of weather;
• Costs of reaching distribution outlets;
• Yield or quality advantages of new varieties;
• Resource endowment;
• Management strategy;
• Effective extension system/preference for hybrid seed; and
• Lack of knowledge.

Therefore, increasing seed utilization will require removal of obstacles or institutional rigidities which hinder widespread use of seed. For instance:

• Variety Testing

• Release committee/formal variety research system - made easy;
• Performance standards - made realistic;
• Regional catalogues - local ones as well;
• Information exchange - networking locally and regionally; and
• Farmer and farm organization - increased role.

• Seed Quality Control

• Certification - remove compulsory system, introduce truth in labeling;
• Public vs private sector roles - each stick to the roles they can do best;
• Costs vs effectiveness of enforcement - introduce farmer, seed testing varieties;
• Farmer and farm organizations - strengthen;
• National vs ISTA rules - introduce simple quality standards (FAO Quality Declared Seed); and

• Seed health passports - for increased regional movement of seeds.

The challenge, therefore, for seed information exchange and seed extension systems should be to attempt to examine and remove the bottlenecks in the whole seed chain in both the formal and informal seed systems. The rural communities who are food and seed insecure require appropriate technology transfer strategies which are simple and cost-effective in every aspect.

Agencies for Seed Extension

Most developing countries including those of sub-Saharan Africa have agricultural extension services. Utilization of existing services will have the following advantages for promoting seed production and utilization:

• Results in a more systematic extension approach, keeping in view national policies and programmes;
• Provides for seed extension to be a part of the overall extension programme, hence economizing on extension costs; and
• Easier to propagate and implement government policies and programmes relating to seed.

Government extension departments carry out extension on various agro-inputs and packages. Information on new seeds must be transmitted to farmers just before the sowing season and this is the period during which the extension of fertilizers, new implements, pesticides, credit and agronomic practices is also carried out, so seed may not receive adequate attention. Therefore, in those countries where new seed adoption is in an early stage, governments should consider laying special emphasis on seed extension. Simultaneously, the government should give adequate opportunities for the development of other seed organizations which can render effective extension services.

Other media or channels of technology transfer in rural communities would include: school clubs, women and women clubs, farmers, farmer groups, farm associations, NGOs, seed companies, chemical supply (fertilizers/chemical) companies, newspapers, farm magazines, radio, TV and government agencies, relief agencies, bill boards, etc.

Organizations which are working exclusively on seeds have the distinct advantage of possessing the latest information on the subject. Since they operate on a commercial basis, they are more systematic and cost-effective in their approach. They may also have flexibility of operation and may be able to fit extension activities to the needs of a particular area. The main weakness of such organizations include the focus on hybrid seed.

The above channels are facing several difficulties including funding, poor linkages and poor rural infrastructures. The communications approach may not be suitable for rural communities. Poor targeting, low education of the target groups, government policy which lead to poor targeting of food security crop, low seed replacement rates and in particular government agencies which are beset with poor funding and low staff moral.

5. SEED AS A TOOL FOR TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

The objectives of extension to promote increased farmers’ utilization of improved varieties would include:

• Educate farmers on the usefulness of using seeds of improved varieties and on practices to grow them;
• Inform farmers about the various sources of seed supply;
• Highlight problems of existing crop varieties and show how alternate varieties can provide solutions;;
• Offer opportunities to grow more profitable crops; and
• Encourage the cultivation of certain crops in line with government policy.

5.1. Seed Extension Strategies

The main strategies of seed extension include:

• Extension programmes should aim to inform farmers of the benefits of improved varieties, such as resistance to pests and diseases and high productivity;
• Extension methods should adapt to local conditions by considering such factors as the level of the adoption of new technology by farmers, their cultural habits and socio-political conditions;
• Understanding socio-economic conditions will assist the choice of the right type of extension methods. Acceptance by opinion leaders is often found as an effective approach in many developing countries;
• Involvement of farmers in extension methods through demonstrations and group discussions is also effective; and
• While the major promotion and extension effort must be directed at farmers who will buy the seed, it is also important that credit agencies, traders, landowners and the general public be informed of new developments.

5.2. Extension Techniques/Activities

5.2.1 Individual contact

Provides an opportunity for person to person contact between farmers and extension workers. This method is very effective, particularly where there is a low level of literacy, and creates a certain amount of goodwill between farmers and extension workers. The method is expensive and cannot be adopted on a large scale by commercially run organizations, but it is an important method of extension for government extension agencies.

5.2.2 Group contact

This method also involves face to face discussion with farmers, and provides an opportunity for the exchange of ideas and discussions of problems with greater numbers of people and would be cost- effective.

- Field Demonstrations

This is the most cost-effective and highly beneficial extension method and could be used:

• where a new variety is introduced for the first time;
• in areas where awareness and adoption of new seed or certified seed is low;
• in areas of low up-take of seeds despite substantial potential; and
• in areas where seed extension efforts are lacking.

As far as possible a field demonstration should be a complete demonstration with the use of the full package of practices with proper seed, soil and water management practices, plant protection measures and use of improved farm implements. Success of field demonstrations depends upon the selection of the right cultivar and demonstration site. In making a selection, the following broad guidelines should be kept in mind:

• the selected farmers should have all basic facilities and should be willing to use the full package;
• he/she should be a farmer who enjoys the confidence of other farmers;
• the selected plot should be well leveled, well drained and free from bushes and trees;
• the plot should have an easy access so that a large number of farmers can visit it;
• the plot should have a uniform fertility;
• the size of the demonstration plot can be variable depending on land availability;
• a contiguous group of farmers can also be used;
• emphasis should be placed on small farmers as they form the bulk of the farming community in developing countries; and
• in each season, a different farmer and site should be selected for demonstrations.

After a demonstration site has been identified, a series of measures are necessary to ensure its success:

• proper sign boards indicating the area and details of the demonstration should be prominently displayed;
• corrective measures for any soil deficiencies should be taken;
• the field should be prepared thoroughly;
• timely and adequate availability of seeds and allied inputs should be ensured;
• the recommended package of practices should be followed;
• timely prophylactic and corrective plant protection measures should be taken;
• timely irrigation should be carried out;
• available media should be fully involved in conveying the results of demonstrations;
• control plots using traditional varieties should be provided alongside demonstration plots in order to compare performance;
• field visits by farmers should be organized at different stages of crop growth;
• the performance of the demonstration plot should be fully monitored by the extension worker through periodic field visits;
• harvesting should be done in the presence of the farmers and yields accurately recorded; and
• meticulous records of inputs used, costs incurred and yields obtained should be kept.

Demonstrations can be carried out in three ways:

• Result demonstrations aim at providing a comparative performance of the traditional and improved varieties. In such demonstrations, farmers are taken to the plots at appropriate stages of crop growth and the results achieved are highlighted.

• Method demonstrations lay emphasis on acquainting farmers with the techniques required for successful cultivation of the new varieties. In these demonstrations, farmers are taken to the plot quite frequently. This method has a distinct advantage over the result demonstration in as much as it makes a farmer fully conversant with the techniques needed for raising a good crop of the new variety and could be considered to be the most beneficial method.

• Block demonstrations are large-scale demonstrations where a group of farmers in a contiguous block are involved and motivated to take up a single crop demonstration on their fields. This gives the farmer the much needed confidence in raising a successful crop of a new variety. The system has the advantages that greater interaction between the participating farmers and input delivery and monitoring can be organized more systematically and with ease. When adoption of a new variety by a large group of farmers is desired, this method is suggested.

• Group Discussions

As farmers cannot be individually contacted by seed extension workers because of their large number, it is convenient and feasible to contact them in groups. Therefore, farmers meeting in small groups, especially prior to the sowing season, can be an effective extension tool. Farmers can be informed and advised about the advantages of the new varieties available and the correct package to be followed for their cultivation. It is also a cost-effective method.

• Crop Seminars

For rapid dissemination of information concerning new varieties, crop seminars could be organized prior to the sowing season. These involve free and direct conversation between the extension workers, research scientists and farmers. Farmers should be encouraged to discuss their experiences and have their queries answered by experts. The main disadvantage of this methodology would be the language of communication.

• Field Days

Field days are held on demonstration plots and provide an opportunity for observing and discussing the differences between newly introduced varieties and traditional varieties.

• Variety Testing

The main advantage/benefits will be that if farmers participate in the variety testing programme, the subsequent adoption is made easy as farmers would have been in contact with the material. The operation of these trials is expensive, the failure of an entire variety trial cannot be discounted. It is also possible that variety trial results may just confirm that the variety is not suitable – then all previous investment is totally lost, including farmer confidence.

5.2.3. Visual Aids

Visual aids can be helpful in informing farmers about the existence and availability of seed of new varieties and their advantages. Such visuals include posters, banners, graphs, flash cards, slides and film strips. A judicious combination of visuals along with other extension aids could be very effective. The language of communication may be a bottleneck.

5.2.4. Seed Campaigns

Seed campaigns can be organized to focus the attention of farmers on the need for using seed of improved varieties. Such campaigns can be introduced into the routine technical work of an extension service and employ some or all of the techniques mentioned above. Setting up a wide-reaching system of evaluation of improved varieties, including local varieties, is the basis on which other operations are founded and an extension service must provide technical staff and adequate methods to identify improved varieties suited to the needs of the area. To succeed, seed campaigns would need national level policy support.

Figure 1. The Technology Transfer Triangle - Way Forward

Market communications

It is important to have good communication links with the farmers, to inform them of the availability and the quality characteristics of the seed (information) and to create the desire and willingness to purchase the seed (promotion). Greg (1983) summarized the above in the "AID ME" concept:

"Farmers should be made aware of the existence of improved seed; interest should be aroused; and the potential should be demonstrated; then farmers should be educated regarding how to combine it with other inputs and how to obtain the necessary credit and finally how to make money out of the variety."

Roles of Private and Public Sectors

Unfair competition between public and private sectors. Government subsidies provide public sector firms an unfair advantage over private firms. In order to encourage fair competition without disrupting the existing system:

• Subsidies should be gradually phased out, and public sector seed prices should be adjusted to reflect market realities and actual costs.
• Through the period of transition (and beyond), governments must ensure the continued production and availability of high-volume, low-cost seed (e.g. rice, wheat and other food crops) that private firms may find unattractive.

Seed industry associations. The absence of professional seed industry associations is a significant constraint in Africa. The formation of such associations (which are found in most developed seed economies) will ensure that private sector concerns are adequately addressed while formulating seed policy. It will also improve coordination within the private sector, and between private firms and regulating agencies. The FAO and donor agencies provided support for the secretariat of the Asia Pacific Seed Association (APSA). This could be used as a model for Africa as well.

• Donor support could be sought for the establishment of national or regional seed associations for information exchange.

Figure 2 describes the kind of interactions among the various components of a functioning formal or informal seed provision system. The benefits would outweigh the costs of these interactions if properly planned. In this model, a farmer is a partner and a participant.

Figure 2 Key Interactions Among Components of the Seed Provision Process

Better use of existing facilities. Existing facilities (e.g. processing plants, seed testing laboratories) should be used more efficiently.

• Where possible, private firms should be permitted to lease or buy public sector facilities.

Promotion of new varieties. Greater efforts are needed to stimulate demand for seed of improved varieties. Various promotional methods should be used:

• Demonstration plots, established with public sector facilities and staff where necessary.
• Exhibitions and fairs to generate awareness.
• Concessional advertising rates in government-owned media (press, radio, TV) to both private and public seed companies.

Weakness

Poor linkages between private and public sectors. Closer linkages would eliminate duplication of effort and help public and private firms focus on their respective areas of comparative advantage. In order to bring this about, regular meetings are needed between private and public agencies to ensure there is continuous exchange of information and ideas.

Focusing on high-value crops by the seed companies not essential to assure food security. Poor funding of public sector institutions.

Roles for NGOs and Farmers’ Groups

In a non-emergency or developmental situation, NGOs should focus, as a general rule, on capacity building and training rather than on direct intervention. NGOs should aim to strengthen local institutions, facilities, and administrative structures rather than developing new structures and channels. They should help develop farmers’ groups and similar community organizations, strengthen local capacity in key area, and gradually devolve responsibility to the local community. They should help farmers’ groups - even if they operate in an "informal" way - to link into a more formal system (e.g. registered societies, credit financing).

In an emergency (relief) situation, NGO intervention has necessarily to be more direct, but the above suggestions should apply to the extent possible. Such principles apply to intervention relating to seed supply as well as other NGO targets.

Lack of farmer training. In many areas, farmers lack the necessary skills to maintain varietal purity and produce high-quality seed. NGOs must help disseminate information on new varieties and management practices, seed production methods (isolation distances, seed selection), and storage and processing methods. NGOs should, therefore, provide farmers involved with seed production with training in seed crop management, processing, and storage.

Lack of entrepreneurial skills. Even farmers who may be skilled at seed production generally lack skills in marketing, small business management, book-keeping and accounting. NGOs should provide appropriate training in these areas, where necessary in collaboration with specialized training institutions and other agencies. NGOs could facilitate local seed trade by providing training on business management and accounting.

Inadequate expertise among NGOs. Most NGOs lack skills in areas related to entrepreneurship and small-business management, and cannot strengthen communities in these areas. NGOs themselves would require training and backstopping, which could be provided by donor or government agencies.

As a start, NGOs should diagnose their own weaknesses in supporting community-level seed production and market development, and seek training to strengthen these skills

Poor community oganization. NGOs and farmers’ groups should strengthen community organizations. This will help local communities articulate their needs, and facilitate empowerment by making them aware of their rights and obligations. Training on group dynamics should be considered, wherever needed. Therefore, interventions should build on existing community organizations and thus strengthen local seed supply systems.

Lack of coordination between NGOs and public agencies. NGOs should develop close links with extension services and other public agencies operating within the area. This will help ensure that different agencies complement each other, comparative advantages are fully exploited, and duplication of effort and waste of resources are minimized. This can be achieved if NGOs work with national research and extension institutions involved with seed production and distribution. Links with the private sector may also be fruitful.

Lack of Sustainability. Many farmers’ groups and NGOs collapse when donors withdraw support. Long-term sustainability of small scale community-based seed projects could be ensured through better design of programmes, emphasizing economically viable, socially acceptable interventions, and developing structures that will become self-sustaining and financially stable. Therefore, NGO-supported community-level seed schemes should be designed to ensure sustainability after donor assistance is withdrawn.

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