Background Papers

Seed Stocks and Seed Multiplication in Emergency Situations
Seed and Plant Genetic Resources Service
Plant Production and Protection Division
FAO, Rome, Italy

1. General Considerations

It is well known that good quality seeds of improved varieties, together with appropriate cultural practices, can make a substantial contribution to increasing agricultural productivity and sustainability at relatively little cost, if produced in adequate quantities, distributed in a timely manner, planted properly by farmers and priced appropriately.

The access of farmers’ communities to seeds and planting material depends on formal and/or informal seed supply systems. The former generally consists of public sector research institutions, public and private sector seed production and marketing agencies, and seed certification and quality control organizations. The latter consists of large numbers of farmers who produce both traditional and improved seed varieties, market their production, and also, do their own research and development. For both systems, three factors have been shown to be critical characteristics of an effective seed supply system:

2. Seed Supply in Normal Situation

2.1. Maintenance of Seed Stocks

In normal situations, plant breeding institutions and seed companies that have an important plant breeding programme maintain the basic breeding material and germplasm in different kind of collections: " Basic Collection" (long term conservation), "Active Collection" (medium term conservation) and "Working Collection" for daily use in the breeding programme. In addition, seed companies maintain a certain seed stock, the importance of which depends on the category of seed, reproduction rate and seed volume. As a rule of thumb, it is generally accepted that the breeder seed stock is kept in quantity to meet the totality of needs. The stock of pre-basic and basic seed should cover 50 to 25% of the amount needed for normal reproduction. Concerning certified seed, it could be considered that 10 to 15% of seed requirement should be kept in stock. Nevertheless, seed companies and producers always keep so called "carry over stocks" of unsold certified seed, which exceeds their own needs, and could be used in emergency situations. It should be mentioned that the maintenance of important seed stocks is very costly and risky, and unless Governments do not find its strategic interest to help, private companies are not interested in keeping large quantities of seeds in stock.

2.2. Seed and Planting Material Multiplication

The supply of good quality seed requires a well established seed industry based on modern and efficient seed technology, which includes all procedures and techniques applied in seed production and distribution, such as:

This is the usual procedure in providing good quality seed of improved varieties to farming communities and is known as the formal seed supply system or formal seed sector.

It has been estimated that although there have been substantial investments during the last 20 years or so in the development of the formal seed sector in developing countries, only approximately 5 to 10% of farmers' seed requirements are derived from formal seed supply systems. The rest is supplied by the informal seed sector, mainly through on-farm saved seed and exchange in farming communities.

Many farmers who rely completely or largely on on-farm produced seed are in areas where the sustained supply of improved seed enjoyed elsewhere does not reach. This is either because of geographical isolation or lack of commercial incentives for the private sector to reach such markets. This lack of incentives may result from either the negligible profit attached to the seed of some crop species, or high cost of distribution to more remote areas where organized marketing by the private sector is considered unrealistic.

2.3. Seed Distribution and Marketing

The establishment of an economically sound seed industry depends in a great extent on the market for which the seed is produced. The frequency at which the farmers will buy their seeds from the formal seed supply system will depend on different factors, such as:

a) the level of economical development of the country;

The Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) is the percentage of seed demand covered by the formal seed suplly sector. In developed countries, the SSR is much higher than in the developing or least developed ones. The formal seed supply system in developing countries is not sufficiently developed to make available good quality seed of improved varieties to farmers communities. The farmers in these countries, often cannot afford to buy seed every cropping season due to the low income from their farms, and are obliged to use their own on-farm produced seed.

b) the type of variety and the system of reproduction;

The seed of hybrid varieties of maize (single, double and three way crosses) must be renewed every cropping season to avoid the loss of hybrid vigour. The seed of improved open-pollinated varieties of cross pollinated crops must be renewed more frequently than the seed of pure line varieties of self-pollinated crops, if properly grown.

c) the commercial value of the crop;

The crops could be divided into three main groups, according to their interest for marketing:

A well established seed industry must have an efficient marketing and distribution system, in order to supply seed and planting material to farmers in adequate quantity and quality, in time and at an affordable price. Private seed producers and dealers should have easy access to favourable financial resources (credits), and in order to be competitive, governments should not subsidize the public seed sector.

3. Seed Supply in Emergency and Disaster Situations

It is important to recognize here that there are differences between seed sources which have seed stocks of varieties of major food crops available in limited quantities and seed sources which can supply adequate quantities of seeds without further need for multiplication before distribution to affected agricultural areas. Most often these seed stocks are for varieties which have come out of varietal improvement programmes and, although developed for adaptation to a wide range of agro-ecological growing conditions, may not be suitable for the replacement of local varieties due to a wide-range of farmer preferences that are not necessarily based on high yields. These different sources are discussed below.

3.1. Sources of Seed for Multiplication Before, During and After a Disaster

3.1.1. National and/or International Agricultural Research Centers

Both national agricultural research systems (NARS) and international agricultural research centers (IARCs) have crop improvement programmes which are aimed at developing improved varieties of major food crops adapted to a wide range of agro-ecological conditions. These improved varieties may or may not have undergone extensive on-farm testing to assure that these varieties are acceptable to limited resource farmers. In most cases, the quantities of seed available for any given variety will be limited depending on the extent to which they have been diffused for farmer-based trials and use by national extension systems.

It should also be stated that NARS and IARCs have neither a mandate nor the resources to multiply and store large quantities of seeds of adapted varieties. The mandate of these research systems is to develop and test varieties and when any given variety is well accepted, the seeds are normally then provided to other actors in the public seed sector to multiply and distribute, usually for sale.

3.1.2. Neighbouring Countries or Regions

Experiences from past emergency seed relief programmes have shown that it is preferable to procure seeds of local varieties in neighboring countries or regions which have seeds stocks available of local varieties which are adapted to similar agro-ecological growing conditions. Certain characteristics of these varieties are critical to assure that the seeds, when provided to affected farming communities, provide acceptable yields and do not waste the limited resources of these affected communities (time and labor). These characteristics include length of time required from sowing to physiological maturity, adaptation to altitude where grown and types of soils where they grow the best.

Often seed stocks are procurred from neighboring countries or regions through grain purchases on the local markets. Grain is not in and of itself necessarily good quality seed and should not be considered such. Large quantities of grain, when intended for seed relief operations, should be properly cleaned and tested for quality control (esp. for germination rates and insect infestation), and carefully marked for the important growth characteristics (if know) before distribution to affected rural communities.

3.1.3. National and International Genebanks and Collections

Genebanks and other germplasm collections are considered sources of seeds which have been collected, characterized and stored for use by public sector plant breeding and private sector plant improvement programmes. These are not generally considered as sources of seeds for seed relief programmes as the quantities of seed kept are quite small and would require extensive multiplication efforts to supply sufficient quantities of seeds needed to restore agricultural systems affected by disaster.

3.1.4. National and International Seed Producers (Public and Private)

National and international seed companies are the best sources of seeds for seed relief programmes as they have the capacity to either store adequate quantities or have the ability to multiply seed stocks of proven varieties of food crops. One of the main problems which consistently arises though is that public and private seed companies usually only deal with seed supplies of commercial crops which are cost-effective to produce and distribute, such as hybrid maize. They often do not deal with varieties of low value food crops which are usually needed to restore limited resource farming systems which use local varieties of cereal (sorghum and millet), legume (groundnut and cowpea) and root and tuber crops (cassava, yams and sweet potatoes).

3.2. Seed Supply During and After a Disaster

3.2.1. Emergency seed supply

Calamities and disasters of all kind cause interruption of agricultural production, and often result in the loss of seed and planting material of local varieties. In these cases, seed of adapted varieties is the major input requested by the agricultural sector to restore crop production systems. Usually, it is difficult to provide local communities with seed of such varieties, when they are more or less lost. Distribution of grain to be used for emergency seed supply produces low yields and increases the risk of introducing pests and diseases. Even if good quality seed of improved varieties, which are not adapted to local conditions is supplied, there is a possibility of low yields, or of non-acceptance by the farmers’ community because of food quality or taste, which may not suit their requirements. In addition, the introduction of such foreign varieties induces uncontrolled crossings with local genotypes adapted to the region. This "genetic pollution" is responsible for the definitive loss of local genetic resources and, as a result, of the disruption of the sustainable agricultural system of the region concerned.

In order to alleviate the situation of lack of seed supply, which in several calamity affected areas often became critical, FAO with support of the international community, assisted the affected countries with emergency seed supply. According to FAO/TCOR data, approximately US$ 30 million was spent in 1995 and 1996 for emergency seed supply programmes (including seed purchase, transport, distribution and technical assistance, as well as, accompanying inputs such as fertilizers, chemicals and tools).

When planning for emergency seed supply, the following should be considered before deciding on the appropriate source of emergency seed: the varieties that are selected, the quantity of seed required, the quality of seed, the time requirements of the distribution programme and the price of seed from alternative sources. Once the crops for emergency seed supply are identified, attention must be paid to choice of variety. The objective is to return the local farming system to a situation as close to its pre-disaster status as possible. Choosing the appropriate variety(ies), if the local varieties are lost, is crucial for achieving this goal, and errors at this point may be responsible for exacerbating the emergency rather than ameliorating it. An updated database system with information of varieties suitable for the given agro-ecological zone and seed sources in the region is very important to prevent introduction of non-adapted varieties.

3.2.2. Restoring basic seed stock from local sources

Local markets could be a very valuable and reliable source of seeds of local varieties not only in normal times, but also in times of disruption due to disasters. For example, in Congo DR (former Zaire) after the looting during the unrest in the country in 1991, when the collection of local and improved varieties of the SENASEM were destroyed, the follow-up seed project managed to purchase grain stocks of local varieties in the rural markets and was able to restore a great number of lost varieties by using appropriate selection methodology.

In some cases, it is useful to identify grain stocks (public or private) of varieties of known origin and keep them separated from other grain as long as possible. In the case of emergency need for seed of these varieties, this grain could be cleaned, treated and used as seed. In Gambia, there was an emergency supply of groundnut seeds purchased from the local grain market in the framework of a TCP project. Before purchasing, the seed was tested for quality, and those seed lots which met the quality standards were purchased.

In some countries where a formal seed supply system is in place, comprising public and private seed companies and commercial enterprises, the companies could be approached and requested to supply seeds for emergency supply. Usually, many companies keep a certain quantity of seed, so called "carry over stocks", which exceeds in some cases their own needs, and could be used in case of emergency.

3.2.3. Purchasing from neighbouring countries and regions

In countries where local seed sources do not exist after a disaster, the seed should be purchased abroad. In such a case, the seed should be bought from suppliers from neighbouring countries, to save time and transport costs. If that is not possible, a basic principle is to buy seed from countries at the same latitudes, having similar climatic and ecological conditions, so that the varieties will be better adapted. It should be preferred to purchase seeds from legitimate seed companies rather than from grain merchants. Imported seed is also subject to possible delays because of transport problems, legislation (phytosanitary, plant quarantine and seed certification related to international trade) constraints.

When receiving donated seed, it must be kept in mind the origin of seed and variety. The varieties coming from the Northern countries may not be compatible with the needs of recipient countries in the South. Sometimes seed quality may also be low, due to a long period of storage before delivery.

3.2.4. Seed multiplication under contract

An alternative to buying seed is to contract for seed production. This requires considerable time, including arrangements of the contract, seed delivery and production itself, then collection of seed produced and distribution. In areas with possibility of irrigation or multiple growing seasons in a year, contracting seed production for the next season may be a viable solution. Where possible, tenders should be for supply of a given quantity of seed, as this can reduce costs significantly, and holds suppliers to a specified quality, date of delivery, etc. Seed production should be contracted to experienced seed producers, government seed farms or private companies, having adequate skills in seed production technology, processing and storage facilities that will ensure acceptable seed quality. When seed is contracted, it is advantageous to locate the production as close as possible to the zone of distribution. If seed production is contracted in a neighbouring country, it should be ensured that the legislation requirements concerning export and import of seed are fulfilled.

3.2.5. Multiplication of seed in neighbouring countries

In some countries affected by war for a considerable long time, a so called emergency across-border seed production could be organized. The case of Afghanistan is an example. In the framework of a UN/FAO project providing emergency relief and rehabilitation assistance, seed production for Afghanistan was organized in the neighbouring Pakistan, starting in 1988 for more than four years. After the situation in Afghanistan returned to near-normal, the project continued to rehabilitate the seed production system in the country.

3.2.6. Organization of national seed production and supply sector

In some countries where, during a long period of calamity situation (armed conflicts), the seed supply system was more or less interrupted or even destroyed, including the loss of human resources, seed production, processing, storage and marketing facilities, loss of genetic material and dislocation of people, once the situation returns to near-normal, there is a need to pass from emergency seed supply to the rehabilitation and development of the seed sector. In many countries recovering from a long period of a disaster situation, such as Afghanistan, Burundi, Rwanda, Liberia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, etc., the rehabilitation of the seed supply sector could not be achieved with the countries’ own means, and international assistance must be sought. Donors are usually willing to finance such assistance, including purchase of material and equipment, restoration of seed production and processing facilities, training of national staff and launching seed production activities. In such activities, FAO plays a crucial role in providing technical assistance through all kinds of projects.

In such cases, various national and international agencies, NGOs etc., play an important role. Before the national seed industry and formal seed supply sector is rehabilitated and made operational, these agencies could be organized and used for launching the informal seed production programmes at the farmers' level (men and women). Training of extension agents, supply of quality seed of adapted varieties, small tools and equipment would be a good start for such an operation. When supplying seed, it should be kept in mind that if the local varieties and germplasm were lost, the first step should be to restore these varieties from local resources, or to introduce varieties from neighbouring countries, which are well adapted to the local agro-ecological conditions.

3.2.7. Strengthening institutional structures and capacity building

After a long lasting and devastating disaster situation, national institutions such as agricultural research, national seed service, seed testing laboratories, variety testing facilities, etc., are usually not functioning. The government administration and related services often do not exist, the public institutions, such as research, extension service, etc., cannot accomplish their tasks due to lack of qualified staff, adequate funding, equipment and other means necessary for normal work. Governments, in such cases, need external assistance and funding to rehabilitate and assist these institutions to return to their normal functions. In many countries, FAO has prepared national seed plans and programmes, and assisted governments in their implementation. In preparation of such programmes, it should be kept in mind that both formal and informal seed supply sectors should be included, with special emphasis to the role of private sector and on-farm seed production. In addition to the establishment and strengthening the national institutions, special attention should be given to education and training of seed staff at all levels, including seed growers and farmers.

3.3. Seed Information Systems

The basic information needed in order to organize an emergency relief operation is to know which crop varieties are most commonly grown in a given country or region which has been affected by disaster. There are many local varieties of any given food crop which have been developed by farmers over time. There are also improved varieties which have been developed by plant improvement programmes and introduced into rural farming systems over time. Information about these types of varieties varies greatly in its availability, especially inventories of local crop genetic diversity found in rural farming communties of developing countries, many of which are in disaster-prone regions.

3.3.1. Seed stock availability in the country and abroad

The FAO Information System on Crop Variety Enhancement and Utilization was started in 1969 from information gathered with the aim of assisting relief operations, evaluating and disseminating research results of plant breeding activities worldwide, and to promote crop diversification and utilization of potential useful plants. It is part of the World Information and Early Warning System on Plant Genetic Resources (see section 3.3.3 below on WIEWS).

The information in the Crop Variety Enhancement and Utilization System contains 51 groups of the 4,000 major crops of economic importance. Its compilation began as part of the FAO Information System on Seed and Plant Genetic Resources activities, and has the following main purposes:

This rather unique database is continuously updated and is the result of gathering, analyzing and disseminating data on the enormous and ever-increasing amount of varieties available worldwide. As of July 1998, it contains about 170,000 entries but does not pretend to be complete; some vegetable varieties may be so common that possibly they could be available from hundreds of different sources.

A search of the database produces a list which is very simply structured that includes among other information: the crop variety name(s), the country(ies) from which the varieties are found, the importance of a variety in terms of area grown, and some indications are given of major traits like yield capacity, high protein content, average plant cycle from sowing to harvest, etc.

3.3.2. Seed suppliers

The FAO Crop Variety Enhancement and Utilization database goes together with the "World List of Seed Sources" (FAO Rome, 1996, 623 pages) which contains the names and addresses of over 8,200 public and private institutions dealing with seed production and processing in over 150 countries and includes a list of the major food crops with which the institutions are involved.

3.3.3. Availability of local germplasm in National and/or International Genebanks and Collections

The FAO World Information and Early Warning System (WIEWS) on Plant Genetic Resources system provides information on national programmes for the conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) and consists of a number of databases and information retrieval software including geographical presentation (maps) of location of ex-situ plant collections.

It provides a register of institutions involved in plant genetic resources conservation and utilization with a list of key scientists in each institution and a list of crops and activities dealt with. For each country, all institutions are given a series of numbers that hierarchically identifies them in the structure of the national plant genetic resources programme. The ex-situ collections database provides a summary record of each genebank's (collection's) holdings. These data include: species name and number of accessions for these species, type of material held (wild, land race, advanced cultivar, breeder's material, mutants, etc.), geographical distribution of accessions, and place of safety duplication. For each collection, the technical parameters of storage, such as temperature, humidity, moisture content and type of container are recorded.

The "Early Warning" database is still being developed and will consist of reports on the possible genetic erosion in the natural environment and ex-situ plant collections.

3.3.4. Other Early Warning Systems

Since 1975, the FAO Global Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS) on Food and Agriculture has been providing regular bulletins on food crop production and markets at the global level and situation reports on a regional and country-by-country basis.

The System aims to provide policy-makers and policy-analysts with the most up-to-date information available on all aspects of food supply and demand, warning of imminent food crises, so that timely interventions can be planned. To achieve this, the system:

3.4. Establishment and Maintenance of Seed Stocks

As mentioned in section 2.1., seed stocks maintained in normal situations depend on the category of seed, the reproduction rate and the volume. In any case, seed stock maintenance is very expensive and sometimes also risky. Therefore, it is not recommended to keep large quantities of certified seed in stock, since this requires additional costs, immobilizes funds for a considerable period, and in case of long term storage - the seed stocks could lose the germinability, and therefore, result in a sizeable economic loss for the company. Therefore, seed stocks should be considered as a strategic issue, and the governments should intervene and support their establishment and maintenance.

High category seed stocks (breeder and pre-basic seed) should be kept by the breeder or owner of the variety, if possible, under favourable conditions (cool rooms) in order to last for several growing seasons. The basic genetic material should be kept in long storage conditions (deep freezers).

3.5. A success story in Afghanistan

The main aim of the FAO seed programme from its onset in 1988 was to create a situation in rural Afghanistan conducive to the return of refugees and displaced families and start to redress the damage wrought by the war and assistance for agricultural rehabilitation. Food production and security are the essential and fundamental starting point and seed security and food security comes one after another in the sequence of an agricultural rehabilitation programme. The FAO seed programme sought to expand and sustain the use of improved seed through various activities- on-farm trials, selection, production, outside procurement, in-country seed production, networking, distribution, and popularization of certified seed. Fertilizer was also distributed to maximize the benefits offered by the improved seed. It was not very easy to implement the programme under an ever-changing security and political situation.

Such complex problems called for an imaginative implementation methodology of diversification and sustainability to remedy the situation rather than pursuing a typical programme. A vigorous and flexible calendar of operations for all stages had to be drawn up in advance and vigorously implemented. Even economic principle which dictates production of seed in a compact area was deliberately ignored to reach more farmers in isolated and inaccessible areas. The decentralization of the seed production was preferred. A diffuse approach consisting of large number of small seed producing pockets was adopted to ensure that farmers of every region and every stratum of society could benefit from the programme.

The FAO Programme has established in pragmatic ways that the provision of high quality seed and planting material (SPM) to Afghan farmers is one of the most cost-effective and economical forms of emergency aid. An integrated approach has been developed for marshalling, delivering and monitoring inputs. An informal back-up support network has been developed by the Programme. This encompasses the public and private sectors.

Collaboration with another UN agencies proved very fruitful. Food-for-seed was designed in collaboration of the WFP. The wheat seed was exchanged at a rate of 1:1.25 for wheat grain supplied by the World Food Programme. This ensured that seed growers had enough food to feed their own families and that a large proportion of their seed crops would travel out of the production areas to other farmers specially in food deficit areas. It also helped to make considerable savings of funds. A Fund Management Committee and a Seed Review Group were constituted to manage funds generated as sale proceeds and to advise on all matters relating to seed. More than US $ two million have been generated as sale proceeds and deposited in a separate account in Pakistan.

A number of constraints had to be overcome. Despite these constraints, more than 97% of the inputs did reach the farmers. By 1997, the Programme had distributed more than 48,413 MT seeds, mainly through NGOs and private voluntary organizations. The programme has been extremely successful and innovative. It continues to play a vital role in the rehabilitation of Afghanistan's agricultural production base after twenty years of conflict. As a result, it has been possible for many thousands of refugees and displaced families to return to their villages in Afghanistan with some expectation of being able to support themselves.

The FAO's Afghanistan seed programme provides many useful lessons. The most significant lesson of all that FAO has learned in Afghanistan is the importance of trusting the individual’s own thrust for development. By keeping its intervention small and sharply focused on specific areas and problems it has provided the initial lift that the majority of Afghan farmers in need of before embarking on their own climb upwards to self-sufficiency.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

Recognition of the increasing cost and complexity of emergency operations has focused attention on taking preventative action and planning for disasters before they happen. When emergencies do occur, the emphasis is on moving as quickly as possible from relief to rehabilitation, reconstruction and sustainable recovery, so that affected households can free themselves from dependence on food relief, displaced populations can return to their own areas and refugee camps can be dismantled before they become permanent settlements. Now there is also a greater understanding of the need for close cooperation and partnership among the agencies involved to achieve a new, more integrated approach to humanitarian assistance.

Erosion of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture can occur in ex-situ collections, in farmers' fields and in nature. The former depends on the quality of the original material stored, and on the conditions under which the material is maintained and multiplied. The loss of wild relatives can occur through loss or disturbance of habitat or natural disasters. Loss of genetic resources in crops occurs mainly through adoption of new crops or varieties of crops with the consequent abandonment of traditional varieties without appropriate conservation measures. Various factors, both natural phenomena and the results of human behavior, including urban expansion, agricultural mechanization civil, strife and war can put plant genetic resources for food and agriulture at risk.

In order to minimize genetic erosion and its impact on agricultural production systems over the long-term, it will be increasingly necessary to monitor the key elements concerning genetic resources conservation and the various factors causing genetic erosion, and to assemble this information to enable remedial or preventive actions to be taken.

An early warning system for plant genetic resources is a necessary component of an effective seed security strategy as it monitors the underlying causes of genetic erosion at the national, regional and global levels. The challenge is to assemble the wide array of data and information that are available and to establish mechanisms to ensure that these data and information are transferred to appropriate points designated as responsible for analysis, coordination and action.

There are a number of Early Warning Systems which have been developed and implemented by FAO, USAID and other national organizations using a wide variety of data to provide an early warning of potential calamities, mainly due to unfavorable climatic conditions. An early warning system on plant genetic resources is a new approach to using these data to forecast potential disasters which could result in the loss of plant genetic resources within a given country or region.

There are a number of tools which have been developed and successfully used to predict crop growth responses to existing climatic conditions during any givern growing season. These include the use of FAO soils maps, overlaid using GIS with crop water requirements which when combined with daily rainfall data, can relatively accurately provide estimates of potential severe yield reductions and/or crop failures. Used as a proxy indicator, these data would provide an early warning for the potential threat of seed insecurity due to severe or total crop losses in disaster-affected regions.

This early warning would allow for the planning of mitigation efforts to prepare for and assure that sources of appropriate seed stocks adapted to these affected areas of a country or region are identified, procured, and multiplied for distribution to affected farming communities. This early warning would also help avoid significant losses of local crop genetic resources which may result from relief programmes providing inappropriate seed stocks in their efforts to assist in the re-establishment of crop production systems in the affected areas.

5. REFERENCES

Bay, A. 1995. A Seed Security Strategy for Africa. Paper prepared for AGPS. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO. 1996. Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. FAO, Rome, Italy

Fiebig, W. W. 1997. Developing Seed Security Strategies and Programmes for Food Security in Sub- Saharan Africa. Paper prepared for AGPS. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Lowars, N.P., and A.M. Marrewijk. 1996. Seed Supply Systems in Developing Countries. Wageningen: CTA.

ODI. 1996. Seed Provision During and After Emergencies. Overseas Development Institute, London, UK.

Scowcroft, W.R. 1996. The Role in Restoring Food Security after Disaster. Paper prepared for AGPS. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Sikora, I. 1997. Seed security - FAO Approach. Proceedings: Regional Technical Meeting on Promotion of Regional Network for On-Farm Seed Production and Seed Security in SADC Countries. Maseru, Lesotho.

Stevens, J.E. 1995. A Study on Seed Security Schemes. Paper prepared for AGPS. FAO, Rome, Italy.

 

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