Abstract
After three decades of civil unrest, the population of Angola was completely devastated. People lost their belongings as they were fleeing from the war. With the consolidation of the peace, Private Voluntary Organizations (PVOs) were faced with the tasks of improving health and nutritional status of resettling communities. Seeds and tools were distributed alongside food and health assistance, as integral parts of the resettlement of returning, internally displaced and impoverished people. The destabilizing environment was characterized by discontinuity in agricultural technology research and development systems and the loss of information on appropriate cropping systems and varietal suitability for small-holder farming. This paper discusses initiatives undertaken by World Vision International to rehabilitate agricultural production of the Angolan small-holder farm family, and to restore a sustainable seed system within communities.
1. INTRODUCTION
War, drought, economic and social displacement, and disruption weaken and destroy mechanisms for achieving food security and maintaining family livelihoods. After three decades of civil unrest, along with natural disaster such as drought, the population of Angola in 1993, was made up of 63.7% war-affected people, 17.5% displaced people, 13.1% drought affected people, and 5.7% people returning to their land of origin (UN Report, 1993).
In 1993, World Vision International (WVI), with substantial private and government donor support, launched a multi-sectoral developmental relief and transition programme designed to address short and medium term needs of war-affected populations in Northern Angola, principally in Kwanza Norte, northern Kwanza Sul, and Malange Provinces. Short term interventions included the challenging tasks of improving health and nutritional status of resettling communities. Food aid was distributed to mitigate starvation. Feeding centers were created for the rehabilitation of mal-and/or under-nourished children and mothers. Mobile clinics and health posts were established to improve health of the population. Agricultural programmes were developed to address food shortages. This paper presents some of the key aspects of this experience pertaining to the recovery of agricultural production both short and medium terms, leading to food self-sufficiency of affected population, as a means of addressing issues of poverty and hunger and longer term with a view toward restoring economic stability and laying the ground work for future economic and agricultural development. Aggravating household food insecurity is the unavailability or short supply of seeds and planting materials, the discontinuity in agricultural technology research and development systems and the loss of information on appropriate cropping systems and varietal suitability for small-holder farming (Chapman et al., 1997). World Vision’s experience in supplying quality seeds within this destabilizing environment is described, followed by lessons learned.
2. AGRICULTURAL RECOVERY
During the 1993-1998 period, with major support from USAID, DFID, AusAID, CIDA, UNICEF, UCAH, WFP, WVI private funds and other donors, World Vision played an important role in facilitating resettlement and rehabilitation by assisting returnees and vulnerable populations in their efforts to reestablish mechanisms for attaining a minimum level of food security and access to basic health care services through the provision of direct technical and commodity assistance. For Chapman et al. (1997), the following situations characterized the problems encountered by World Vision at the initiation of the agricultural recovery process:
• Stocks of seed and planting material were disrupted, lost or in short supply. This required an emergency injection of planting materials from outside sources.
• Returning refugees and displaced impoverish populations lacked the means to purchase agricultural inputs. Seed "paks" were therefore distributed free of charge, along with food rations to tide people over until they could harvest crops and begin to feed themselves.
The success of helping the small farm family achieve food security depends significantly on which varieties are included in the seed "pak" (Tripp, 1998). Unfortunately, no varietal screening was done. Therefore, the seed "paks" often included whatever seed was generally available (Chapman et al., 1997). In some cases, grain was bought and shipped as seed (Rohrbach et al., 1997), or a variety was shipped with the commercial name of another variety, e.g. the groundnut variety "Spanish" was shipped as Natal Common, although Natal Common is no longer produced as seed (Hildebrand, personal communication).
A "pak" consisted of one variety of each of the main staple food crops: maize, beans, groundnut, and cowpea. These "one size fit all" seed "paks" were distributed by PVOs throughout the country, without regard to environmental factors such as elevation, rainfall, temperatures, etc. This distribution of largely inappropriate seeds varieties had the effect of retarding the pace of agricultural recovery because many varieties in the "paks" performed poorly in Angolan environments for which they were not adapted.
In 1996, World Vision designed a "farmer first" extension service and modified the composition of seed "paks" to include two adapted maize varieties so that recipients of seeds and tools will obtain optimum production from the farm inputs they received. Table 1 presents the number of farm families per year who received seeds and tools and benefited from World Vision extension services.
During the 1996/97 growing season, a Food For Agriculture (FFA) initiative was launched whereby food was used as an incentive to increase cultivated land. A farmer was given a food ration when he had cultivated a minimum of 2500 m² of land. Through this initiative, cultivated land in 1997/98 increased by 43 % in Malange Province and more than doubled in Kwanza Norte, compared to 1996/97 production.
World Vision programmes emphasized formal training of technicians, extension agents and leading farmers through seminars and workshops. On-the-job training of farmers was a key component of the extension activities. Training was done during visits to farmers’ fields, and during farmers’ field days organized at demonstration plots. Primary recommendations on farming systems included:
- Plant density: A survey on the rate of adoption of recommendations for appropriate plant density showed that in Kwanza Norte 54.7% of farmers were using appropriate plant density, while in Malange only 19.4% had adopted the recommended plant density. Quantitative data from demonstration plots in Malange showed 18% increase in yield when WVI recommended densities were used, compared to plant densities selected by farmers.
- Erosion control: On erosion control, only 22.8% of farmers in Kwanza Norte cultivated their land using contour ridges (perpendicular to the slope), to prevent erosion of top soil by rains. In Malange, 54% were controlling appropriately soil erosion as recommended by the extension team.
Table 1. Agricultural and vegetable seeds and tools distributed by World Vision from FY94 to FY98
|
Financial Year |
Number of Families |
Total beneficiaries* |
|
1993-1994 |
7,963 |
29,815 |
|
1994-1995 |
25,482 |
132,410 |
|
1995-1996 |
63,518 |
317,590 |
|
1996-1997 |
77,000 |
385,000 |
|
1997-1998 |
50,852 |
254,260 |
* Total beneficiaries is estimated with the assumption that the average family size is five people.
Table 2. 1997/98 production estimates for beans, cowpeas, maize, and groundnuts in WVI project area.
|
Province |
Munici-pality |
Beans (kg/ha) |
Cowpeas (kg/ha) |
Maize (kg/ha) |
Groundnut (kg/ha) |
Estimate 1996/97(kg/ha)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Beans |
Groundnut |
|
Kwanza Norte |
Cazengo Lucala G. Alto S.Caju |
1496 436 1755 329 |
1273 387 1247 800 |
916 1246 1700 n/a |
430 1075 928 n/a |
801 419 n/a 405 |
542 703 n/a 341 |
|
Kwanza Sul |
Libolo |
1393 |
n/a |
1165 |
n/a |
n/a |
n/a |
|
Malange |
Malange Cacuso Mucari Quela |
545 743 863 n/a |
n/a n/a n/a n/a |
6532 n/a 5741 5717 |
n/a n/a n/a n/a |
215 n/a n/a n/a |
n/a n/a n/a n/a |
n/a: Not available.
Due in large measure to WVI’s current programme strategy, most assisted villages have achieved at least a basic level of food production sufficient to provide for family food needs for 6 to 10 months. Table 2 shows World Vision yield estimates for 1997/98 growing season for beans and groundnut compared to those in 1996/97. For maize, FAO estimates of production in 1996/97 were 410 kg/ha, 530 kg/ha, and 510 kg/ha for Kwanza Norte, K. Sul, and Malange Provinces, respectively, and are used to assess the 1997/98 production.
These figures indicated that maize production in 1997/98 was up 220% to 415% in Kwanza Norte, and 220% in Kwanza Sul over 1996/97 production levels. Bean yield estimates for 1997/98 compared to 1996/97 production ranged from 81% (a decrease probably due to excessive rain in the micro-climate of Samba Caju) to about 186% (Cazengo) in Kwanza Norte, to about 300% in Kwanza Sul (using FAO 1996/97 estimates), and from about 182% to about 250% in Malange (using WVI and FAO 1996/97 estimates).
To sustain this increased production, WVI designed the "Seeds of Freedom" Project (SOF) to provide quality seeds and planting materials to farmers. The next section presents the SOF approach for seed restoration and preliminary results.
3. SEED RESTORATION IN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS
3.1. On-station and on-farm testings
Through an array of seven Private Voluntary Organizations (AFRICARE, CARE, CONCERN, CRS, LWF, SCF(US), and WVI), the Institutes of Rural Development (IDA) and of Agronomic Research (IIA) of the Ministry of Agriculture (MINADER), farmers were given the opportunity to test, on their farms and under their own growing conditions and management, improved technologies developed by five International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs): CIAT (for beans), CIP (for Irish potato and sweet potato), CIMMYT (for maize), ICRISAT (for sorghum, pearl millet and groundnut), and IITA (for cassava, and cowpea). In these on-farm trials, farmers compared new varieties to local varieties. Farmers selected varieties base on criteria such as yield, cooking and palatability tests, milling properties, etc. The selected varieties were reported to the National Seed Service (SENSE) by IIA and IDA, to be incorporated into the list of varieties recommended for specific agro-ecologies of the country. Angola was divided into six distinct agro-ecological zones, using six weather and soil parameters, including elevation, rainfall, maximum and minimum temperatures, evapo-transpiration, and soil water holding capacity (Fig. 1).
During the 1996/97 and 1997/98 cropping seasons, respectively 1,040 and 1,950 on-farm trials of beans, maize, sorghum and pearl millet were established in five of the six agro-ecological zones. Three improved varieties of beans (CAL 113, A197 and A286), one variety of pearl millet (Okashina 1), a local variety of sorghum, two improved varieties of maize for the mid-altitude zones (ZM 607 and Matuba) and three local varieties of maize (SAM 3, Branco Redondo and Dente de Cavalo) for the high altitude zone (Central Plan-Alto) were most preferred by farmers over the other varieties. Three clones of cassava (two improved lines TMS 30211 and TMS 42025 and one local "Precoce de Angola") previously selected by farmers were in the multiplication scheme for wide distribution to farmers.
Tables 3 and 4 presents the yield advantage of farmers’ selected varieties over the local varieties. Table 5 summarizes varieties of beans recommended by the project for each agro-ecological zone.
Table 3: Yield advantage (%) of the most preferred bean variety in comparison to local varieties.
|
Agroecological Zone |
Yield Kg/ha |
Yield advantage (%) |
|
|
Preferred |
Local |
|
|
Zone I |
846 |
617 |
62 |
|
Zone II |
333 |
267 |
25 |
|
Zone III |
327 |
156 |
112 |
|
Zone V |
657 |
443 |
15 |
Table 4 : Yield advantage
(%) of the most preferred bean variety based on palatability, in comparison to local varieties|
Agroecological Zone
|
Yields Kg/ha
|
Yield advantage (%) |
|
|
Preferred |
Local |
|
|
Zone I |
325 |
217 |
40 |
|
Zone II |
333 |
267 |
25 |
|
Zone III |
327 |
156 |
22 |
|
Zone V |
535 |
443 |
17 |
Table 5. Varieties preferred by farmers in each agro-ecological zone.
|
Agro-ecological Zone |
Varieties (ranking) |
|
Zone I Zone II Zone III Zone V |
A 344 (1st), Local (2nd) A 197 (1st), A 344 (2nd) A 286 (1st), CAL 113 (2nd) A 286 (1st), A 344 (2nd) |
3.2. Seed multiplication and production
Multiplication of foundation seeds by IARCs
For the 1996/97 season, seeds were shipped from the Centres in kits for on-farm trials, and in bulk for distribution to farmers. Planting materials for cassava, potato and sweet potato, as well as True Potato Seed (TPS) were sent by IITA and CIP for increase and trials on-station:
- 15 tons of pearl millet seed (2 varieties) and 80 tons of sorghum seed (3 varieties) by ICRISAT;
- 4 tons of beans (4 varieties) by CIAT;
- 14 tons of maize (13.7 tons of one intermediate maturing and 300 kgs of two late varieties) by CIMMYT;
- 15,000 pathogen-free plantlets of 16 varieties of cassava regenerated from tissue culture from IITA;
- 380 pathogen-tested cuttings of 17 high performing sweet potatoes varieties for testing by IIA and WVI, 1460 minitubers of 9 advanced potato clones; and
- a packet each of 1000 true potato seed (TPS) of 6 hybrid progenies, shipped from CIP, to be tested by IIA and CONCERN in Huambo.
Multiplication of farmers’ selected varieties
Large scale seed production: Eleven tons of seed of the maize variety ZM 607 were produced by an orphanage, "Casa de Gaiato" in Malange, in a partnership with World Vision, where the orphanage provided World Vision a testing site, and World Vision trained the orphanage in farming systems and seed production techniques. As a result of this joint venture, the orphanage now is able to produce sufficient grain for its 170 children, and to generate funds by producing and selling good quality seeds. Medium to large scale farmers also are being trained in order to develop a local seed production system.
Production of root and tuber planting materials: As a step toward commercial seed and planting material production, World Vision contracted Sociedade Agro Alimentar Lda (SAA), a private company operating a 1400 hectare farm in Catete, Bengo Province, to produce and deliver to World Vision 450,000 "cassava cuttings" for distribution to 50,000 farmers and SOF NGOs in 1999. To do this, the farm received technical advice and on-the-job training during field visits from World Vision agriculture staff. The farm is fully equipped with an overhead pivot irrigation system and adequate farm machinery and equipment. Another commercial farm, Kalakala, was contracted to produce 60 tones of the maize variety "Matuba" and 30 tones of bean varieties A286 and A344 for distribution to farmers (Table 6).
Seed production by small farm holders: In September 1997, seeds of maize and bean varieties selected by farmers during the 1996/97 on-farm trials (ZM607 and Matuba for maize, Carioca and A286 for beans) were distributed, on a loan basis, to farmers in the World Vision project areas. After harvest, each farmer reimbursed to World Vision the same amount of seeds he or she had received.
As indicated in Table 7, about 30 tons of maize seeds and 27 tons of bean seeds were received from farmers. These were distributed as uncertified seed to farmers in other communities which represents 33% of the total seed of maize and beans distributed by World Vision in September 1998. This informal seed production system will continue to be used for seed multiplication. Farmers will receive training in seed production technology in order to produce good quality seeds that will be certified by SENSE and distributed as foundation seeds in other agro-ecological zones where they have been chosen by farmers. During 1998/99 season, all SOF stakeholders will be encouraged to coordinate their seed activities through the SOF coordinator and collect data on the adoption rate as well as seed production of the farmers selected varieties.
Table 6. Production of commercial seed and planting materials in Angola.
|
Crop type |
Area (ha) |
Expected yield (ton) or cuttings |
Remarks |
|
Beans A286 |
20 |
20 |
|
|
Beans A344 |
10 |
10 |
|
|
Maize (Matuba) |
40 |
60 |
|
|
Cassava
|
42 |
2,500,000 cuttings |
50 cuttings per farmer X 50,000 |
Table 7. Total quantity of seeds reimbursed to World Vision by farmers as pay back for seed loan for the 1997/98 growing season.
|
Municipality |
# families that received seed loan |
Quantities of seeds reimbursed (kg)
|
||
|
|
Beans |
Cowpeas |
Maize |
|
Kwanza Norte |
18644 |
609 (1.1%) |
1566 (2.8%) |
4940 (8.8%) |
|
Kwanza Sul |
6623 |
8804 (44.3%) |
7746 (39%) |
12000 (60.4%) |
|
Malange |
17932 |
18227 (33.9%) |
577 (1.1%) |
13000 (24.2%) |
|
TOTAL |
43199 |
27640 (21.3%) |
9889 (7.6%) |
29940 (23%) |
World Vision conducted a food security baseline survey in August 1997 which indicated that 21% of farmers saved their own seeds, while 48% bought seeds from the local markets, 33% received seed from WVI, and about 7% could not plant due to lack of seeds. Only 2,990 farmers were involved in the on-farm trials, although a total number of 10,663 farmers participated in different tests during the field days. The implication of this is that few farmers had access to seeds of selected varieties. The need for seeds of cereals (maize, sorghum and millet) and beans for Angola in the 1998/99 growing season are estimated at 10,000 tons (FAO/WFP Food Assessment Mission, May 1998) and in WVI areas, the estimate is 1,300 tons. Will this quantity of seeds be available? If yes, what percentage of these will be farmers’ selected varieties?
It is clear that seed saved by farmers cannot meet this level of demand. Thus, there is need for developing a strategy for seed production and distribution that goes beyond seed saved by farmers and movement of seed between farmers at the local level.
3.3 Seed delivery systems
Tripp (1998) described seven options for seed delivery. Two of the options will be examined by SOF as possibilities for developing an Angolan national seed system.
Co-production by farmers in "pilot villages"
The term co-production is used here to imply that varieties are developed by public research services, but the farmers play a role in multiplying and distributing seed of these varieties (Tripp, 1998). World Vision has identified farmers and farmers groups in some communities ("pilot villages") who can multiply seed of farmers’ selected varieties of bean and maize. The success of this initiative will depend on farmers training in seed production technologies, and incentives in terms of seed storage and marketing. The key issue is the introduction in the community of seeds of preferred varieties, to initiate farmer-to-farmer seed movement, while promoting excess production that NGOs will buy for emergency seed distribution programmes. The role of the research institution and the national center for plant genetic resources is crucial to maintain reliable sources of varietal purity for seed replacement.
Small scale seed enterprises
Government regulations on seed importation are increasingly limiting seed importation. Many of the farmers’ selected varieties are not yet being produced by large scale seed companies outside of Angola. World Vision has identified medium to large scale farmers who are capable of producing a large portion of the Angolan seed needs, if these farmers could embark into the seed production business. The key issue, and this is also true for the pilot village seed production, is the introduction of low cost seed production techniques to keep seed prices as close as possible to grain prices, thus enabling farmers to buy the locally-produced seed. As the variety delivery system is developing, certification will become important with suitable incentives that will improve prices.
4. LESSONS LEARNED
4.1 Positive aspects of the experience
- Emergency situations break down institutional barriers to agricultural technology transfer;
- Effective strategies for disaster mitigation re-establishes family productivity and livelihood;
- Participatory approaches, with farmers heavily involved in the process from the beginning, helps ensure high adoption rates and programme efficiency;
- Lower barriers to seed-embedded technology adoption providing suitable evaluation methodology and evaluation criteria are used; and
- Highly cost effective and inherently sustainable as it shortens the time that food aid is needed.
Value of partnerships among different organizations are essential, each playing the role for which it is best suited, such as IARCs providing candidate varieties, seed companies providing seed and packaging services, farmers screening varieties and providing feedback on best varieties, and NGOs which facilitate the process.
4.2 Issues and constraints
- Initial unavailability of seeds of adapted varieties implies that the programme is not as effective as it could be if improved varieties were tested and readily available;
- Distribution of grain as seed creates a lost opportunity and quality control problems, a cheap and quick option that in reality is quite expensive; and
- Farmer habit of saving seed inhibits market development
5. LITERATURE CITED
Chapman, J., White, J., and Nankam, C. 1997. World Vision’s experience with seed supply during emergency and resettlement programmes in Mozambique and Amgola: Implications for the future. Paper presented at the ICRISAT/ICARDA/IITA/GTZ Workshop, "Enhancing Research Impact Through Improved Seed Supply: Options for Strengthening National and Regional Seed Supply Systems", Harare, Zimbabwe, 10-14 March 1997
Tripp, R. 1998. Seed systems and the delivery of new crop varieties. Paper presented at the Sorhum and Pearl Millet Improvement Programme Stakeholders Conference. Harare, Zimbabwe, 27-30 July 1998.
Rohrbach, D., Mutiro, K., and Mazhzngara, E. 1997. Seed availability and markets: the case of sorghum and pearl millet seed supply in Zimbabwe. Pages 21-31 in Proceedings of the Zimbabwe National Sorghum/Millet Programme Workshop, 18-19 Feb 1997, Harare, Zimbabwe (Mangombe, N., Heinrich, G. M., and Gono, L. T., eds.). Bulawayo, Zimbabwe: Sorghum/Millets Team, Department of Research and Specialist Services.
