GHANA

GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION AND WATER RESOURCES

Ghana, located in western Africa, has a total area of 238 540 km². The cultivable area is about 100 000 km², which is 42% of the total area. The cultivated area is about 11 400 km², which is 4.8% of the total area and 11.4% of the cultivable area.

TABLE 1

Basic statistics and population

Area of the country Cultivable land Cultivated land	1994 1990 1990	23 854 000 10 000 000 1 140 000	ha ha ha
Total population Population density Rural population	1994 1994 1990	16 944 000 71 66	inhab. inhab./km2 %
Water supply coverage Urban population Rural population	1990 1990	90 29	% %

The population is estimated to be almost 17 million (1994), of which 66% is rural. The average population density is 71/km², but ranges from 20/km² in the Northern Province to 575/km² in the Greater Accra province. The population growth rate was estimated at 3.5% per year during the period 1984 to 1991.

Agriculture contributed 44.7% to the GDP in 1994.

Water resources

Average rainfall is about 1 264 mm/year, but ranges from 890 mm/year in the coastal zone near Accra to 2 030 mm/year in the southwestern rainforests. The rainfall is bi-modal in the southwestern forest zone, giving a major and a minor growing season; elsewhere, a uni-modal distribution gives a single growing season from May to October. Except for the southwestern zone, the reliability of the rainfall, particularly after crop germination, is a major factor affecting crop growth.

Global water resources are estimated at 53.2 km³ per year, consisting of 30.3 km³/year of internally produced water resources and 22.9 km³/year of runoff from other countries.

The drainage network of Ghana is divided into three main systems: the Volta river system, the southwestern river basins, and the coastal rivers.

•The Volta river system is the largest drainage system in Ghana. The Black Volta, White Volta and the Oti rivers flow from Burkina Faso southwards to Ghana to form the Lower Volta. This river system catchment accounts for about threequarters of the total land area, and has been dammed at Akosombo and at Kpong for hydropower power

Water resources: Average precipitation Internal renewable water resources – total Internal renewable water resources – per caput Global renewable water resources Dependency ratio Total dam capacity De-salinated water	1994 1994	1 264 301.7 30.3 1 788 53.2 43.0 148.5 -	mm/yr km3/yr km3/yr m3/yr km3/yr % km3 106 m3/yr
Water withdrawal: - Agricultural - Domestic - Industrial Total per caput as % of internal renewable water resources Other withdrawal	1970 1970 1970 1970	156 105 39 300 35 1.0 -	106 m3/yr 106 m3/yr 106 m3/yr 106 m3/yr m3/yr % 106 m3/yr
Wastewater: Produced Treated Re-used treated wastewater		- - -	106 m3/yr 106 m3/yr 106 m3/yr

Water balance

Irrigation potential	1994	1 900 000	ha
Irrigation: 1. Full or partial control irrigation: equipped area - surface irrigation - sprinkler irrigation - micro-irrigation % of area irrigated from groundwater % of area irrigated from surface water % of equipped area actually irrigated 2. Spate irrigation area 3. Equipped wetland and inland valley bottoms 4. Other cultivated wetland and inland valley bottoms 5. Flood recession cropping area Total water managed area (1+2+3+4+5) - as a % of cultivated area - increase over last 10 years - power irrigated area as % of water managed area	1994 1994 1994 1994 1994 1994 1994 1994 1994 1994	6 374 5 794 580 0 0 100 61 - - - - 6 374 0.6 - 57.6	ha ha ha ha % % % ha ha ha ha ha % % %
Full or partial control schemes: Criteria Large schemes > 500 ha Medium schemes Small schemes < 100 ha Total number of households in irrigation	1994 1994 1994	4 720 1 204 450 -	ha ha ha
Irrigated Crops: Total irrigated grain production as % of total grain production Harvested crops under irrigation - rice - vegetables - maize		- - - - - -	t % ha ha ha ha
Drainage - Environment: Drained area as % of cultivated area Flood-protected area Area salinized by irrigation	1992	- - - 1 480	ha % ha ha

Irrigation and drainage

Water withdrawal (total: 0.3 km³ in 1970)

generation. Behind Akosombo, one of the largest manmade lakes has been created, with a surface area of 8 500 km² and a capacity of 148 km³.

•The southwestern river system drains about one-fifth of the total land area of Ghana. The system comprises the Bia, Tano, Ankobra and Pra rivers.

•The southeastern part of the country is drained by a number of coastal rivers. Together, they account for 5% of the land area of the country.

Irrigation techniques, full or partial control (1994)

In the urban areas, 90% of the population has access to piped drinking water, while only 29% of the rural population has access to safe drinking water. Total water withdrawal was estimated at 0.3 km³ in 1970 (Figure 1).

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT

The potential for irrigated rice production in the Inland Valley Swamps (IVS) and river flood plains is about at 1.9 million ha in Ghana, according to the World Bank's estimate. The potential for full control irrigation development, based on soil and

Types of full or partial control irrigation schemes (1994)

water availability, is estimated at 346 000 ha.

The total water managed area is about 6 374 ha. In fact, this area corresponds to the full or partial control irrigated area, as there are no data relative to the existing wetlands and IVS. On the major part (5 794 ha), surface irrigation is practised, while sprinkler irrigation is used on 580 ha (Figure 2). Large-scale irrigation schemes (> 500 ha) cover 4 720 ha; medium-scale irrigation schemes (100500 ha) cover 1 204 ha, while small-scale schemes (< 100 ha) cover 450 ha (Figure 3). The developed area is solely irrigated by surface water (Figure 4), through gravity, pumping or a combination. The area actually irrigated is only 3 920 ha, as a large part of the equipped area is not currently in use.

Origin of irrigation water, full or partial control (1994)

Average yield for irrigated rice is 5 to 6.5 t/ha, compared with yields of between 1.0 and 1.5 t/ha under uncontrolled conditions. The major irrigated crop is rice, followed by tomato, okra, pepper, aubergine, cowpea and maize.

Costs of irrigation development vary widely – from about $US 5 000 to 50 000/ha, while the threshold level for irrigation investment should not be more than $US 6 200/ha based on 1989 rice prices. Projects such as Ashaiman, Afife, Vea, Aveyima and Weija cost between $US 5 000 and 14 000/ha, whilst costs for Tono and Bantanga were between $US 40 000 and 50 000/ha due to the lie of the land. Typical costs are about $US 2 500/ha for water conservation projects, and between $US 4 000 and 6 500/ha for small schemes of about 100 ha that use pumps.

INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT

Ghanaian irrigation development is dominated by the public sector. The Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) was, until recently, the sole agency involved in the management of the schemes. GIDA provided all agricultural inputs and extension services. It operated and maintained the system, delivered the water to the farmer's fields and secured credit. The comprehensive involvement of GIDA has been cited by the World Bank as one of the causes of poor performance in the majority of the irrigation projects. Therefore, GIDA is testing the concept of fully involving the beneficiary groups in project identification, construction and management, through the establishment of Cooperative Societies. In the future, communities wishing to have new irrigation projects must form Cooperative Societies to show their commitment. GIDA will train the farmers, and the extension staff of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture will be based in the project, which approach should ensure sustainability following the departure of GIDA after 34 years. However, GIDA may provide backstopping when necessary.

TRENDS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The utilization of the irrigation potential and improvement in irrigation output are constrained by the following obstacles:

•the limited capability to identify, formulate and implement projects that are adapted in an optimum way to the land and water resources (topography not suitable for efficient reservoir construction, and high evaporation rates), reflected in high development cost per hectare, according to a 1991 World Bank study;

•the lack of appropriate and consistent policies for water development for both large- and small-scale projects;

•the current land tenure system, which does not encourage private participation on a sustainable basis as it limits access to credit and discourages land improvement;

•the lack of appropriate policies on cost recovery and water pricing, or, even where such policy exists, difficulties in implementation; and

•the lack of any injection of private capital investment into irrigation development.

The nature of the land and surface water resources makes the potential for further development of large-scale irrigation schemes costly. A cheaper alternative could be development of small-scale IVS projects (fadamas) and river flood plains. These areas are suitable for rice cultivation and irrigable by shallow groundwater or controlled flooding. However, the accelerated sedimentation that would be generated from these areas by natural processes and by agricultural activities due to the introduction of irrigation will need to be controlled, inter alia, by improved tillage systems. If this is not done, then the intensive development of inland valley bottoms and river flood plains could lead to rapid siltation of the water channels and dams.

MAIN SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Ministry of Agriculture. 1991. Agriculture in Ghana, Facts and figures.

Rural Water Supply Ghana. 1991. Rural water supply and sanitation section strategy.

Statistical Service. 1984. Population census of Ghana: Demographic and Economic.

Water Resources Research Institute/FAO. 1993. Survey on water use for agricultural and rural development.

World Bank. 1990. Ghana Medium-term Agricultural Development Programme.