AQUAFEEDS AND FEEDING STRATEGIES IN INDIA
M.C. Nandeesha

College of Fisheries, University of Agricultural Sciences Mangalore-575 002, Karnataka, India

NANDEESHA, M.C. 1993. Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in India, p. 213-254. In M.B. New, A.G.J. Tacon and I. Csavas (eds.) Farm-made aquafeeds. Proceedings of the FAO/ AADCP Regional Expert Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14-18 December 1992, Bangkok, Thailand. FAO-RAPA/AADCP, Bangkok, Thailand, 434 p.

INTRODUCTION

India, with the second largest population in the world, has recently opted to move towards a free market economy with the hope of increasing the living standards of the people. Although population pressures had, and continue to have, a negative impact on developmental programmes, considerable success has been achieved in agriculture and in creating food security for the population. A summary of general indicators of the economic situation in 1991 is provided in Table 1.

* Exchange rate (as at October 1992): US$ 1 = Rupee 31

Agriculture is the most important occupation of the rural population. Fisheries is considered not only from the view point of employment, but also as a means of producing nutritious food for the undernourished population. Per caput availability of fish is still only 2.08 kg, while the minimum quantity recommended to meet the basic nutritional requirement from fish is 11 kg/yr/ caput.

In view of the limitations of capture fisheries production, aquaculture has been given the highest priority in the fisheries development plans of both central and state governments. Besides the open ocean along the 7,100 km coastline, a large area is available for different types and scales of aquaculture production, both in freshwater (Table 2) and brackishwater (Table 3).

Source: Sinha et al. (1991)

Source: MPEDA, Cochin

Until recently there has been no information on the actual volume of aquaculture production, particularly from the freshwater sector. Although the information available now still requires considerable improvement, at least a start has been made. Since fisheries is within the domain of state governments, the authenticity of data provided largely depends on the methodology adopted by each state. In the freshwater sector, total production is reported to be 0.98 million t (Table 4), consisting mainly of carps. Details by species are not available, except for common carp (Cyprinus carpio) which contributed 8.9% to the total aquaculture production. Other important cultured carps include catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella).

Source: Dehadrai (1992)

Carp culture is gaining popularity in several places with the practical demonstration by the farmers of Andhra Pradesh of its potential. Supplementary feed forms an important component in the culture of carps. Depending on the intensity of the culture operation, the cost of the feed has been reported to be between 57-87%, taking the material input costs only into consideration (Table 5 and Figure 1). However, when labour, electricity and fuel charges are also included, it would vary between 50% and 70% and constitute the single largest input cost (Anon. 1983; Veerina et al. 1992).

Sources: Anon. (1983), Veerina et al. (1993)

Figure 1. Percentage of major cost components in carp culture in different regions of India (Anon. 1983; Veerina et al. 1993)

Although attempts have been made to promote the culture of air breathing fishes (Clarias batrachus and Heteropneustes fossilis), this has not met with much success. In some derelict water bodies of Assam and West Bengal the culture of Clarias batrachus has been attempted. Trash fish and rice bran constitute important dietary ingredients. Some efforts are being made to propagate the culture of Macrobrachium spp., but this is still in a very early stage and is mainly attempted for polyculture with carps. In the brackishwater sector the culture of penaeid shrimp has increased rapidly over the past five years and many programmes have been formulated for its promotion. Presently, cultured shrimp contribute only 35,000 t to the total output. With the introduction of improved management practices, the use of artificial feed is gaining priority almost everywhere. Feed cost is estimated to vary between 42-58%, depending on the type of feed used and the intensity of other management practices (Table 6 and Figure 2). The most important species of shrimp cultured are Penaeus monodon and P. indicus. A number of other species have also been identified as potential candidates for culture (Table 7).

Source: Viswakumar (1992)

Figure 2. Percentage of major cost components in different shrimp production systems in India (Viswakumar 1992)

Sources: Silas (1980); Tripathi (1992)

AVAILABILITY OF FEED INGREDIENTS

A wide variety of feed ingredients is available in India; their quantity and approximate cost is presented in Table 8. Paddy being an important crop cultivated in an area of 30 million ha, rice bran constitutes the largest quantity of feed ingredients produced in the country. Recently, rice oil solvent extraction units have been set up in many parts of the country. As a result, the cost of rice bran has increased almost everywhere. Not all the rice bran is being used for oil extraction and the actual quantity available as defatted rice bran is not known. In the northern part of India wheat bran is the most important feed ingredient available. Among the oil seed cakes, groundnut is available in the largest quantities. The area under soybean culture has increased over the years and is now estimated to produce nearly 840,000 t of soybean cake. However, it should be noted that soybean is also an important human food resource. Besides rice, other important cereals available include sorghum and maize. Though these ingredients are being used by some farmers in fish and shrimp culture, they also constitute important human food items.

Among the animal sources of feed ingredients, only fish meal is available in significant quantities. It is speculated that the availability of fish meal is likely to decrease further due to the increasing demand for fish for human consumption. Besides this, the quantity of fish landings from capture fisheries is unlikely to increase. There is an equally high demand for fish meal from the animal husbandry sector and it is estimated that the present fish meal production can satisfy only 50% of the needs of the poultry industry (Wood et al. 1989). Shrimp waste, mainly consisting of shrimp heads, is also available but difficulties in its collection from various processing centers reduces its practical availability to farmers. Squilla, an important by-catch on the west coast, mainly in Karnataka, is also in high demand from the poultry industry. Squid wastes, and clam and mussel meat are available only in small quantities; in addition, the latter two are important export items. Silkworm pupae are available in small quantities in a few southern states. The silkworm industry is rapidly expanding in several regions. As pupae are rich in oil, there are two factories established in Karnataka for its extraction for industrial use. The volume of fish oil produced in India is only 8,000 t; it is reported that the availability of oily fish, like sardines, for this purpose has drastically declined due to its increasing usage as human food.

* US$ 1 = Rupee 31

Source: Department of Economics and Statistics. Department of Agriculture and Cooperatives, New Delhi, and various other reports

Quality and proximate composition of ingredients

Several ingredients available in India are reported to be of too poor quality to produce high quality aquafeeds, especially for shrimp. The proximate composition of various plant (Table 9) and animal (Table 10) feed ingredients indicates the variability of these resources. This variability is due to a number of factors, including methods of handling and processing , and the nutritional status of the environment in which they were grown, in addition to variations in analytical methodologies.

Sources: Chow (1982); Meyers (1988); Sukumaran et al. (1990); Singh (1991); information provided by Mysore Snack Foods, Bangalore and Nav Maharastra Chakan Oil Mills Ltd., Pune; analyses carried out in author's laboratory

Sources: Chow (1982); Meyers (1988); Sukumaran et al. (1990); Singh (1991); information provided by Mysore Snacks Ltd., Bangalore; analysis carried out in author's laboratory

Rice polishings, though rich both in protein and fat, are available only in small quantities, constituting less than 10% of the total quantity of rice bran. Most often the rice bran is adulterated with husk, mainly contributing fibre. As indicated earlier, rice bran is now extensively used for oil extraction and hence, in several regions, only the defatted rice bran is available for aquaculture use. Even in the case of oil seeds, solvent extraction processes are increasingly used, hence most (for which there is a heavy demand from the aquaculture sector) contain little fat. Among the various types, groundnut cake and mustard oil cake are the most widely used feed ingredients in aquaculture. However, the use of other oil cakes is also gaining popularity due to cost factors as well as the seasonal non-availability of the two types of oil cakes conventionally used.

Sorghum and maize are used to a smaller extent than rice bran, principally as carbohydrate sources. Tapioca flour, which is rich in carbohydrates, is mainly used as a binder. Spirulina is rich in protein as well as vitamins and minerals. Technology for the production of this single cell protein is available (Becker and Venkataraman 1984) and a private company in Karnataka has just started commercial production. However, its cost, and other nutritional considerations may inhibit its inclusion at high levels in feeds. The composition of a few non-conventional plant ingredients is also indicated in Table 9 since they are likely to become important sources of nutrients in the future in small-scale aquaculture operations. Most of the plant ingredients contain a high percentage of fibre which poses constraints on the production of quality feed.

Among the few animal feed ingredients available (Table 10), fish meal is considered the most important. Its composition varies widely, depending on the method of handling and processing. There is also the like lihood of adulteration. As a result the supply of standard quality fish meal is not assured. Only one factory in Karnataka is reported to produce fish meal with more than 60% protein. In all other places, besides having a low protein content, fish meals contain high amounts of fiber, mainly due to the inclusion of other products such as Squilla and shrimp wastes. The high ash content of fish meal is often due to contamination with sand since most is still produced by the traditional method of beach drying, followed by grinding.

Several of the companies producing good quality fish meal export it, making only low grade fish meal available in local markets. Similarly, the proximate composition of shrimp wastes also indicates differences in the proportions of shrimp head and shell. Squilla meal, produced largely on the west coast, is frequently contaminated with sand particles. However, these crustacean wastes are good sources of nutrients in shrimp diets (Ahamad Ali and Mohamed 1982).

Another upcoming industry in India is sericulture, producing a major by-product, silkworm pupae. Pupae contain significant protein and fat levels and have been found to be an excellent dietary ingredient for freshwater fishes (Jayaram and Shetty 1980). Silkworm pupae are rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Due to an increasing demand for oil from various industries, this ingredient is also extracted. Defatted silkworm pupae, with a high percentage of protein, is presently used in the poultry industry. Other useful animal feed ingredients, like clam meat, squid meat and meat meal, are available only in small quantities, and all are also important sources of human food.

Presently there is no organized collection of wastes from slaughterhouses. However, due to the good nutrient content of such wastes and the increasing demand for animal protein, it is anticipated that they will be used in aquaculture. Meat meal and liver meal are only used to a minimal level in shrimp culture due to their high cost and their demand for human food. Earthworm meal, though potentially a good source of animal protein, is not yet available in commercial quantities. Some efforts have been made to promote earthworm cultivation for the production of wormicompost, but these have not yet been successful.

Import of feed ingredients

While official information is not readily available on the import of feed ingredients for the aquafeed industry, at least two manufacturers are known to be importing fish meal for shrimp feed production. The industry argues that, because of the poor quality of domestic fish meal, its duty-free import should be permitted for use in shrimp feeds since most of the cultured shrimp is exported.

AQUAFEED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

Aquafeed manufacturing in India is less than a decade old. Previously few aquaculture operations depended heavily on commercial feeds. However, more than 20 companies became involved in the aquafeed business recently (Annex 1). Carp culture was once the only major type of aquaculture operation in India and it was practised as a family food source rather than as a commercial enterprise. Rice bran and oil cakes of various origins were used as feeds whenever the economy of production permitted or the market price of the cultured fish was high.

Large scale carp culture has only been practised for about ten years in Andhra Pradesh. Feed forms an important input and is required in large quantities. In order to satisfy the demand, a large number of small-scale and a few large-scale feed manufacturers have appeared. Most of the carp feed produced is of a supplementary nature, manufactured by the machinery available for cattle and poultry feed production. Though a few companies produce pelleted feeds, they have poor water stability. Mash feeds have been quite popular, both with the producers and the users, due to the simplicity of their production and their low cost. The percentage of carp farmers using factory-made feed is less than 8%, even in Andhra Pradesh (Veerina et al. 1993). Most farmers prefer to make their own, cheaper mix on the farm. No official estimate is available of the total volume of factory-made carp feed, but one commercially sponsored survey indicates a maximum of 35,000 t. However, the total feed usage in Andhra Pradesh carp farms alone is estimated to be over 200,000 t.

The proximate composition of factory-made carp feeds is reported to be 20-30% protein, 2-4% fat, 10-15% fibre, 30-40% carbohydrate and 8-10% ash. Often these feeds are claimed to have been enriched with lysine, methionine, vitamins and minerals. Depending on the protein content, cost varies between US$ 0.10-0.16/kg. No single feed has been able to win the confidence of farmers thus far. Farmers are not willing to pay more than US$0.13-0.16/kg for carp feed because of the low market price of fish (US$ 0.65/kg). Producing quality feed for that price is not economic. Compounders claim food conversion ratios of 2.5- 3.0:1. Most of the farm-made feeds, whose composition is manipulated according to the growth of fish and the cost of raw materials, have almost as good, sometimes even better FCR's (Veerina et al. 1993).

Shrimp feed production has been tentatively expanding in the past five years. Currently, there are more than 20 companies at various stages of development but few are reported to be making good progress. The major constraint they face is the non-availability of quality feed ingredients. Many companies are working in partnership or close collaboration with foreign companies to capture the large anticipated Indian shrimp feed market. The availability and cost of some of the shrimp feeds available is provided in Table 11, while the ingredients used in some brands are listed in Table 12. Most of the feeds are marketed at less than US$ 0.32/kg, but some cost twice as much. Although some companies produce various grades of feed, most produce only one type, for use in semi-intensive systems.

Most existing feed mills use poultry feed manufacturing equipment to produce simple pelleted shrimp feeds and claim good water stability and feed conversion ratios. Farmers' observations do not always tally with these claims. Two of the newly established companies are reported to be using extrusion technology to produce good quality water-stable pellets. A commercial market survey indicates that about 20,000 t of shrimp feed were produced in 1991. Most was used in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

* US$ 1 = Rupee 31

Sources: feed manufacturing companies

Sources: feed manufacturing companies

The quantity of feed imported annually is increasing rapidly (Table 13), reaching a record of 6,243 t in 1991. Presently most of these imported feeds are sold at about US$ 1.29/kg. There are about five brands of grow-out feed imported, namely Hanaqua, Trudina, Pingtai, VIP Feed and President Feed. Most is being used by large-scale farms for intensive culture.

ON-FARM FEED FORMULATION AND MANUFACTURING

A number of on-farm feed formulations have been used by farmers for the commercial culture of carps (Table 14) and shrimps (Tables 15-17). In the case of carps, rice bran and groundnut cake are the most important ingredients nationally. In the northeast, mustard oil cake is generally used instead of groundnut cake due to its better availability. These two ingredients are fed in an uncooked form. While some farmers only use rice bran, others use it in combination with 20-50% of oil cake, at 1-3% of fish body weight. In some cases farmers use fertilization alone to avoid high feed costs. Most do not use any vitamins and minerals. Although extension agents suggest the use of a 1:1 mixture of rice bran and oil cake and several other feed formulae have also been developed through research, farmers seem to prefer their own formulae due to cost constraints. The unavailability of some recommended ingredients in adequate quantities and at an affordable cost are also factors.

Source: MPEDA, Cochin

* total not 100%, due to rounding up

Source: Veerina et al. (1993)

* A.P. = Andra Pradesh

*
A.P.=Andra Pradesh; 
M=Maharastra; 
T.N.= Tamil Nadu

*
W.B. = West Bengal;
K.A. = Karnataka;
K.E. = Kerala

In the successful commercial carp culture operations of Andhra Pradesh it has been clearly demonstrated that natural pond productivity through fertilization plays an important role in reducing production costs. Since the cost of oil cakes and rice bran has been increasing rapidly, Andhra Pradesh farmers manipulatively use the combinations of these two ingredients based on fish growth rate and pond productivity. During the summer, when the fish growth is rapid, they are provided with a feed mixture consisting 30-40% oil cake and 60- 70% rice bran, fed ad libitum.

Other ingredients are also used, based on their availability and cost, mostly in addition to rice bran and groundnut cake or in substitution for the latter. However, when the growth of fish is poor, particularly during the monsoon and winter seasons, fish are fed with rice bran alone or mixed with a small percentage of oil cake. When the pond water is rich in plankton, feeding rates are reduced. The protein input through feed is always kept to the lowest possible, while maintaining adequate carbohydrate. Some farmers in this region also use poultry vitamin and mineral mixtures, but their value in fish culture in fertilized systems is not yet quantified.

The use of animal ingredients in grow-out systems is almost non-existent in carp culture. Fish meal is used only in broodstock rearing, at up to 15-20% of the diet. In broodstock diets, along with fish meal, rice bran(20%), broken rice (10-15%), oil cakes(20-25%) and pulses (15-20%) are commonly used. These ingredients are ground, cooked and fed moist. In nursery rearing 1:1 rice bran:oil cake mixtures are most commonly used.

The use of farm-made aquafeeds in shrimp culture is gaining momentum. A number of feed combinations are used in different localities, based on the ingredients locally available. While some farmers just mix and feed the ingredients in dry or wet form, quite a few now cook the ingredients and feed them moist. In some cases, pellets are prepared on the farm on a daily basis, dried and fed. Simple cooking ovens and meat mincers are used to cook the feed and prepare the pellets. Animal sources of feed ingredients are used at 20-50% of the diet, while the rest is contributed by plant sources (Tables 15-17). Several farmers also add vitamins, minerals and fish oil. The feed conversion rates reported by these farm-made feed producers vary between 2.5-5.0:1, with yields ranging from 400-1,500 kg/ha/crop.

ON-FARM FEEDING STRATEGIES

Only two species groups are widely cultured in India on a commercial scale, so detailed descriptions of feeding strategies are only given here on carps and shrimp. Air breathing fishes, such as Clarias batrachus and Heteropneustes fossilis, are cultured on a small scale in a few localities of the northeastern states, using collected wild seed. Although technology packages for these fishes have been developed, this type of culture has not yet gained good momentum due to shortages of seed. Where they are cultured, they are fed with domestic wastes. Rice bran, alone or mixed with trash fish and groundnut cake, is also used by some farmers.

Freshwater prawn culture has not yet become commercially successful in India. Macrobrachium rosenbergii has been widely researched both for monoculture and for polyculture with carps. Attempts are now being made by the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) to promote the culture of this species. Two hatcheries have also been established. Attempts have been made to feed the prawns either with clam, mussel or snail meat, mixed with rice bran and groundnut cake (Silas 1992). So far no results from farmers are available. With the participation of MPEDA, it is expected that freshwater prawn culture will soon succeed.

On-farm feeding strategies in carp culture

Standard recommendations for carp culture involve either three species of Indian major carps (catla, rohu, and mrigal) or six species of carps consisting of both Indian major carps and exotic carps (silver carp, grass carp and common carp). A stocking density of 10,000 seed/ha for the latter and 4,000 seed/ha for the former type of culture is generally advocated. In “six species polyculture” Indian carps are stocked at about 40% of the total. Fish are recommended to be fed at 2-3% body weight with a 1:1 rice bran:oil cake mixture. To obtain the optimum production of 10 t/ha/yr, ponds have to be periodically fertilized with both organic (poultry manure at 10 t/ha/yr or cow dung at 20 t/ha/yr) and inorganic fertilizers (nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers at 300-500 kg/ha/yr). Standard practices have not been completely adopted by farmers due to the non-availability of all varieties of seed and the poor market demand of exotic carps in some areas. Hence, these culture practices are often modified to suit the local requirements and availability of inputs.

Fish are mainly fed rice bran mixed with a small amount of oil cakes of various origins in an uncooked form. The feeding rate varies from 1-3% and fish are fed by broadcasting once a day, generally in the morning. National average pond production of farms assisted by the Fish Farmers Development Agencies has been reported to be 1,895 kg/ha/yr (Srivastava et al. 1990). A survey of these farms has identified seed and feed availability as the major constraints faced by farmers. Poor availability of feed ingredients in adequate quantities and their escalating cost have prevented small-scale farmers adopting regular feeding.

The most spectacular success in Indian aquaculture has been the developmentof the carp culture industry by the farmers of Andhra Pradesh during the last 8-10 years. Nearly 50,000 ha of paddy fields have been converted into fish ponds and Indian major carps are grown in the whole area. The culture of carps was started on an experimental scale by a few farmers around a natural lake employing the recommended standard technology packages during the early 1980's. However, adoption of the technology packages did not yield adequate returns on investment, due to various constraints. Most of the production from this area is marketed in the northeastern states, the main market being in West Bengal. Silver carp showed poor keeping quality after long distance transport of more than 30 hours and common carp posed the problem of burrowing and breeding in the ponds and the bursting of their bellies during transport. Grass carp, although having good market demand, voraciously feeds on the food provided to other species, therefore it became unpopular with farmers.

Through experience, and the application of scientific skills, farmers modified the culture system, not only to obtain high production, but also the most profitable return on investment. The modified technology consists of stocking only two species of Indian major carps, namely catla and rohu, the latter being dominant (80%) because of its high market demand. However, about a quarter of the farmers resort to three species culture, still with rohu as the dominant species (70%) followed by catla (20%) and mrigal (10%). Ponds are usually larger, with the minimum of 1 ha. These large ponds are stocked with 6-12 month-old stunted fish of 100-150 g, instead of fry or fingerlings as practised in the standard system. Since carps are known to grow faster during their second year, this phenomenon is exploited by the farmers. Stocking density is kept below 5,000/ha.

Ponds are generally fertilized with both poultry manure and inorganic fertilizers at almost double the dose recommended in the standard technology. Periodic fertilization, based on the colour of the water, is normal; the volume of fertilizers is increased until satisfactory plankton production is obtained. Fish are fed daily with supplementary feed, consisting of defatted rice bran alone or a 7:3 mixture of defatted rice bran and oil cakes (Figure 3), depending on the growth rate of the fish. Feed is provided in an uncooked form. In order to avoid feed wastage, farmers have developed a bag-feeding method. In this, polyethylene inorganic fertilizer bags are trimmed to hold 15-20 kg of feed and two to three rows of small holes are made at the bottom. The feed mixture is placed into these bags, which are then suspended on bamboo poles in various locations in the pond (Figure 4). About 20-25 bamboo poles are fixed in every hectare of water area. Fish, which were already trained to feed on such feeding bags during the stunting process, consume the feed within 1-2 hours after the feeding bags are fixed to the bamboo poles. If the feed is not consumed, farmers suspect some disease or water quility problems and resort to immediate curative measures.

Figure 3. Mixing of rice bran and oil cake before placing them in feeding bags

Figure 4. Fixing the feed bags to bamboo poles placed in different areas of the pond

Feeding bags are removed daily and washed and dried before reuse. The feeding rate is regulated more on the basis of fish growth rather than on its size. During the fast growing season they are fed ad libitum, but during the slow growing period the feed quantity is kept to a minimum. Feed conversion ratios vary from 2.0-4.5:1, depending on the management practices adopted, to maintain good water quality. The introduction of feeding bags has also helped farmers to apply medication effectively through feed. Some also aerate their ponds to increase the growth of carps. While water exchange is not a routine practice, evaporation losses are replaced. Further, when the fish show signs of distress, the water is exchanged immediately.

Fish are generally cultured for a period ranging from 9 to 12 months, by which time most would have reached at least 1.5 kg. On average, rohu and mrigal would have exceeded 1.7 kg and catla 2.5 kg. A recent detailed survey has shown that farmers obtain an overall net production of about 5,300 kg/ha/yr. A considerable portion obtain more than 8,000 kg/ha/yr. One farmer reached a record net production of 14,620 kg/ha/yr using only three species of Indian carps. In general, variation in the overall production between the two and three species systems was not statistically significant. The survey also identified a number of constraints. Parasitic and bacterial diseases have become very common and farmers employ a wide range of pesticides and antibiotics to overcome them (Rao et al. 1991). There is an urgent need to educate farmers on the adverse effects of the excessive use of such practices.

The developments which have taken place in carp culture in Andhra Pradesh have triggered the interest of other states. Similar development is now taking place in Punjab, the state which has achieved a phenomenal success in the green revolution. Wheat bran, which is more commonly available there, is commonly used instead of rice bran. It is often supplemented with potato, which is a major source of carbohydrate. The average production obtained in Punjab is 3,000-4,000 kg/ha/yr and it is anticipated that these enterprising farmers will make similar progress to those in Andhra Pradesh.

On-farm feeding strategies in shrimp farming

The high demand for shrimp in international markets and the need for foreign exchange have prompted the Indian government to support this sector on a massive scale. MPEDA is acting as the lead agency in the promotion of shrimp culture and many schemes have been formulated and implemented to augment cultured shrimp production. Many states have already allocated land for shrimp culture and rapid development is expected, with the participation of several major entrepreneurs and industrial companies, in addition to small-and medium- scale farmers. Three major types of shrimp culture systems are seen in the country as described below.

The traditional or extensive method has been in practice for many years in West Bengal, Kerala, Karnataka and Goa. Shrimp entering with the tide are trapped and harvested after 5-6 months. There is no feeding or fertilization involved, except that paddy stumps left behind after the rice harvest serve as a principal source of detritus. Shrimp largely depend on the natural food in the incoming tidal water. Production from such systems is less than 500 kg/ha/yr.

In semi-intensive systems, selective stocking, liming, fertilization and, to the extent possible, artificial feed is provided. Seed is stocked at 30,000- 100,000/ha, depending on the species. Penaeus monodon is stocked at 30,000- 40,000/ha, while P. indicus at 50,000-100,000 per ha. The culture period varies between 4 and 6 months. Production in this system ranges from 500-1,000 kg/ ha/crop. Minimal water exchange is also provided depending on the facilities and the location of the farm. Most of the newly developed shrimp culture area belongs to this category.

The intensive system has been adopted by medium and large scale farmers and it involves, in addition those practices adopted in the more extensive systems, the provision of good quality supplementary feed, higher stocking densities of 100,000-500,000/ha, regular exchange of water and aeration. Production varies between 1,500-3,000 kg/ha with some progressive farmers even achieving up to 13,000 kg/ha.

The actual area under each culture system is not known. A major portion of the artificial feeds used in the semi-intensive and intensive systems are produced on-farm. In general most of the successful farmers prepare the ponds, apply lime, depending on the soil pH, and apply organic manure at a rate of 500- 1,500 kg/ha, inorganic fertilizers consisting of both nitrogen (20-40 kg/ha) and phosphorus (10-25 kg/ha), before stocking postlarval shrimp. Some farmers refertilizelater, to increase the availability of natural food.

Supplementary feed is provided in various amounts. Most farmers feed at 10% of body wt/day at the beginning and gradually reduce to 3% as the shrimp grow. In a few cases the feeding level starts at 25%, gradually reducing to 3% towards the end of the culture period. A wide variety of ingredients (Tables 15- 17) is used to make farm-made shrimp feeds but, in almost all cases, fish meal forms an important component. Ground feed ingredients are mixed, either manually or mechanically, depending on the scale of operation.

Many farmers in Andhra Pradesh cook the ingredients, make small balls of it (Figure 5) and place these in various places in the pond. Some feed nearly 60% of the cooked feed through broadcasting and place the remaining quantity in trays made of wood and mosquito netting, or in earthen pots. Feed is also given in an uncooked form, simply mixing the ground feed ingredients with a small quantity of water and making small balls out of it. Some farmers use meat mincers to prepare farm-made pellets successfully (Figure 6). The pellets are generally sun-dried, though driers have been employed experimentally.

Figure 5. Preparation of feed balls for shrimp

Figure 6. Mechanized preparation of farm-made shrimp feed

Feeding frequencies vary between two and six times daily. However, most farmers feed twice a day, in the morning and the evening. The cost of farm-madefeed varies between US$ 0.13-0.19/kg depending on the quality of feed ingredients. Most farmers use vitamins and minerals at a 2% level, which alone constitutes about 10-15% of the feed cost. Most vitamin and mineral premixes used are designed for poultry. The production obtained with farm-made feeds does not vary greatly from that achieved by the use of domestically produced commercial feeds. In fact, it is for this reason that farmers increasingly opt for producing farm-made feeds, which saves them considerable cost. In some instances farmers have been able to obtain higher production than with boughtinfeeds, due to their own strict control of ingredient quality, and of their processing system.

In Karnataka, farmers use factory-made starter feeds for the first month and then switch to farm-made feeds. Production from this system is around 800- 1,000 kg/ha/crop.

Shrimp farming on a semi-intensive and intensive scale is developing rapidly in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, compared to other coastal states. In both states, pump-fed ponds are common. In Tamil Nadu, Penaeus indicus is the most widely cultured species, while in Andhra Pradesh, P. monodon is dominant. The Victory farm, located in Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu, with a water area of 27 ha, is reported to routinely obtain a production of 13 t/ha/crop in 4 months with P. indicus. A stocking density of 400,000-500,000/ha, a minimum of 30% water exchange and the use of quality feed are the major factors accounting for such high production. Other intensive farms in India produce about 2-4 t/ha/crop using either imported feeds or farm-made feeds. In addition to feed, these successful farms place great emphasis on water quality management.

MAJOR INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN AQUAFEED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the nodal agency for all research work pertaining to agricultural sciences, including fisheries. There are two major institutions under its direct supervision, namely the Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, located in the state of Orissa and the Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, located in Tamil Nadu. Both are actively engaged in research in fish nutrition. Besides these institutes a number of Fisheries Colleges, part of the state Agricultural Universities, are also heavily involved in this type of research and in training. In addition to these agricultural institutions, many other universities have taken an active role in nutritional research (Annex 2). Most of the institutions have been more active in research and training on freshwater fish species than on shrimp. With the anticipated development of the shrimp culture industry, many are likely to divert their research focus to the brackishwater sector.

The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), based in Cochin, Kerala, but with offices in all the maritime states, is playing an important role in the development of brackishwater aquaculture. Since late 1991, this agency has also been promoting freshwater prawn culture. The FAO-executedBay of Bengal Programme has been extending research and developmental assistance for coastal aquaculture and their reports (e.g. Wood et al. 1989) have greatly assisted the development of the domestic shrimp feed industry.

CURRENT NATIONAL REGULATIONS

There are no regulations in force formulated specifically for the promotion of the aquafeed industry or the quality control of aquafeeds. Existing regulations can be effectively used in quality control. Under existing foreign exchange policy, feed can be imported duty-free by those units which are 100% export oriented, while others have to pay 25%.

CURRENT PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS

Several problems face the aquafeed industry, both at the commercial and farm levels. Although the nutritional requirements of the majority of the cultured species in India have been investigated, farmers are unable to use such information,since the nutritional suitability of the raw materials readily available to them have not been studied in depth. Similarly, appropriate inclusion levels in diets, methods of processing and the economics of using such ingredients in aquaculture operations are poorly known (Keshavanath 1992). Carp farmers still rely heavily on rice bran alone since economics do not permit the use of other ingredients. Shrimp farmers face a problem in choosing available plant protein ingredients, since recommendations on their inclusion level, based on their composition are not available. Although much technical manpower is available in the country, the expertise needs upgrading to solve the basic nutritional problems faced by farmers. Due to lack of such expertise and adequate funding support to address these problems on a long term basis, the nutrition sector has suffered, like other sectors of aquaculture.

Many predict that animal protein ingredients, particularly fish meal, will be in short supply since there is a high demand for them from the livestock sector. Many other sources of marine protein have high export value and are not readily available at an affordable cost to local farmers and feed manufacturers. Plant protein ingredients cannot fill the gap unless their deficiencies (such as anti-nutritionalfactors) are removed. Low water stability and high fibre content of those commercial shrimp feeds which are available are major causes for concern. Technological developments to increase water stability using locally available ingredients and to reduce the fibre content of plant protein ingredients would greatly assist the development of the domestic aquafeed industry. Some ingredients are not available in all parts of the country. Hence, technological development should consider the local availability of resources, since long-distancetransport would not only be uneconomical, but is also technically unacceptable to farmers.

TRENDS IN AQUAFEED MANUFACTURING AND USE

Carp culture will continue to rely upon plant ingredients, mainly rice bran, due to the growth of shrimp farming. The latter is expected to use almost all the available animal protein, and the majority of the high quality plant protein, ingredients. Farm-made feed manufacturing and use will be critically important in carp culture since the use of commercial feeds would reduce the income of farmers due to the low market value of fish. Government estimates indicate that, by the turn of the century, at least another 500,000 ha will be brought under aquaculture. Even if the feed demand is calculated at a minimum of 2 t/ha, this additional culture area would require an additional 1 million t of feed. More realistic estimates have been made for the shrimp culture industry. By the year 2000 about 100,000 ha is expected to be under shrimp culture and a total of 0.2 million t of feed would be required (Sunderraj et al. 1992). MPEDA has proposed support for the establishment of 10 feed mills, with a capacity of 10 t each, during the Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97). Several feed mills are expected to be established by the private sector, jointly with foreign investment. Since the cost of commercial feeds is a deterrent for small-scale farmers, farm-madefeeds are likely to continue to play a significant role in aquaculture in India.

CONCLUSIONS

Much information on the basic nutritional requirements of some of the important Indian indigenous cultured species has been generated. However, these results require further verification and study in actual farming environments.Most of the work carried out so far does not take into consideration the effect of other pond inputs on the nutritional requirements of the cultured species. Feed being an expensive input, alternative pathways need to be inves- tigated to reduce its cost without compromising growth rates. Issues raised by New (1989), Tacon (1992), and De Silva and Davy (1992) require serious consideration under Indian conditions. Solutions to these practical nutritional problems, which are already experienced by the farmers, would pave the way for the faster expansion of aquaculture.

Raw material availability and chemical composition requires thorough study in order to develop effective aquacultural programmes. Since animal protein ingredients are in short supply, there is a need to develop techniques for the effective utilization of plant proteins. Since many of the plant ingredients contain anti-nutritional factors, technologies are required to overcome such problems. Non-conventional feed ingredients have to be considered for use in aquafeeds to overcome the short supply of traditional ingredients and to reduce production costs.

Machinery suitable for the commercial manufacturing of high quality feeds or for farm-made feed production is not easily available in India. Not only is it necessary to develop simple techniques for farm-made feed production, but feed production machinery which can be manufactured locally should be designed. Research on energy-saving devices for cooking and drying farm-made feeds would help farmers reduce production costs.

Technological development, based on locally available resources and the creation of an effective extension mechanism for farmers, requires priority consideration. The experience of carp farmers in Andhra Pradesh clearly indicates that their problems remain unresolved, while new technological packages are advocated which are not suitable to their farming systems. In fact, there are no serious takers to solve their problems. Since technical development does not clearly address actual problems, the existing extension systems have been largely ineffective.

LIST OF REFERENCES

Ahamad Ali, S. and K.S. Mohamed. 1982. Utilization of prawn waste and mantis shrimp for compounding feeds for the culture of penaeid prawns, p. 615-616. In Proceedings of the Symposium on Harvest and Post-harvest Technology of Fish. Society of Fisheries Technologists (India), Cochin, India.

Anon. 1983. First 138 case studies of composite fish culture in India. Bulletin No. 23. Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal, India. 153 p.

Becker, E. W. and L.V. Venkataraman. 1984. Production and utilisation of blue-green alga Spirulina in India. Biomass 4:105-125.

Chow, K.W. 1982. India - carp nutrition research at the Freshwater Aquaculture Research and Training Centre, Dhauli: establishment of a nutrition laboratory and initiation of a diet development programme for carp culture. Project: IND/75/031, Field Document 4. FAO, Rome, Italy. 33 p. Dehadrai, P. V. 1992. Aquaculture development in India - Government policies. Lecture presented at the Summer Institute on Aquaculture and Environment. Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay. (Ms.)

De Silva, S.S. and F.B. Davy. 1992. Fish nutrition research for semi-intensive culture systems in Asia. Asian Fisheries Science 5:129-144.

Jayaram, M.G. and H.P.C. Shetty. 1980. Studies on the growth rate of catla, rohu, mrigal and common carp on different formulated diets. Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences 14: 598-606.

Keshavanath, P. 1992. Nutritional studies on Indian major carps - a review. Consultancy project report, International Development Research Centre, Canada. 72 p.

Meyers, S.P. 1988. Development of coastal aquaculture: a report prepared for the Government of India brackishwater aquaculture programme. Project IND/85/059, FAO, Rome, Italy. 35 p.

New, M.B. 1989. Formulated aquaculture feeds in Asia: some thoughts on comparative economics, industrial potential, problems and research needs in relation to the small-scalefarmer, p. 19-30. In Report of the Workshop on Shrimp and Finfish Feed Development, 25-29 October, Johor Bahru, Malaysia; ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, Manila, Philippines.

Rao, K.G., C.V. Mohan and D. Seenappa. 1991. The use of chemotherapeutic agents in fish culture in India, p. 503-513. In M. Shariff, R.P. Subhasinghe and J.R. Arthur (eds.) Diseases in Asian aquaculture I. Fish Health Section, Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines.

Silas, E.G. 1980. Status of prawn culture in India and strategy for its future development, p. 209-218. In Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Shrimp Farming. MPEDA, Cochin, India.

Silas, E.G. 1992. Freshwater prawns. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Freshwater Prawns (Macrobrachium spp.). Kerala Agricultural University, Trissur, India. 272 p.

Singh, B.N. 1991. Nutrition and feed development strategies for aquaculture in India. Journal of the Inland Fisheries Society of India 23:99-112.

Sinha, V.R.P., K.K. Ghosh and N.K. Thakur. 1991. Manpower requirement of fisheries development in India. Journal of the Inland Fisheries Society of India 23:9-19.

Srivastava, U.K., B.H. Dholakia, S.S. Rao and S. Vathsala. 1990. Evaluation of Fish Farmers' Development Agencies' programme for freshwater aquaculture. Indian Institute of Management, Ahmadabad, India. 252 p.

Sukumaran, N., Md. Kaleemar Rahman and M. Devaraj. 1990. Status report on shrimp feed: formulation, manufacture and marketing. Fisheries College, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Science University, Tuticorin, India. 64 p.

Sunderaraj, V., M. Devaraj and Prince M.J.Jeyaseelan. 1992. Prawn farming in India, p. 51-58. In I.C. Liao, C.Z. Shyu and N.H. Chao (eds.) Aquaculture in Asia. Proceedings of the 1990 APO Symposium on Aquaculture. TFRI Conference Proceedings l., Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute, Keelung, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Tacon, A.G.J. 1992. Aquaculture nutrition and feeding in developing countries: a practical approach to research and development. Paper presented at the IVth International Symposium on Nutrition and Feeding in Fish, 24-27 June, Biarritz, France.

Tripathi, S.D. 1992. Status of freshwater prawn fishery in India, p. 42-49. In E.G. Silas (ed.) Freshwater Prawns. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Freshwater Prawns (Macrobrachium spp.), Kerala Agricultural University, Trissur, Kerala.

Veerina, S.S., M.C. Nandeesha and S.S. De Silva. 1992. Production versus economics - a case study of Indian carp culture. Paper presented at the Third Asian Fisheries Forum, 26-30 October, Singapore.

Veerina, S.S., M.C. Nandeesha, K.G. Rao and S.S. De Silva. 1993. Status and technology of Indian major carp farming in Andhra Pradesh, India. Special Publication No. 9, Asian Fisheries Society, Indian Branch. Mangalore, India. 76 p.

Viswakumar, M. 1992. Technical and economic considerations for shrimp culture in Andhra Pradesh. Fishing Chimes, June, 1992:30-40.

Wood, J., J. Coulter and I. Rajendran. 1989. India's expanding prawn culture industry - where will the raw materials come from? p. 257-268. In V.R.P. Sinha and H.C. Srivastava (eds.) Aquaculture Productivity. Oxford and IBH Ltd., New Delhi.

Annex 2. Names and addresses of major research institutions involved in aquafeed research, titles of major research projects and source of funding

Annamalai University, Centre of Advanced Studies in Marine Biology, Parangipettai - 608 502, Tamil Nadu

1. Nutritional evaluation of Indian Artemia nauplii for the larvae of Penaeus spp. and Macrobrachium spp. Funded by the International Foundation for Science, Sweden (1987-1989)

2. Larviculture of commercially important Portunid crabs from Port Novo coast. Funded by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi (1991-1994)

3. Efficacy of different formulated feeds on the growth of Indian white prawn (Penaeus indicus). Annamalai University project (1990)

Research workers:
Dr. T. Kannupandi (larval nutrition and hatchery technology of shrimp)
Dr. S. Ajmalkhan (diet development for shrimp)
Dr. S. Sethuramalingam (diet development for shrimp)

Central Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA) Kausalyagang, Bhubaneswar - 751 002, Orissa

1. Feed formulation and diet development for carps, catfish and prawn. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1983-1995)

2. Investigations on the digestibility of nutrients and formulation of low cost feed formulae for carps. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1990-1995)

3. Studies on the digestive physiology of carps. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1988-1990)

4. Effects of oxygen, carbon-dioxide and temperature on the metabolism and assimilation of feed in certain Indian and Chinese carps. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1975-1978)

(All the above scientists are working mainly with carps; some work has also been carried out on Clarias batrachus and Macrobrachium spp. nutrition)

Central Institute for Brackishwater Aquaculture (CIBA)
12, Leith Castle Street, Santhome, Madras - 600 028, Tamil Nadu

Complete list is of projects is not available. Several papers have been published on the nutritional requirements, larval and grow-out feed development. Currently a major project entitled “Studies on quantitative requirement of essential amino acids and fatty acids for prawn (Penaeus monodon) and use of additives in grow-out feeds for improving feed efficiency and growth promotion” is in operation as a collaborative project with Central Institute of Fishery Technology,Cochin. This project is funded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), New Delhi.

Research workers:
Dr. K. Alagarswami (nutritional requirements of shrimp)
Dr. Syed Ahmed Ali (nutritional requirements of shrimp and diet development)
Dr. S. Paul Raj (nutritional requirements of shrimp and brackishwater finfishes)

Central Institute of Fisheries Education
P.B. No. 7392, Andheri (West), Bombay - 400 058

Most publications from this institute relate to nutritional requirements of carps and diet development for fishes. Recently work has been initiated on shrimps nutrition. List of projects in operation is not available.

Research workers:
Dr. K.K. Jain (digestive physiology of fish and shrimp)
Mr. K. Venugopal (amino acid requirement of carps)
Prof. P.S.R.K. Sinha (protein requirement of penaeid shrimp)

Central Institute of Fishery Technology (CIFT)
Matsyapuri P.O., Cochin - 682 029, Kerala

Studies on quantitative requirements of essential amino acids and fatty acids for Penaeus monodon and use of additives in grow-out feeds for improving feed efficiency and growth promotion. On-goingcollaborative project with CIBA and funded by DBT, New Delhi (1991-1994)

(All the above scientists work on the nutritional requirements of shrimp and the use of additives in shrimp feed)

Cochin University of Science and Technology
School of Marine Sciences, Cochin - 682 016

Studies on the synthesis and nutritional evaluation of shrimp feeds

Research workers:
Dr. N. Chandramohanakumar (diet development for shrimp)

Mrs. B. Ushakumari

Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI),
Mysore - 570 013

1. Recycling of feed grade wastes of the food processing industry for intensive animal production. Funded by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi (1986-1988)

2. Conversion of organic wastes of agro-industries for the production of low-cost animal feed. Funded by CSIR, New Delhi (1988-1990)

3. Development of technology for the utilization of food processing wastes and low-cost by-products as a source of protein in the preparation of animal feeds. Funded by DBT, New Delhi (1991-1994)

Research workers:
Mr. N.P. Dani
Mr. V.S. Kabade
Mr. N.S. Mahendrakar

(All the above scientists are working on the utilization of various agricultural wastes in fish feed formulation)

College of Fisheries, University of Agricultural Sciences
Mangalore -575 002, Karnataka.

1. Optimization of nutrient inputs in carp culture. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1991-1993)

2. Mixed feeding schedules in carp culture. Funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada (1990-1991)

3. Formulation and evaluation of nutritionally balanced diets for carps. Funded by IFS, Sweden (1988-1994)

4. Broodstock and larval nutrition of carps. Funded by Zilla Parishad, Shimoga, Karnataka (1991-1994)

5. Amino acid requirement of Indian major carps. Funded by IFS, Sweden (1992-1995)

6. Studies on the nutritional requirement of and feed formulation for cultivable carps. Funded by the US Department of Agriculture, US Embassy, New Delhi (1987-1991)

(All the above scientists work on different aspects of carp nutrition)

College of Fisheries, Kerala Agricultural University
Panangad, Cochin - 682 506, Kerala

1. Studies on the basic nutritional requirements of cultivable fish and shellfish

2. Feed formulation for commercially important shrimp species

3. Nutritional studies on ornamental fishes

Research workers:
Dr. P.M. Mathew (nutrition of ornamental fishes)
Dr. P.M. Sherief (nutritional requirements of and diet development for fish and shrimp)

College of Fisheries, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences
University, Tuticorin - 628 008, Tamil Nadu

1. Utilization of squid and shrimp wastes in shrimp feeds. Funded by DBT, New Delhi (1990- 1992)

2. Effects of incorporation of crystalline amino acids on the growth performance of white prawn, Penaeus indicus

3. Studies on the quantitative requirement of methionine and the effects of its supplementation in the diets of Penaeus monodon

Research workers:
Mrs. G. Indira Jasmine (use of wastes in shrimp feed)
Dr. N. Sukumaran (nutritional requirements of shrimp)

Department of Limnology and Fisheries, Rajasthan Agricultural
University, Udaipur Campus, Udaipur -313 001, Rajasthan

Dietary vitamin requirements of fingerlings of selected Indian major carps with respect to growth, feed conversion and deficiency symptoms. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1991-1994)

Research workers:
Dr. A.K. Gupta (vitamin requirement of fishes)
Dr. V.K. Rajabanshi (diet development for fishes)

Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh - 202 002, Uttar Pradesh

1. Investigation on the nutrition of some cultivable finfish species and development of costeffective feed formulae. Funded by USDA, US Embassy, New Delhi (1985-1991)

2. Studies on the effect of anti-nutritional substances in commonly used feed ingredients of plant origin on the growth, feed conversion efficiency and health of the Indian major carps. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1991-1994)

Research workers:
Dr. A.K. Jaffri (nutritional requirements and antinutritional factors in freshwater fish)
Dr. Mukhtar A. Khan

Department of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandigarh.

Role of minerals in fish reproduction: trace mineral nutrients in the regulation of seasonal reproductive cyclicity. Funded by USDA, US Embassy, New Delhi (1991-1994)

Research workers:
Dr. K.C. Kanwar (mineral nutrition in carps)
Dr. Usha Kanwar
Dr. M.S. Johal

Department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana - 403 004, Punjab

Economic aspects of fish biomass based and fish biomass/pond ecology based feeding strategies for carp. Funded by IFS, Sweden (1991-1994)

Research workers:
Dr. H.S. Sehgal (nutritional requirement of fishes)
Dr. H.S. Toor

Department of Zoology, Visva-Bharathi University
Santiniketan - 731 235, West Bengal

1. Efficacy of some artificial diets on the kinetics of food intake, growth promotion and associated physiological and biochemical changes in the air-breathing fishes. Funded by CSIR, New Delhi (1985-1988)

2. Evaluation of the nutritional role of some aquatic weeds and possibilities of their utilization as feed in carp culture. Funded by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi (1988-1991)

3. Nutrition of Indian major carps. Funded by IDRC, Canada (1990-1991)

Research worker:
Dr.Arun Kumar Ray (carp and catfish nutrition and diet development)

Department of Zoology, Nagarjuna University
Nagarjunanagar, Andhra Pradesh.

Formulation of supplementary feeds for better management of Indian major carp fry. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1987-1990)

Research worker:
Dr. S.V. Sharma (larval nutrition)

Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi

Feeding ecology of the larvae of aquaculturally important species. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1987-1990)

Research worker:
Dr. T.R. Rao (feeding behaviour and feeding ecology of carps)

Department of Biochemistry, University College of Science
35 Ballygunge Circular Road, University of Calcutta
Calcutta - 700 019, West Bengal

Nutritional studies and digestive physiology of air-breathing fish under different ecological conditions. Funded by IFS, Sweden (1976-1982)

Research worker:
Dr. Sudip K. Banerjee (nutritional and enzymatic studies in catfishes)

Department of Zoology, St. Xavier's College
Palayankottai, Tamil Nadu.

Nutrient requirements of young and adult Channa marulius and other Channa species in relation to their bioenergetics. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1991-1993)

Research worker:
Dr. M.A. Haniffa (bioenergetics of carnivorous fishes)

Department of Zoology, University of Madras
Madras, Tamil Nadu

Studies on the nitrogen metabolism of commercially important cultivable penaeid shrimp. Funded by ICAR, New Delhi (1991-1993)

Research worker:
Dr. G. Durairaj (nutritional requirements of penaeid shrimp)

National Research Centre on Coldwater Fishes
Haldwani, Uttar Pradesh

Estimation of the nutritional requirements of golden mahseer (Tor putitora)

Research worker:
Dr. K.L. Sehgal (nutritional requirements of coldwater fishes and diet development for them)

School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University
Madurai - 625 021, Tamil Nadu

1. Nutritional requirements of the giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). Funded by DBT, New Delhi (1991-1993)

2. Formulation of suitable low-cost diets for Macrobrachium spp. using chicken intestines as major ingredient. Funded by IFS, Sweden (1989-1991)

(All the above scientists work on bioenergetics of fishes and Macrobrachium spp. nutrition)

AQUAFEEDS AND FEEDING STRATEGIES IN INDONESIA
Iin S. Djunaidah

Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre P.O. Box 1, Jepara, Central Java Indonesia

DJUNAIDAH, I.S.1993. Aquafeeds and feeding strategies in Indonesia, p. 255-281. In M.B. New, A.G.J. Tacon and I. Csavas (eds.) Farm-made aquafeeds. Proceedings of the FAO/ AADCP Regional Expert Consultation on Farm-Made Aquafeeds, 14-18 December 1992, Bangkok, Thailand. FAO-RAPA/AADCP, Bangkok, Thailand, 434 p.

INTRODUCTION

For centuries Indonesian people have been familiar with fish and shrimp culture, but production was low because wild fry were used. Some more advanced rearing systems of freshwater aquaculture commenced in 1972 with the introduction of running water ponds, raceways, cages, floating net cages, and pen culture (Jangkaru 1981). Of the freshwater species cultured, common carp is the most popular in the local markets, while red tilapia has a promising future in international markets.

Artificial feeds (pellets) are applied by farmers operating running water ponds and floating net cages to grow carp, while rice bran or soybean cake is used by traditional pond farmers. For running water ponds where production is 50- 60 kg/crop and FCR is 2.5:1, the feed cost is US$ 0.64/kg* of fish. For floating net cages with a production level of 1,250 kg/unit/crop (10.2 kg/m³) and an FCR of approximately 2.0:1, the cost of feed will be around US$ 0.51/kg of fish produced. Unlike common carp, for which aquaculture is well established, efforts to culture tilapia are just developing, utilizing the floating net cage method. Production reaches 1,500 kg/unit/crop and, with an FCR of 2.0:1, the feed cost is also around US$ 0.51/kg of fish produced.

In brackishwater aquaculture, shrimp has become the primary commodity because of its high export value. Since 1980, many Indonesian fish farmers have changed from milkfish to shrimp culture. Shrimp culture was encouraged after 1980, in conjunction with a prohibition on the use of trawling to catch shrimp. Shrimp farming has great potential, because the availability of land is estimated to be 800,000 ha, but the farm areas so far established total only 200,885 ha (Anon. 1992). Most are still using traditional farming techniques.

* Exchange rate US$ 1 = Rp 1,943

The production of traditional shrimp farms is very low, around 150 kg/ha/ crop. Efforts to increase pond productivity are carried out through various means, including the use of artificial feed. Production in semi-intensive shrimp ponds reaches about 1.2 t/ha/crop, with an FCR of 1.3:1; the feed cost is US$ 1.74/kg of shrimp. Intensive ponds average about 5,000 kg/ha/crop with an FCR of 1.7:1, and the cost of feed is around US$ 2.27/kg of shrimp produced.

AVAILABILITY OF FEED INGREDIENTS

The livestock feed industry in Indonesia developed earlier than the aquafeed industry but each uses similar ingredients, which may be classified into major ingredients and additives. Indonesian natural resources provide considerable quantities of feed ingredients. However, the amounts available are not always in balance with requirements, on account of imperfect processing or handling techniques, or due to conflicts of interest with their demand for human food. Some of the major raw materials available in Indonesia are discussed below.

Shrimp head meal

Shrimp heads are one of the industrial wastes of shrimp processing plants, especially from shrimp which are exported “headless”. Other wastes from these shrimp processing plants are in solid and liquid form. On average, shrimp are exported in frozen form; 95% is “headless” (Ariyani 1989). Exports of frozen shrimp reached 47,710 t in the first 6 months of 1992. Assuming that a shrimp head is 35 % of the total weight, over 24,000 t of shrimp head were theoretically available, providing (at 20% of the wet weight) a potential local supply of 4,880 t of shrimp head meal (814 t per month).

Fish meal

Fish meal originates from spoiled fish, unsold fish from markets and fish processing factories, the by-products of capture fisheries, and the wastes of fish and shrimp processors.

Fish meal resources which have not been optimally exploited include the shrimp by-catch (Martosubroto and Nurzali 1985). The unutilized fisheries by-catch is up to 78 % from the seas of Eastern Indonesia, and up to 25 % from Western Indonesia. Of these, 889, 235 t are estimated to be potential fish meal resources (Anon. 1989). This huge quantity gives an idea of the potential for the development of the Indonesian fish meal industry without affecting the supply available for human consumption.

So far, fish meal demand cannot be totally met through domestic production and some has to be imported. The amount of fish meal imported in 1991 was 25,700 t (Hastuti, pers. comm.). The national use of fish meal is quite high. Estimates of fish meal requirements in 1988, for instance, were 135,500 t for livestock (Poespodihardjo 1985), 44,000 t for shrimp (Poernomo 1985) and

around 3,200 t for freshwater fish culture. In future it is expected that the demand will be greater, due to the expansion in aquaculture and livestock production in Indonesia (Table 1).

The increasing demand for fish meal for animal feed production has stimulated government policies designed to encourage private companies to establish fish meal factories. Up to 1989, 28 fish meal factories with a production capacity of nearly 100,000 t/year have been established in several provinces in Indonesia (Table 2). A list of fish meal producers is given in Annex 1.

Soybean meal

Data obtained during the 5-year period 1984-89 show that increased demand was not met by increased soybean meal production (Table 3). As a plant protein source, soybean meal has proven reliable and capable of substituting animal protein sources such as fish meal. For centuries, soybean has had a high value for Indonesian people, since it can be processed into “tempe” (fermented soybean), “tahu” (soybean extract) and other derivative products.

There are still conflicts of interest in the utilization of this commodity, between its importance for human consumption and the demand for livestock and aquafeeds. Home industries which produce various products are now well established and scattered all over Indonesia. One by-product of soybean processing which is a favorable material for feed, is soybean cake which has a crude protein content of around 21 %.

Leaf meal

The leaf meals “lamtoro” (Leucaena sp.) and gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium) are potentially suitable for feeds. Leaf meal from Leucaena sp. is well known in Indonesia and some other countries, while Gliricidia leaves (a leguminous plant) are also much used.

From the nutritional point of view, Gliricidia leaves are as favourable as Leucaena leaves. The crude protein content is quite high, around 23%. In Indonesia, these two plants are frequently used as shelter plants, fences, and supporting plants, and the leaves are used as feed for livestock, fish and shrimp. Data on the production of the two plants is shown in Table 4.

Other plant ingredients

Various other plant ingredients can be used for feeds, such as rice bran, corn, cassava, etc. (Table 5). In certain cases the great natural potential of feed materials in Indonesia has been unable to meet the demand for feed raw materials.

Proximate analyses of several potential locally available raw materials are shown in Table 6, while the levels of feed ingredient imports in 1991 are shown in Table 7.

Source : Chemical Laboratory, BADC, Jepara, Indonesia

AQUAFEED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

Encouraged by the rapid development of fish and shrimp culture, the aquafeed industry has expanded rapidly. For freshwater fish culture, in particular for common carp, feed manufacturing has been established since 1975, whereas shrimp feed production commenced only in 1983, along with the government programme to intensify shrimp culture.

So far, the Indonesian feed industry is still producing grower feeds only; no feed mill produces larval feeds for shrimp hatcheries. According to Martosubroto and Wibisono (1989), the number of companies operating shrimp farms in Indonesia in 1988 was 184, with a farming area of 964 ha (Table 8).

To support the activities of the grow-out shrimp farms, 43 feed mills were established up to 1989 (Table 9) but many are still in the preparation phase and have not yet been commercially operated (Wahyono 1989). A list of shrimp feed producers is given in Annex 2. Several other fish and shrimp feed mills comprise livestock feed manufacturers which have implemented product diversification. Most are producing at less than capacity. Table 10 provides information on the current value of shrimp feed imports while Table 11 records their value.

Source: Directorate of Feed Industry, 1989