Most of the preceding analysis is made under the assumption of the status quo in terms of policy and legislation. However, in the fluid policy environment of the South Pacific such an assumption is probably unrealistic in anything much beyond the short-term. By way of example, a number of countries have recently completed or are in the process of completing reviews of forestry conservation and environmental policies and legislation (e.g. Fiji, Western Samoa, Vanuatu, Cook Islands American Samoa). On smaller islands forestry legislation is often embodied in related conservation or environment acts (Cook Islands, Niue). Some small Pacific Island countries remain without forestry policy and legislation (Kiribati, Tuvalu).
At the core of almost all forest policy in the South Pacific is commitment to sustainable management of forests. In New Zealand and Australia this is the basis for creation of disparate production and conservation estates. In Melanesia it is a justification for occasional log bans and closely tied to a desire to develop domestic processing industries. In Polynesia it is resulting in plantation establishment and plans for self-sufficiency in fuel and industrial wood needs.
The broad thrust of forest policy in Australia is summarised in the National Forest Policy Statement (1992). The overriding theme of the NFPS is the ecologically sustainable management of Australia's forests. This vision has a number of important characteristics including: maintenance of the biodiversity and integrity of the forested landscape; increasing the total forested area; a holistic management view of forest values; a sustainable industry based on excellence and innovation; community participation; and efficient and environmentally sensitive utilisation. More recently, a supplementary policy, proposing the establishment of Regional Forest Agreements has been announced. These Agreements are designed to reconcile the inherent conflict between conservation and industrial development aspirations in forestry. The Agreements will provide for comprehensive regional resource assessments to strike a long-term (20 year) regionally based balance between conservation and development objectives. The policy developments allow for the development of a wood and paper strategy to be developed in tandem with the regional resource assessments and provides structural adjustment funding for industry.
The Papua New Guinean National Forest Policy was released in 1991. It has two overarching objectives: firstly, to ensure sustainability of Papua New Guinean forests; and secondly, to ensure harvesting of the forests brings about economic growth, job creation and local participation in the industry. The first objective is to be achieved by requiring all harvesting to be carried out under permit, and permits to be limited to a pre-determined allowable cut (presently set at 4.9 million m3). The second objective is to be met by promotion of investment opportunities and participation opportunities and a system of levies which will maximise benefits to the State and to resource owners.
Additionally, a Forestry (Amendment) Act 1993 builds a foundation of sustainable development, value-added, participatory management and equity sharing. However, Dolman (1995) notes:
"We [the PNG Forest Service] are now facing a backlash against the reformation which, with hindsight, would seem to have been pursued with a little too much enthusiasm....Only one new timber permit has been issued in the past three years and even that is now being crucified by outsiders".
In the present regional climate it is difficult to see Papua New Guinea achieving its secondary aim of developing processing facilities in the absence of command processing. A Papua New Guinean processing facility will find it difficult to compete directly against, for example, a Japanese facility with vast infrastructural advantages. However, to invoke a log ban to encourage processing is almost certain to reduce the stumpage prices paid to landowners. Consequently, the Government has, to date, largely resisted the temptation to ban log exports. It is, however, encountering difficulties in imposing higher log export levies.
The Solomon Islands 1989 Forest Policy is the Government's official statement of aims for the forestry sector. The Forest Policy is based on six essential principles or imperatives. These are: forest, soil, and watershed protection; sustainable use; provision of the population's basic needs; exploiting the forests potential to achieve economic development; participation of Government, provinces and customary landowners in the control and management of the forests; and distributing the benefits so all sections of the community receive their fair share while accepting an appropriate share of the responsibility for maintaining the forest resource. The Forest Policy has, however, been criticised for its failure to recognise structural obstacles such as lack of information for planning; unbalanced reforestation; over-reliance on log exports; limited institutional capacity; and divergent community attitudes. Most of the problems faced by Papua New Guinea are also attendant to the Solomons. However, the Solomons' smaller resource and much greater reliance on forestry for export revenues means it is even more vulnerable to over-exploitation of its forests. Most of the literature surrounding Solomon Islands forestry displays little confidence that the current policy settings will achieve the Government's aims.
Vanuatu's forests are similarly vulnerable to those of the Solomon Islands although Vanuatu is less dependent on forestry export revenues and has intermittently operated log export bans over the past decade. In 1995 a draft Forest Policy was released which noted the overall aim of sustainable forest management. The policy recognises sustainable yield principles and notes these can be met from a declining resource area by enhancing productivity through plantation establishment. The draft policy specifically advocates giving firm legal effect to a continued log export ban. It also advocates an annual allowable cut and licences which encourage commitment to value-added processing and reforestation, including logging companies being required to lodge performance bonds with Government. The policy drift appears to be toward greater regulation. Conversely, in recent times Vanuatu has appeared to relax its controls and take a more exploitative approach toward its forests (see 4.1 above).
The 1988 Fijian Forestry Sector Review lists the objectives of the Forestry Sector as being:
"To maximise the sustainable contribution of the Sector to the development and diversification of the economy whilst bringing the Fijian people into fuller and more active participation in sectoral development of all levels and stages and, at the same time, protecting and enhancing the effectiveness of the country's forest in environmental conservation."
This is a broad summary of the policy objectives for Fiji which are carried out under the 1992 Forestry Decree. The forest policy concerns for Fiji are probably more akin to those of New Zealand than its Melanesian neighbours. Its major challenge is to successfully market its increasing plantation resources while maximising local benefits through domestic processing. These objectives are likely to continue as a focus for the sector for the foreseeable future, with policy designed to facilitate niche marketing and to enhance competitiveness. One single factor dominates the timber market outlook for Fiji. This is the perceived softwood surplus in the Pacific rim region from the plantations form the maturing of plantations in Chile, New Zealand and Australia. The Fijian perspective is a need for virtually a complete reversal of direction concentrating almost exclusively on speciality high quality products and secondary processing tailored to specific customers in a narrow range of market areas.
Forest policy in Western Samoa is centred around sustainable management of remaining forest resources and maintenance of domestic supplies of industrial and fuel wood. In 1991 the Government set an annual allowable cut of 29 000 cubic metres to facilitate sustainable management. Maintaining a viable forestry industry in western Samoa requires an expansion of the current forest estate and policy over the coming 15 years is likely to be directed toward encouraging plantation and small woodlot development.
Tonga does not have a formal forestry policy. National forestry objectives are set out in government's five-year development plan; to promote balanced landuse considering the importance of trees for soil and water conservation, wood production and shelter, to promote optimal use of senile coconut timber resources; to encourage private sector investment in reforestation, and to encourage woodlot planting for industrial and fuelwood purposes.
There is little information on formal forestry policies for the remaining Polynesian islands and generally no forestry specific legislation in place. In general, the thrust of Government in these countries is to maintain, as far as is possible, supplies of wood for both industrial and, generally more importantly, fuel purposes. Soil protection is seen as a primary role for trees, particularly on the atoll countries. Both the Cook Islands and Niue are actively seeking to increase their plantation estates as production substitutes for natural forests.
The need for active conservation is a relatively recent concept in the South Pacific. As noted earlier, prior to European settlement the forests were generally regarded as limitless resources and, under the demands made of them in pre-industrial society, the forests in all likelihood were limitless in terms of actual human needs. However, development over the last hundred years with industrial utilisation of wood and mounting population pressures have led to situation in which conservation, as a means of ensuring wood supplies for future generations and as a means of preserving natural ecosystems, has become a necessity in most, if not all, countries.
Australia and New Zealand each have extensive systems of protected national, parks, reserves and scenic areas. In Australia more than 7 million hectares (17 percent) of the natural forests are permanently protected in conservation reserves. Many of these are included in National parks and listed on the Register of the National Estate. Some, such as the tropical rainforests of north Queensland and the forests of south-west Tasmania are included on the World Heritage List. The future for forest conservation in Australia will be determined under the newly implemented scheme of Regional Forest Agreements. This is likely to see a well balanced approach to sustainable forestry management with probably moderate increases in the conservation estate likely.
The Papua New Guinea report to the 1996 Heads of Forestry meeting identifies 55 existing protected areas totalling 1 784 107 hectares (4 percent of land area) the largest of which, Tonda, covers 590 000 hectares. A further 24 protected areas are identified without noting land area. The report also identifies an additional 93 areas proposed for protection. This is apparent evidence of a substantially increased conservation effort. By comparison, a 1981 report by the Papua New Guinea National Parks Board identified 7 declared parks, 7 approved areas, and 10 proposed areas for conservation. an additional 17 areas were declared wildlife sanctuaries or management areas with 60 other areas proposed for this status. Given the progress in increasing protected areas over the past 15 years it is reasonable to expect further significant increases in line with proposals over the coming 15 years. By 2010, Papua New Guinea should have well in excess of 100 protected areas. However, the 1996 report notes the major problem with the provision of protected areas relates to who pays. Private landowners are generally unwilling to shoulder the burden and the State has not, to date, provided compensation for landowners whose land is designated a protected area.
The 1992 Solomon Islands report to the Heads of Forestry meeting noted that in the past very little has been done in the way of identifying areas for national parks, however there has been an upsurge in interest in protection of flora and fauna, mainly as a result of much-publicised ecotourism. Three areas had been identified for nature site development and two others had been given World Heritage listings. The 1996 Solomon Islands report to the Heads of Forestry suggested that, in addition, steep and inaccessible areas are inappropriate for logging and are apparently considered de-facto conservation areas though without formal protection listings. Variations in composition between montane and lowland forests suggest there are likely to be species endemic to forests which are accessible for logging which may be seriously threatened without formal conservation measures.
Effective conservation areas in Fiji total almost 300 000 hectares of which 30 260 hectares is under Forest Reserve status, and 267 000 hectares comprises indigenous protection forest. These protection forests are valuable preservation areas despite the absence of legal status as conservation areas. Fiji has 16 Forest Reserves, the largest of which is Taveuni covering 11 290 hectares. Negotiations are underway to establish a further new reserve and a World Heritage Site in the Sovi Basin.
The 1996 Vanuatu Report to Heads of Forestry notes that the formal concept of conservation, protected areas and National Parks is very new to Vanuatu. The report specifically notes 4 established reserves totalling 6 700 hectares, at least one of which is involved in ecotourism. There are also a number of conservation areas proposed by landowners including a proposal for a National Park on Efate. Conservation efforts are, however, constrained by lack of resources, lack of effective coordination between agencies involved in conservation and restricted capacity to implement the National Parks Act. Consequently, only modest progress in establishing and developing additional conservation areas should be expected.
In terms of conservation, New Caledonia has made greater strides than most of its Pacific neighbours. An Absolute Protection Reserve (5 080 hectares), four Provincial Parks (11 311 hectares), four Fauna Reserves (22 520 hectares), four Flora and Fauna Reserves (1 117 hectares) and seven Botanical Reserves (totalling 15 192 hectares) have been established. There are also extensive water catchments where logging is prohibited so the total are where logging is protected against totals 170 000 hectares.
The activities of these largest South Pacific islands are indicative of conservation trends throughout the South Pacific. The concept of conservation is generally a recent advent in the South Pacific. However, the need for conservation efforts is increasingly being recognised and most countries now have some area designated or planned as a formal conservation reserve. Among the other South Pacific countries notable developments include: the establishment in Western Samoa of O le Pupu Pue National Park and Mount Vaea reserve in 1978.Tonga's 1992 gazetting of 450 hectares of natural forest on 'Eua Island as "Eua National Park"; and the recent proposal to establish a Havalu Forest Conservation Area Project (5400 hectares) on Niue.
One of the most important roles for forests in the South Pacific is as a means of soil and watershed protection. The incidence of cyclonic storms, generally high rainfall levels, winds, coastal erosion and salt water incursion in the South Pacific all suggest protective roles for trees. Additionally, most of the larger islands have steep mountainous interiors making them susceptible to erosion, while the atoll countries are very low lying giving rise to deleterious effects from salt water spray, and storm surge.
The roles of trees for protective purposes are well understood and most countries are using some degree of tree planting to assist in protection or land rehabilitation. In the Melanesian countries the primary protective role is reafforestation of degraded mountainous areas to prevent erosion. Accelerated erosion as a result of deforestation is a common feature. In countries such as Tonga and Western Samoa deforested areas have converted to unproductive and more erosion prone fernlands and reforestation efforts are being made in these areas. a number of other features also contribute to watershed deterioration and erosion including, unregulated water flows, improper roading design, cropping on riverbanks and floodplains, stock grazing and unregulated use of agricultural chemicals. Trees can play a role in alleviating impacts of all these factors.
In all the islands planting in coastal areas is necessary to protect against coastal erosion. Protection of mangrove areas, which are highly resistant to storm damage, is particularly important in this regard. In the low lying atoll islands there is ready recognition of the importance of coastal vegetation in protecting gardens and other agricultural areas from salt spray and a number of introduced species have been trialled in this regard as well as maintaining indigenous species. Soil improvement roles of trees in these countries is also important with the increased organic material provided by trees assisting fertility by improving soil water holding capacity, reducing soil pH, providing nutrients, reducing leaching effects of wind and rains and reducing run-off and evaporation.
In the future it is expected protection forestry will continue to be implemented, with funding for public works probably the major constraint in most countries.
