3.3 North America

Canada
and
the United States of America

Figure 3.3.1.
Aquaculture is a steadily growing sector in the region; since 1984 production has increased by about 44%, from 334,000 mt to 480,000 mt at an APR of 3.3, while value of production has doubled, from US$498 million to US$999 million, at an APR of 6.5 ( Figure 3.3.1). Total production in 1995 increased by 7.1% from 1994 and its value increased by 8.8%. (Global increases from 1994 to 1995 were 9.7% and 5.2% for quantity and value of production, respectively). Aquaculture accounted for 7.2% of total culture and capture fish production in the region in 1995, up only slightly from 5% in 1984.

Per caput availability of fish and fishery products was 22.5 kg for Canada in 1993 and fishery products accounted for 5.8% of the total protein consumption. In the USA, per caput availability was 22.8 kg and fishery products accounted for 4.4% of total protein consumption.

Figure 3.3.2.
The USA is the greater producer in the region (Figure 3.3.2), accounting for 86.2% of production and 73.0% of the value. Aquaculture production in the USA increased at an APR of 2.2 from 1984 to 1995, but in Canada it increased at an APR of 21.6, due to low baseline levels of production in the mid 1980s and steady increases in the 1990s.

Figure 3.3.3
Production (1995) in the region is primarily from catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) from southeastern USA (203,000 mt; or 43% of total) (Figure 3.3.3), which has increased by 5.8% since 1984, but has declined slightly from a high of 208,000 mt in 1993 (Figure 3.3.4a).

Figure 3.3.4a

Figure 3.3.4b.
In the USA, several species, such as tilapias, Atlantic salmon and striped bass, are showing substantial increases in production. Tilapia production has grown to 7,000 mt since 1987 at an APR of 130. Striped bass production, based on a hybrid between striped bass and white bass, has increased at an APR of 108 to 3,000 mt since 1985. Atlantic salmon has increased at an APR of 129 to 14,000 mt since 1986. The high rate of increase is often due to low initial production values in the 1980s, e.g. regular tilapia production started with 20 mt in 1988.

There are only nine taxa of aquatic animals cultured in Canada, all of which are salmonids or marine species. Atlantic salmon is the primary species farmed and production has increased by an APR of 57.8 since 1984 to 34,000 mt in 1995. Mussels, chinook salmon, Pacific cupped oysters and rainbow trout have all increased in production, by APRs of 24, 62, 5, and 11, respectively, while culture of coho salmon and American cupped oyster has declined from peak levels of production in the late 1980s. Overall growth rate of coho salmon from 1984 is still positive, however, at an APR of about 24 due to low initial production.

Production quantity from inland areas in the region increased with an APR of 3.8 from 186,000 mt in 1984 to 280,000 mt in 1995, and by an APR of 2.7 from 149,000 mt to 200,000 mt in coastal areas. Although value from inland aquaculture increased at a modest rate (APR 2.4) from US$441.6 million to US$574.0 million, value from coastal aquaculture increased by an APR of 20.2 from US$56.2 million to US$425.3 million during 1984-1995. Coastal aquaculture accounts for 42% of the quantity of production and 43% of the value. As stated above, Canadian aquaculture is primarily from coastal areas.

Aquaculture in North America involves diverse farming systems in diverse areas. However, the industry is currently facing challenges from environmental groups. The criticisms concern contamination of the environment by aquaculture systems through unwanted obstructions to coastal navigation; unsightly cages or pens; aquaculture effluents, such as excess food and chemotherapeutics; and the use of exotic species and fish that are either domesticated or genetically different from wild stocks. Governments, local and national, are responding to the issues raised by environmentalists and the industry must comply with environmental safeguards and environmental impact assessments. The industry in some areas may be forced to adopt closed culture systems in order to minimize harmful effluents, and to reduce the chance of fish escapes. At the same time, industry is requesting proof that certain practices harm the aquatic environment. For example, in Canada, growers may be required to raise only triploid salmon so that the chance of escaped hatchery fish breeding with wild stocks is reduced. The industry does not wish to be so constrained, because triploid fish often do not perform as well as diploids, and, as a result, the industry has asked for evidence that diploid salmon escaping from fish farms negatively affect wild populations (Stuart, 1996). The evidence at present is equivocal and this is a priority research topic. In addition, there is often antagonism at present between fish farmers and the fishers in the region. Fishers see farmed fish as an inferior product that floods the market and lowers prices; they also feel that escaped farmed fish would adversely affect wild fisheries. Marketing efforts appear to be underway to promote aquaculture as a green industry and to lessen the distinction between "farmed" and "wild" fish.

The regulatory mechanisms governing the industry appear to be complicated and involve numerous agencies with overlapping jurisdictions. In the USA there are the Coastal Zone Management Act, the Clean Water Act, the Endangered Species Act, the Lacey Act for transporting aquaculture products, and the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, all of which impinge on aquaculture development; Departments of the Interior and Commerce and the US Department of Agriculture have partial oversight of the industry.

A strong US dollar will create a favourable atmosphere for increased import of fishery and aquaculture products. The USA industry will need to find means to remain competitive. One approach seems to be the establishment of growers' associations as has been done for catfish in the southeast and for tilapia. Recently a shrimp farming association was established to promote a strong domestic industry through improved marketing, government lobbying, and information dissemination and exchange.

Both countries in the region are highly developed and are applying modern biotechnology to aquaculture production. Catfish production owes much of its success to genetic improvement through conventional breeding programmes and to an active growers' association.. Other techniques to improve production are being used and tested, for example, triploid Pacific cupped oysters and transgenic common carp, catfish, Atlantic salmon and coho salmon. Initial results are that the transgenic fish show increased performance. However, there are environmental and human health concerns that must be addressed before there will be widespread consumer acceptance of these products of modern biotechnology (Bartley, 1997).

Aquaculture is also being used to support restocking programmes, either of commercially and recreationally important species, such as salmon, or of endangered species. The restocking efforts in the USA are extensive, releasing thousands of millions of fish (Bartley, 1996). The cost effectiveness of this practice and its effects on natural populations are controversial topics in need of further assessment.

Aquaculture in the region can be expected to continue to grow slowly, although the industry will need to deal with environmental concerns and marketing of aquaculture products. Catfish production is expected to increase through additional acreage of ponds, in part due to favourable feed prices. Increased production from catfish and tilapia is expected to lower prices. However in salmon, production is level and no new sites have been approved for production (USDA, 1997). Complicated government oversight and regulatory process will also constrain the industry. Canadian aquaculture has been projected to grow to reach a quarter of the value of commercial fisheries by the year 2,000 (DFO, 1995). In the USA, species new to aquaculture, such as tilapia and abalone, are emerging, and may expand production. Production will also increase from the further domestication of aquatic species and the responsible application of genetic technologies to farmed aquatic organisms. Not all genetic technologies may be appropriate in the immediate future because of consumer or government resistance and unknown effects of some genetic modifications such as gene transfer. However, aquaculture developers in the region appear to be aware of these concerns and are helping to address public and government concerns through research, testing and compliance with current regulations.

Bartley, D.M. 1996. Conservation of biological diversity in hatchery enhancement programmes, p. 424-438. In F. Di Castrini and T. Younès (eds.) Science and Development: Towards a New Partnership. Oxford, CAB International.

Bartley, D.M. 1997. Genetics and breeding in aquaculture: status and trends. Paper presented to the Seminar on Genetics and Breeding of Mediterranean Aquaculture Species. Network on Technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean. International Center for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies and FAO.

DFO. 1995. Federal Aquaculture Development Strategy. DFO/5066. Ottawa, Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 18p.

Stuart, R. 1996. Triploidy: a commercial application in Canada. Bulletin of the Aquaculture Association of Canada 96-2: 29-31.

USDA 1997. Aquaculture Outlook. DC 20005-4789. Washington, Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture.