21  THE DOGFISH (Squalus acanthias) FISHERY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA AND ITS MANAGEMENT (contd.)

2.3  Fleet characteristics, evolution of the fleet and fishing effort

2.3.1  Historical overview

There is little published information about the type, or number, of vessels used in the dogfish fishery. This is epecially true for the early periods of the fishery, but even in recent years it is difficult to estimate reliably how many vessels take part in dogfish fishing given that production is based mainly on bycatches from other fisheries. The same problems hinder the estimation of fishing effort.

Most of the information available on fleet type, size, and gross estimates of effort, comes from the period of the vitamin A liver-oil fishery. For the present food-fish fishery, the largest part of the dogfish catch (about 60%; see Section 2.2.3) is taken by trawlers targetting mainly rockfish and flatfish, thus an accurate effort figure cannot be easily derived due to problems in effort allocation. This problem applies to a lesser extent to longline vessels because a few of them fish specifically for dogfish. However, this information, which is stored in DFO databases, remains unpublished.

Data for 1994–95 are preliminary.

It is likely that during the first period of the commercial dogfish fishery probably several hundred traditional canoes were employed by the native fishermen. Ketchen (1986) does not provide information on the type or number of vessels taking part in the dogfish fishery during this period. The first reports about the potential number of vessels engaged in the dogfish fishery come in the form of number of dogfish fishing licences by gear issued during the early 1920s (Table 2). Most licences were for longliners but there were also a number of sunken gillnet vessels. If each licence was allocated to a single vessel and all licences were active, then the number of boats in the fishery grew rapidly from less than 100 in 1923 to more than 400 vessels in 1928.

During the vitamin A liver-oil fishery, small longline vessels operated in the Strait of Georgia while larger offshore vessels entered the fishery for dogfish as the halibut fishery season grew increasingly shorter. Sunken gillnets made of discarded salmon gillnets became more and more popular in the fishery, starting in 1939 in the Strait of Georgia until they were banned from this region in 1944, and later - from 1942 - in offshore waters of BC. The use of the power-driven drum to retrieve gill nets allowed small vessels to expand into Barkley Sound and the Hecate Strait flats (Ketchen 1986). The number of sunken gillnets used in the fishery increased from less than 50 in 1940 to over 1600 in 1945 (Table 11). Otter trawl vessels, although present in BC in the 1930s, are not thought to have participated significantly in the dogfish fishery until 1938 when the number of licences began to increase. By 1945, 107 were in operation (Ketchen 1986).

2.3.2  Recent developments

Trawlers and longliners are currently the two main fleets fishing dogfish on the west coast of Canada. According to Anon (1979), during the 1970's trawlers ranged between 60–100 feet in length. Longline vessels are usually ex-gillnetters manned by 2–3 persons. Information for the slope rockfish fishery (a subset of the ground fish trawl fishery) presented by Richards and Olsen (1996) indicates that the size of most of the trawlers in BC ranges from about 20GT to more than 650GT, but most vessels lie in the range 50–150GT and only 5–10 vessels are between 400–700GT. The overall size of the fleet decreased slightly from the 1970s to the present.

There are no official published statistics on the number of vessels involved in the current food-fish fishery for dogfish. only scattered anecdotal reports which are unreliable and often contradicting are available. According to a feasibility study for a dogfish processing plant (Anon 1979), during 1979 up to 40 longliners were actively fishing for dogfish for delivery to the BC Fishermen's Independent Co-op Association. This report mentions that in the same year 15 trawlers landed 2500t of dogfish to the Arrowac plant in Ferndale, Wash. According to Salsbury (1986), during the same year (1979), 320 vessels reported dogfish catches with about half making only one or two trips. It is difficult to interpret these figures without additional information. Salsbury also reports that only 65 vessels were involved in dogfish fishing in 1985, 37 trawlers, 25 longliners and 3 trollers.

The vessels participating in the dogfish fishery work mostly on a part-time basis when they cannot fish for more valuable species (Salsbury 1986). Nevertheless, at present there are about 10–15 longliners specifically fishing dogfish, some on a year-round basis (D. Trager, DFO, per. comm., Feb. 1998). It proved impossible to obtain more details or numbers and characteristics of vessels dedicated to dogfish fishing during the last few years, despite requests to the DFO for this information.

A first approximation to the numbers of vessels currently capable of taking part in the dogfish fishery is possible from the number of fishing licences issued in the last few years for the trawl and longline fleets. However this gives only a rough idea of the changes in numbers of vessels because the number of licences has no direct relation with either the number of active vessels (some licenced vessels do not fish in some years for various reasons, e.g. repairs, financial difficulties, etc.) or with the number of vessels directly engaged in fishing dogfish. According to DFO, since 1985 142 “T” (trawl) licences have been issued every year in BC, while type “C” (also known as Schedule II) licences that allow dogfish fishing with any type of hook and line gear (i.e. longlines, trolls, and hand lines) have varied between 632 and 1102. Thus, before 1997 a maximum of 142 trawl vessels could have participated in the groundfish fishery and potentially contribute to the discards and landings of dogfish. After the implementation of the individual vessel quota (IVQ) system for the trawl groundfish fishery of BC in 1997 (see Section 4.2.1), there was a decrease in the number of active vessels from about 120 to some 60–80. This reduction was due to the buying and selling of fishing quotas that left some vessels out of business, and which was a goal of the new management plan, increase in the economic efficiency of the trawl fishery. Also, the number of C licences issued per year has decreased from more than 1100 in 1985 to 539 in 1997; this last figure should be an upper bound for the number of vessels currently participating in the dogfish hook and line fishery.

Other sources of information give a clearer picture of the changes in numbers of vessels potentially fishing dogfish. Large increases in the number of active trawlers are reported for several sectors of the groundfish trawl fishery between 1985 and 1995. In the flatfish fishery, there was an increase from 10–20 to 45–50 vessels fishing rock sole (Pleuronectes bilineatus) during that period, while trawlers engaged in Dover sole fishing increased from 10–20 to about 60 (Fargo and Kronlund in press). Richards and Olsen (1996) also report increases in the number of vessels for the slope rockfish fishery, from 20–25 to 90–100. Given the recent changes in management policies, which have induced shorter, and more, trips per year by imposing limits on total catch per trip for the trawl fishery, it is difficult to interpret the growth of the fleet over the last 10 years.

There is no published information on effort for the dogfish fishery, because few, if any, vessels target dogfish while fishing. Further, it is unknown which trips, or sets of the gear within a given trip, target dogfish and which target other species and get dogfish as a bycatch. This makes it almost impossible to qualify the available effort data for the groundfish fishery. In addition, there is no reliable effort information before 1996 for trawl trips where dogfish were discarded. For the hook and line fishery, it is impossible to know the amounts of dogfish discarded because there is virtually no past compulsory logbook information for this sector with the exception of vessels with rockfish licences (ZN licences). Thus the effort data extracted from the DFO database and presented in Table 12 (as well as in Table 8) only serves an illustrative purpose because of inherent bias (only those trips where dogfish was landed are included in these effort figures thus underestimating the total effort, moreover, there is no differentiation between trips targetting dogfish and trips where dogfish was only a bycatch that was landed). The nominal effort for trawl and hook and line vessels shows an erratic behaviour that lacks trend. However, there is a clear drop in nominal effort for both fleets in 1993, which confirms suspicions on the available effort information. This low in effort could be linked to decreased landings (i.e. increased discards) due to the reported decrease in processing capacity in 1993 caused by a fire in the US processing plant (see 2.2.1). Thus, these effort figures do not track real effort but only the effort of those trips that landed dogfish.

a. Preliminary data.
b. Data for the trawl fishery had not yet been incorporated into the DFO database.

The information presented above for “dogfish effort” is in contrast with available data for the flatfish and rockfish fisheries, illustrating the problems faced when trying to estimate effort in the fishery. In both of the latter cases, total hours fished have increased sharply between the first half of the 1980s and 1995. Effort increased from 500 – 1000hr/yr to 7000 – 8000hr/yr in the Dover sole fishery; for rock sole the increase was from 1500 – 2000hr to 2500 – 3000hr/yr (Fargo and Kronlund in press). Effort in the slope rockfish fishery grew from about 5000hr to 20 000hr/yr, while the total number of trips also increased (Figure 9), but mostly as a result of management decisions. Judging from these two contrasting sources of information, it is apparent that while total effort increased sharply in the trawl sector over the period (and probably in the hook and line sector too), the number of trips where dogfish was kept and landed did not follow this pattern, thus signaling increased discard rates.

2.4  Markets

2.4.1   Introduction

The present fishery for dogfish in BC is a food-fish export fishery dependent mostly on European markets, but since the fishery first started in the second part of the 19th century the markets for the BC dogfish fishery have varied and gone through major changes. Perhaps the only constant trait throughout the history of the fishery is the market volatility which has constantly limited the viability and success of the fishery. It has been a misfortune that several of the uses given to dogfish have become obsolete or uneconomical, making dogfish products non-competitive against new alternatives. In the 1800s during the first period of dogfish exploitation, the lack of vision of the British Government prevented further expansion of the fishery for oil as a lubricant (Ketchen 1986), but it was the advent of synthetic lubricants and the ensuing changes in the market that phased-out this fishery. Similarly, market demand produced the vibrant vitamin A liver-oil fishery in the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the collapse of this market (due to the industrial production of cheaper synthetic vitamin A) that destroyed the dogfish industry. Today, the variable and slow-growing markets in Europe provide only a weak level of demand for BC dogfish resulting in little incentive to expand the fishery. Perhaps a critical failure of the dogfish industry of the west coast of North America has been the inability to develop a local market for dogfish and so ensure a stable demand for this fish.

Figure 9

Yearly nominal effort in total hours and total trips for the groundfish trawl fishery of BC. Data from Richards and Olsen (1996)

The recent period of the food-fish industry is based on Salsbury (1986). One of the main problems is that there is virtually only a single market for the fishery - that of European extant. Although there is also a Japanese market for frozen dogfish, its role has been relatively minor, North Americans do not prefer dogfish meat, partly because they are not keen to try new fish species, and partly because of the lack of information about how to prepare dogfish. Throughout most of this food-fish fishery, half or more of the dogfish landed by Canadian vessels has been processed in US plants, and this trend has increased over time: while approximately 1000t of dogfish (43% of total dogfish exports) were exported to the USA for processing and re-exporting to Europe in 1988, by 1996 this had increased to almost 2000t (74% of total; Table 4). According to Ketchen (1986) the low profit made in the dogfish fishery by local companies (see next section), compared to salmon or halibut, make the American processors of dogfish more competitive. Clayton (1995) notes that 75% and 96% of the landings of dogfish in BC were exported in the round to processing plants across the border in 1991 and 1992 respectively. While eleven plants process dogfish in BC, three account for the great majority of the production (J. Carson, BC MAFF, per. comm., Feb. 1998).

Two factors have played an important role in the arrival of the new era for the dogfish fishery. First, a potential market for dogfish as fish-food in European countries was identified in 1973 by one of the many subsidised programmes that tried to encourage dogfish fishing in BC, and second, the declines in production of dogfish in the North Sea left a void for alternative suppliers (Ketchen 1986). Initially a minimum size of 81 cm was required by the European market for dogfish but by 1979 this was reduced to 71 cm. However, fish larger than 80cm usually earn double the price of small and medium sized fish.

The European market for dogfish is relatively diverse and includes 4 countries. Germany imports dogfish backs and belly flaps. The traditional use for belly flaps is smoked as “Schillerlocken” which are served as an appetiser in beer gardens. Germany dogfish imports were about 80% flaps and 20% backs in the mid-1980s. Price paid in 1985 by German importers was $0.52–0.54/lb for backs and $0.90/lb for belly flaps exceeding nine inches. Dogfish backs are imported by Belgium, Britain and France. In Belgium, most of the dogfish backs (> 1kg) are consumed smoked; price paid by Belgian importers in 1985 was $0.52/lb. France uses dogfish backs for the institutional market (prisons, hospitals, schools, etc.); prices were 0.44 and $0.53/lb for small and large backs respectively in the mid 1980s. England consumes more than 90% of the British dogfish imports in the “fish and chips” shops. The British market for dogfish backs is reportedly choosy as the colour of the flesh and fish size are important in product acceptance and to price.

Salsbury gives two examples of the volatility of European markets. At the end of 1985, prices paid to US exporters fell from around 0.55 to about $0.47/lb because of a 250–300t accumulation of frozen stock. Around the same period, the price paid for dogfish backs in France fell at least partly as a consequence of a few years of poor quality Turkish dogfish imports that decreased consumer acceptance of dogfish (Turkey was then the third largest supplier of dogfish to France).

In the early 1980s, the major BC dogfish producers exported frozen backs and belly flaps to Europe, frozen fins to the orient, frozen dressed dogfish to Japan, and dogfish oil to the US for industrial purposes (Salsbury 1986). Export data by country of destiny since 1988 are presented in Table 4. According to this information, BC exports of dogfish ranged between 600t and 2800t over the last 10 years. Fresh/whole dogfish was exported almost exclusively to the USA (mainly for processing and re-export to Europe), although small amounts went to the UK, France and Japan in the late 1980s. Frozen dogfish exports dominated unprocessed exports and include many more countries, e.g. USA, UK, Belgium, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Japan, Taiwan and Thailand.

Since the early 1990s there have been attempts by the Provincial Government to stimulate the dogfish fishery. As part of these efforts, studies for on-board handling and quality control, and for assessment of the feasibility of a processing plant for high quality dogfish product, have been done One study outlined the requirements for establishing a complete dogfish processing enterprise, starting from the fishing fleet and on-board handling and the use of automated processing machinery, to the consideration of yields, revenues and markets. This project recommended expanding exports by producing high-quality dogfish for the European market and considering alternative potential markets such as Mexico (Clayton 1995). However, the project suffered from the lack of direct study of current market situations and ignored the advice of Salsbury (1986) who indicated that the European market could only absorb a 10–15% increase in dogfish imports in the mid 1980s.

2.4.2  Revenues from the fishery

The dogfish fishery at present has low profit margins. Two reasons for this are the high costs of local labor [BC is quoted by Ketchen (1986)] as having the highest shoreworkers' wages), and the low price of dogfish relative to other fishery products. Dogfish is currently the 4^th cheapest among all Canadian aquatic exports after alewife, cuttlefish and capelin (Table 10). Consequently, slight changes in the prices paid for dogfish in Europe greatly affect profitability of the fishery and therefore the incentive for fishermen to land dogfish. Historical information on the ex-vessel prices paid for dogfish is presented in Figure 5. The sharp rise and fall in prices paid for dogfish during the beginning and end of the boom of the vitamin A liver-oil fishery is evident. Note also that the real price of dogfish has almost doubled in the last 20 years.

According to Clayton (1995) average prices for dogfish in the round exported to the US was $Can0.17/lb and $Can0.1/lb in 1991 and 1992 respectively. He also notes that in 1993 European CIF price for frozen skinned backs was $0.90/lb, while in 1995 prices were $0.80/lb CIF England, and $0.75/lb in Eastern USA. Clayton further cites great supply-driven variability in price for belly flaps ranging from $0.80–2.50/lb CIF Germany. The nominal price and value of fresh and frozen dogfish exported from BC during 1986–96 is presented in Figure 10. Prices for fresh and frozen dogfish have increased since 1994, specially the latter.

Figure 10

Total value and prices for exported dogfish from BC, 1988–96 Data provided by DFO Statistical Services, Ottawa.

The total landed value of the dogfish fishery in current and real terms since 1973 is presented in Table 13. The current value of the fishery shows wide variations (a low of $Can60 000 in 1976 and a peak of $Can2.2 million in 1988) with an increasing trend; according to preliminary data, it reached $Can1.5 million in 1996. In real terms, the landed value of the fishery has varied with a peak in 1988 but is now at the same level of $Can 1 million as in 1973. Information on the wholesale value of the fishery between 1981 and 1991as reported by Clayton (1995) is given in Table 14.

2.5  Economics of the fishery

There are neither economic, nor socio-economic studies, of the BC dogfish fishery. As noted, the fishery currently operates with low profit margins due to high post-harvest costs and low and unstable prices in the European market. There are no details available about the profits of fishermen or processors in the fishery, nor is there published information on capital inputs, expenditures, etc.

Data for 1994–96 are preliminary.

The dogfish fishery has been substantially subsidized at various points though its recent history. Several government-subsidized programmes have taken place since the crash of the vitamin A liver-oil fishery. In 1959, after reduced harvests caused increased abundance of dogfish, the government launched a series of programmes to boost dogfish fishing. Fishermen were complaining of high dogfish abundance and the of damaged gear or bait and catches that were eaten by dogfish (see Section 2.1.2). A total of $Can1.125 million was paid by the government between 1959 and 1974 in six subsidy programmes (Ketchen 1986). Despite this, as late as in 1986 - well into the new era of the food-fish dogfish fishery - there were still complaints about dogfish from the BC fishing industry; according to Salsbury (1986) halibut fishermen were hardest hit. There are some indications that the subsidy programmes failed because: (1) the programmes were not aimed at boosting the industry but at trying to reduce dogfish abundance; (2) the subsidies did not always go to these fishermen for whom the support was intended (mainly longliners) but mainly to those who could land most dogfish (i.e. trawlers), and (3), the two preceding factors caused quality control to be frequently overlooked resulting in low quality of exports to the quality-conscious European markets (Anon 1979). At present, there seems to be little concern over dogfish among local fishermen (M. Saunders, PBS, per. comm., Feb 1998).

Given the marginal nature of the BC dogfish fishery which is based largely on bycatches, it is difficult, if not impossible, to assess if fishermen are entering or leaving the fishery. Also, most vessels landing dogfish do so on a part-time basis. There is no income for the government through taxes on any fishery landings in BC. The main sources of government revenue is through licensing, penalties for violations and taxes on exports.

2.6  The fisheries workforce

No figures are available on the number of people employed in the dogfish fishery at any period of time. During the first phase of the fishery (1870–1916), most, if not all, the fishermen were natives of the various tribes living in coastal BC (Ketchen 1986). The few references to shore workers suggest that mainly whites were employed in the plants but it is likely that natives also took part in the post-harvest sector, especially in remote areas. According to the few available statistics, at least since 1922 and until the spread of war to the Pacific in 1942, Japanese Canadian formed the largest ethnic group among fishermen with dogfish licences; whites and native Americans were respectively second and third in importance (Table 15). Judging from the number of fishing licences issued during the period 1922–45 there were potentially 87 to 2166 people fishing for dogfish. However, considering crews, the real number of fishermen involved in the harvesting sector could have been 2–4 times greater.

¹ Almost exclusively Japanese-Canadians.

The number of fishermen employed in the present food-fish fishery for dogfish is difficult to estimate as it is mainly a part-time activity and strongly limited by market constraints. According to Diana Trager, DFO, some 10–15 hook and line vessels depend solely or mostly on dogfish fishing. This would translate into 20 to 45 people employed depending on the fishery.

3.  MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES

3.1  The fisheries within the context of national fisheries policies

Although the Canadian Fisheries Act does not include an explicit set of management objectives, there is currently an implicit mandate within the DFO to give attention to resource conservation and second to economic efficiency. According to Parsons (1993) there were two main sets of objectives since the first comprehensive fisheries legislation was passed in 1857: resource conservation (mainly for estuary and river waters), and fisheries development (for the marine environment). Since then, the changing political and social climate and the shifts in philosophy of those in power have driven the setting of objectives for fisheries management in Canada. Thus, objectives have changed with time and depending on the fishery. Some objectives have been defined (competitiveness in world markets, source of employment, economic efficiency) albeit sometimes unattainable in reality (i.e. MSY), whilst others have been rather ambiguous (i.e. optimum yield). More than once, the new multiple objectives have come into mutual conflict. Larkin (1977) characterised the approach to Canadian fisheries management of the 1960s–1970s as attempting to achieve too many objectives without a clear hierarchical priority (i.e. to maximise food production, to preserve ecological balance, to allocate access optimally, to provide for economic viability and growth, to optimise distribution and minimise instability in returns, etc.). This said, emphasis in Canadian fisheries management is primarily resource conservation, and then economic efficiency. These objectives can be identified explicitly in the recommendations of the Natural Resource Study Team report “Natural Resources Programme: From Crisis to Opportunity” (Canada 1985; cited by Parsons 1993). Soon after this report was released, the DFO started to shift its emphasis from using fisheries resources as a means to address income and employment problems, to worrying about stock conservation and protection and the economic efficiency of the fisheries.

The conservation mandate is further emphasized in the Strategic Plan 1995–1999 of the Operations Branch Pacific Region of DFO. This document states that “The first and most fundamental objective of the Department is to conserve and protect the fisheries resource and its habitat in trust for future generations, seeking to restore the abundance and diversity of this valuable, natural endowment”. Within DFO, the accepted definition of conservation for fisheries management reads: “Fisheries conservation is that aspect of the management of the fisheries resource which ensures that its use is sustainable and which safeguards its ecological processes and genetic diversity for the maintenance of the resource. Fisheries conservation ensures that the fullest sustainable advantage is derived from the resource and that the resource base is maintained” (Rice et al. 1995). Furthermore, among the long-term priorities listed in the DFO's webpage (http://www.ncr.dfo.ca/dfo_mpo/ mandat_e. thm), the first reads: “Manage and Protect the Fisheries Resource: To maintain a biologically sustainable resource supporting self-reliant fisheries by conserving Canada's fishery resources and ensuring sustainable utilisation”.

The second implicit objective for Canadian fisheries management mentioned by Parsons (1993), economic efficiency, does not seem to have been incorporated into the objectives of the Operations Branch, but instead has been replaced by the objective of sustainable harvest management. In the definition of sustainable harvest management, the 1995–99 Strategic Plan indicates that the Operations Branch is responsible for developing and implementing management plans that are environmentally, economically and socially sustainable based on cooperative arrangements with resource users.

3.2  Objectives for the management of the shark fisheries

Although they cannot be found explicitly expressed, the objectives for the management of British Columbia's dogfish fisheries (embedded into the objectives for the west coast groundfish fishery) do not differ from the implicit objectives for all fisheries management in Canada. This is unsurprising given the minor importance and small size of the dogfish fishery in recent times.

3.3  The objective setting process

The stakeholders of the dogfish fishery are the members of the groundfish industry. This includes processors, crew and shore workers, and particularly the hook and line and trawl fishermen. The DFO is the federal government body in charge of, and therefore legally responsible for, fisheries management in Canada. Although there are many examples of disputes between the federal and provincial governments over jurisdictional issues related to fishery resources the balance of powers lies with the federal government and it remains the privilege of the Minister to administer fisheries resources. However, some fisheries are managed by the provinces through agreements with the federal government.

According to B. Turris (DFO, per. comm. Dec. 1997) the definition of objectives for a particular fishery is discussed between DFO and stakeholders through consultation. Certainly, the objectives of resource users often differ from those of the public interest (represented by DFO). Industry may, for example, have issues of allocation, employment and profitability as their chief objectives while DFO has conservation as its main preoccupation. Although the final word on management and licensing is always a ministerial prerogative, advisory committees for each fishery and other venues are used as mechanisms for consultation that try to attain consensus in relation to objectives of the particular fishery. Given that in BC the dogfish fishery is only a smaller part of the groundfish fishery, most management planning and decision-making (including the objective setting process) is done with the support of the two advisory committees for the groundfish fishery (see Section 5.1).

3.4   Discussion

Within the general context of Canadian west coast fisheries, there are some explicit and relatively clear directions for the setting of management policies for fisheries. These are expressed in the Strategic Plan 1995–1999 of the Operations Branch, Pacific Region of DFO as specific strategies for achieving PFO's objectives. In the case of conservation, tactics include: (1) adopt a more precautionary approach to the management of all species based on DFO's Science Branch stock assessments, (2) adopt measures to protect species and stocks which face most serious conservation threats, and (3) implement management systems to provide timely and accurate catch, effort and other necessary biological information.

Tactics relevant to the groundfish/dogfish fishery for attaining sustainable harvest management - the second objective of the Operations Branch - are: (1) establish effective consultation and viable working partnerships for harvest management with stakeholders, and (2) develop and implement commercial fisheries management plans that will resolve chronic problems of excess capacity, reduce pressure to over-harvest and improve the economic viability of the commercial fishery sector.

4.  MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND THE POLICY SETTING PROCESS

4.1  Identification and evaluation of policies

Fishery policies for dogfish can be traced back to the 1920s. Fishing licences for dogfish were apparently the first means of control of the fishery. Ketchen (1986), who gives one of the earliest reports of licences for dogfish, lists the number of dogfish licences issued for different kinds of gear for the period 1923–28 (Table 2), but it is likely that dogfish licences were issued before then. Licences for hook and line gear were more common then than licences for gillnets; trawl vessels did not participate much in the dogfish landings during this early period because the use of the otter trawl did not become common in the NE Pacific until after 1933 (Alverson et al. 1964). It is obvious from the historical information that the management system, and particularly the licensing scheme, were neither oriented towards controlling effort as a means to secure the conservation of the dogfish resource nor guaranteed the optimal economic return for the fishery as a whole. Concern over the conservation of the dogfish stock was not an issue in BC (as in other parts of the world) until much later. Licensing simply served bookkeeping purposes and for collection of government revenues.

As is true for most fisheries in Canada, originally management for the groundfish fishery consisted simply of issuing fishing licences. Most of the fisheries that developed in the distant past were initially open-access. The DFO decided to implement controlled access in the form of limitedentry licences for the two groundfish fishing sectors at different points in time. The hook and line sector (C licences) moved to a limited-entry system in the early 1970s and for the groundfish trawl sector in 1976 (B. Turris, PFM Inc., per. comm., Mar. 1998).

More recently, DFO has set up advisory committees for the trawl (1980) and hook and line (1990) groundfish sectors. These advisory committees are consultative bodies with wide representation that assist in development of management policies and decision making (see Section 5.1). Even though all final decisions are the sole prerogative of the Minister, most of the decisions on long- and short-term management policies, and in-season management decisions are usually made by these advisory committees.

Total allowable catches (TAC's) were introduced for the groundfish fishery shortly after limited access came into place (Tyler 1988). Further, recently, the trawl fleet was granted a “lease” on the ownership of their TAC share of groundfish, allocated to individual vessels (IVQ's). Management of the hook and line sector seems to be moving in the same direction but at the time of writing, it was still managed under limited-entry licences. Although no formal cost-benefit analyses were made for the identification and evaluation of policies, there was always ample consultation with stakeholders before DFO took management decisions. In the case of the IVQ system implemented for the trawl groundfish sector, industry advisors and participants held lengthy consultations with DFO before a decision was made (Bruce Turris, pers. comm. March 1998).

4.2  Policies adopted

4.2.1  Resource access

Access to dogfish fishing is controlled through access to the groundfish fishery: only licensed trawl vessels and hook and line vessels can fish for groundfish (and thus dogfish); sport fishing for dogfish is not regulated. There are several kinds of groundfish licences (halibut, blackcod, trawl, hook and line, etc.), but two types are mainly germane to dogfish. Type “C” or “Schedule II” licences, are for hook and line vessels and allow fishing for dogfish, lingcod and other non-rockfish groundfish species. Type “T” licences are for groundfish trawling including dogfish. According to the 1995 amendments to the Pacific Fisheries Regulations, the cost of these licences was: $Can30 for a C licence, and $Can 100 for a T licence. In addition, there are “rockfish” hook and line licences known as “ZN” licences. Currently, all groundfish licences - trawl and hook and line - are limited-entry.

The BC trawl fishery for groundfish first adopted limited-entry licences in 1976 (B. Turris, pers. comm. 1998). In the hook and line sector, type C licences have also been limited-entry since the early 1970s, while the hook and line rockfish licences (ZN licences) underwent a transition from open access to limited-entry over several years. This process culminated in 1993 when the last remaining unlimited-entry licences (“ZN Option B”) were changed to the limited-entry category. In addition, between 17 and 35 unlimited-entry licences for experimental sixgill shark fishing were issued between 1987 and 1993 but were later discontinued (see Section 1.1).

The BC demersal trawl fishery adopted an IVQ system during 1997 after a long process of consultation with the Provincial MAFF, the Groundfish Trawl Advisory Committee (GTAC), the Groundfish Special Industry Committee Subcommittee (GSIC Subcommittee), and coastal community representatives. This new system of transferable IVQ's is intended to increase the efficiency of the fishery. While IVQ's conferred some kind of exclusive rights to the holders, they do not represent true ownership of the resource but are yearly privileges.

4.2.2  Gear restrictions

The only gear regulations affecting dogfish fishing pertain to the general ground fish trawl and hook and line restrictions. Trawls - either bottom or mid-water - must have a mesh size of at least 76mm in all parts including the codend. In addition, in some parts of the Strait of Georgia, the mesh size of bottom trawl nets must be no less than 108mm in the final 50 meshes including the codend. In the Hecate Strait and eastern Dixon Entrance areas, the minimum mesh size in the last 100 meshes including the codend is 140mm.

4.2.3  Vessel regulations

None of the groundfish sectors have any type of regulation related to characteristics of the vessels. The only provision for controlling vessel size in the fishery is though the licence scheme. When a vessel is decommissioned, or lost, or when a licence is sold, regulations of the licence stipulate that the new vessel cannot be larger than the vessel previously holding the licence. In this way, the fleet size is intended to remain the same, or to shrink, independently of the replacement of old vessels or the selling of licences.

4.2.4  Area closure regulations

There are no area closures specifically designed to restrict dogfish fishing. The trawl groundfish fishery has a number of area-time closures designed to achieve various purposes, e.g. protecting spawning aggregations and fragile stocks, or avoiding conflict with other fisheries (e.g. roe herring). In particular, most of the Strait of Georgia is closed year round for groundfish trawling except for some minor isolated subareas. There are also some area-time closures for the hook and line groundfish fishery but none were devised for regulating dogfish harvests. Given the extremely detailed, and at times, dynamic nature of the area closure regulations, these are not detailed here. They are available in the yearly management plans that DFO releases for each of the groundfish sectors.

4.2.5  Biological regulations

There are no biological regulations for dogfish fishing. According to Ketchen (1986) the European market dictates a minimum size of about 71cm for dogfish. On the other hand, since the implementation of the IVQ's system for the trawl fishery in 1997, the DFO established - in consultation with industry - cutoff sizes that differentiate marketable from unmarketable fish. In the case of dogfish, this size is about 33 inches total length (B. Turris, PFM Inc., per. comm., Mar. 1998). This management decision aims at helping trawlers to offset the possible negative effects of large bycatches. Under this system, bycatches of unmarketable dogfish obtained during groundfish operations are not subtracted from the dogfish IVQ holdings. Otherwise, a vessel with high bycatches of dogfish could be prohibited from fishing once the bycatches exceed the vessel's IVQ of dogfish. In addition, the amount of marketable dogfish discarded that is subtracted from the IVQ depends on the amount of time passed between the start of the fishing operation and the time of discard. However, the specific details of the cutoff size for dogfish and the time rule were not included in the last groundfish trawl management plan.

4.2.6  Catch/quota allocation

Total allowable catches (TACs) were instituted for the groundfish fishery in 1978 (Tyler 1988). Because dogfish populations on the west coast of North America are considered to consist of a coastal and an offshore stock (see Section 1.1), there is a yearly TAC for each. A partial account of the history of TAC's and the corresponding actual catches for the dogfish fishery is given in Table 16. During the new fishing year 1997–98 (which now runs Apr-Mar as opposed to the previous Jan-Dec), the total TAC for dogfish was 17 000t (12 000t offshore, 5000t coastal) to be split between the trawl and hook and line sectors. The share of the trawl fishery was 5440t (1600t from the coastal stock, and 3840t from offshore stock). The yearly dogfish TAC is usually split between the two groundfish sectors by allocating 32% to the trawlers and 68% to the longliners. The allocation procedure is based on the historical landings of each sector during the period 1987–1990.

* Quota for trawl sector only, first year of the IVQ system for trawl and new fishing year(April-March).
Note: Due to difficulty in obtaining access to a complete collection of the management plans, the table is incomplete. Empty cells in the table are missing data.

The trawl sector of the groundfish fishery adopted a new management system based on IVQ's starting in 1997. Under this regime, the trawl TAC for each fish stock is shared among the entire trawl fleet depending on each vessel's IVQ. The allocation formula used for the transition between the old system of “derby fishing” for the TAC and the new IVQ system, considered vessel length and catch history to determine each vessel's share of the total TAC for each species (i.e. the IVQ). This formula allocated 30% of each IVQ based on the vessel length and 70% based on the total-groundfish (except hake) catch history of the vessel (average catch 1988–1992). Under the new regime, a vessel that obtained an IVQ of 2.5% will ‘own’ 2.5% of the total trawl fleet share of a TAC for each groundfish stock (e.g. 2.5% of the dogfish offshore stock, 2.5% of the coastal dogfish stock, 2.5% of the Pacific Ocean perch 5A/B [Queen Charlotte Sound] stock, and so on). The fee for this new T licence under the IVQ system is $Can500 plus an amount depending on the tonnage of each species/stock of groundfish allocated to a IVQ holder that year. However, dogfish fishing does not cause an additional tonnage-based fee.

4.2.7  Discussion

The policy setting process that affects the dogfish fishery in BC is driven by interests in the dogfish resource. This follows from the low priority and small size of the dogfish fishery. Hence, so far, there is no history of explicit policy articulation for the dogfish resource. The policies currently affecting the dogfish fishery are almost entirely directed to management of groundfish resources economically more important such as rockfish, Pacific cod, or lingcod. It is thus impossible, from a dogfish perspective, to critically view failures or successes of the policy setting process or the decisions that have been made in the groundfish fishery. Nonetheless, given the lack of complaints in relation to the management of the dogfish fishery it seems that there have been no negative effects or specific concerns in the dogfish industry resulting from the policies adopted for the groundfish fishery. But, policy changes to the IVQ management system for the groundfish trawl fishery have been too recent for assessments to be made. It will take some years (specially now that there is talk about the hook and line fishery moving in the direction of an IVQ management system) before the effects of the IVQ system become apparent in the groundfish fishery.

5.  THE MANAGEMENT PLANNING PROCESS

5.1  Provision of resource management advice

The provision of management advice affecting dogfish is currently provided via two bodies established by DFO, one for each of the groundfish fishery sectors. These advisory committees are consultative assemblies with wide representation used to assist in development of management policies and decision making. As such, they are the designated forums for communication and dialogue between DFO and stakeholders. Even thought final management decisions are the prerogative of the Minister, these advisory committees are usually where most of the discussions on long-term and short-term management policies occur and decisions are made. The Groundfish Trawl Advisory Committee (GTAC) was instituted by DFO in 1980 and the Groundfish Hook and Line Advisory Committee (GHLAC) was formed in 1990. Attempts to obtain information from DFO on the structure and terms of reference for these advisory committees were unsuccessful. However, it is known that during 1997, GTAC was composed of the Groundfish Manager (DFO), DFO researchers, and at least 16 members from the groundfish industry including processors, skippers, and representatives from the shoreworkers union. A similar structure is probable for the GHLAC.

Both the GTAC and GHLAC meet approximately on a quarterly basis to plan and discuss management issues. These bodies serve as the first level of industry review of the annual Fisheries Management Plans and, more importantly, they are the prime venue for in-season adjustments to management regulations for the fisheries. There are no written rules for their organisation and procedures of these advisory committees which are both chaired by the DFO Groundfish Manager.

The management planning process typical of the groundfish fishery is described by Tyler (1988). When Tyler wrote his account the fishing year followed the calendar year. The general process is still valid, though since 1997–1998, the groundfish fishery has shifted its fishing year to the fiscal year (April-March). The annual cycle of development of the Groundfish Management Plans (trawl and hook and line) adapted to the new fishing year is illustrated in Figure 11. First, the Groundfish Research Section of DFO (at the Pacific Biological Station in Nanaimo) holds preliminary meetings during April to plan the assessments to be made during the cycle following suggestions from the review process of the previous year that could not be incorporated due to time constraints. Around June, the groundfish manager, DFO researchers, GTAC and GHLAC hold meetings to incorporate any new management goals recommended by the advisory committees into the stock assessment work for that year (Figure 11 item A). The stock assessment process is done during the summer and fall (Figure 11 item B) to produce yield estimates by the end of October. Stock assessment and recommended yield option reports by major fishery are prepared and submitted to the Pacific Stock Assessment Review Committee (PSARC) for review and discussion by the beginning of November (Figure 11 item C). The meetings of the Groundfish Subcommittee of PSARC are held at the end of November (Figure 11 item D). Modifications are then incorporated to the stock assessments and recommended yield option reports, based on the review process of PSARC, and the final documents are delivered to the managers. Using these documents, internal management meetings are held by DFO in December to prepare a Draft Management Plan for the fishery. This is presented in January to GTAC and GHLAC, where modifications (mainly TAC sizes and allocations) are made on the advice of the committees (Figure 11 item E). Public meetings with industry are then held in the major ports to discuss the management plan (Figure 11 item F), after which it is sent to the Minister of Fisheries in Ottawa for ratification once the final revisions have been made (Figure 11 item G). During these stages, the meetings of the GTAC and GHLAC are also used to discuss problems of the current fishing season that have arisen.

5.2  Fishery statistics

5.2.1  Methods used for collection of catch and effort data

There are no written accounts of the systems used to collect catch and effort information for the dogfish fishery in the early periods of its history. In recent times, the usual means of acquiring this information has been by sale slips and logbook information. Recent changes in the monitoring system for the trawl fishery have greatly improved the accuracy of catch and effort information.

Sale slips are official transaction records produced at the moment of landing for each fishing trip for all fisheries. They record the weight and value of each species landed. Copies of these sale slips must be handed to DFO representatives. This has been the main mechanism for information gathering on all of BC's fisheries. These sale slips are transferred to the DFO's Economics and Statistical Branch and the information is entered into a database (Leaman and Hamer 1985).

A mandatory system of user-paid logbooks was established for the groundfish trawl fishery in 1987. In these logbooks, skippers are supposed to record catch and effort data for every fishing event as their fishing trip unfolds. The quality of the information gathered through this system is limited because of misreporting (see Section 5.2.2). A logbook system has never been introduced for the dogfish hook and line sector licences.

The problems of misreporting of landings were largely alleviated by a dockside monitoring programme (100% coverage) for the trawl fishery that began in 1994 (Rice and Richards 1996). The dockside monitoring programme was extended to cover rockfish landings in the hook and line fishery in 1996, and further expanded to cover dogfish landings in 1997. Externally contracted observers monitor and validate the weighing of landings of each species at the landing point for every trip. The dockside observer programme now provides, for the first time, accurate information on landings although it cannot solve the problem of unreported discards at sea.

Figure 11

Schematic representation of the annual cycle of development of the groundfish management plan (modified and updated from Tyler [1988])

Starting in 1996, a compulsory at-sea observer programme with 100% coverage was introduced for the trawler groundfish fleet. This programme has as its main objectives to assure compliance with management regulations regarding area-time closures, prompt and safe release of live halibut (which are prohibited to be landed by the trawl fishery), as well as monitoring and assessing the levels of bycatch and discard. As a result of this programme, reliability of information on discards and dumping has increased considerable for the trawl fishery (the main sector of the groundfish fishery responsible for dogfish discards). There are no at-sea observers in the hook and line fishery. All of the monitoring programmes in force, i.e. logbook, dockside monitoring, and at-sea observers, are paid for by the fishermen.

5.2.2  Evaluation of the data collection process

There are many problems of reliability with the sale slip system of data acquisition: it totally misses discards and dumping, it does not allow for spatial allocation of catches, it gives only a crude indication of effort (the number of gear deployments within the fishing trip is not recorded) and it is vulnerable to accidental or intentional misreporting.

One of the main problems of the logbook system is the widespread misreporting that is known to occur (Richards 1994). Some of the reasons for misreporting are that it simplifies the job for the skippers (amalgamation of several species under one name, amalgamation of several sets of the gear into a single event), and facilitates smuggling of overages or prohibited species. In addition to intended misreporting of kept catches, discards and dumped catches were frequently not included in the logbook although they are supposed to be recorded.

The problems of inaccurate landings data were largely alleviated with the establishment of the dockside monitoring programmes which now covers all sectors of the groundfish fishery. In a similar fashion, the problems in the assessment of the real levels of discards in the trawl fishery were largely solved by the at-sea observer programme. The only problems remaining in the assessment of discards are accuracy problems expected when estimates of fish weights must be made under at-sea and on-deck working conditions. The discards of the hook and line sector continue to be unchecked due to the lack of an at-sea observer programme for this sector.

5.2.3  Data processing and storage and accessibility

Until 1997, all data gathered through the sale slips and fishing logbooks were stored in the DFO's Groundfish Catch Statistics Data System (Leaman and Hamer 1985) which is maintained by the Groundfish Statistics and Sampling Unit of the DFO Research Branch (PBS Nanaimo). This system, which started in 1982, was run on a VAX 11/780 using a a purpose-tailored database designed by PBS personnel. All programmes were written in VAX 11 FORTRAN.

The Fisheries Research Branch has kept detailed information on trawl gear landings since 1954 and for hook and line and trap gear since 1979 (Leaman and Hamer 1985). The combination of sale slip and logbook information allows the assignment of correct species and area details for fishing trips where no information was provided on the sale slips. Because of the confidential nature of some of this information, access to the database is restricted.

Recently, a new model was sent in place for catch data acquisition and handling, which is directly linked with the recently established dockside and at-sea observer programmes. Initial data storage and statistical analysis for the in-season management of the groundfish fishery is performed by the private contractors responsible for the two observer programmes (dockside and at-sea). This system has greatly improved the real-time availability of data. The data are processed for quality control, summarized and passed to the management and research arms of DFO. This has resulted in a new statistical database for the groundfish fishery at the Research Branch of DFO. The new system was designed by PBS personnel to accommodate the new data storage needs that arose from the implementation of the at-sea observer data and to increase the flexibility and user friendliness of the database. The at-sea observer programme is generating a wealth of detailed information on a tow-by-tow basis on 100% of the trawl fleet activities. The new system uses Oracle software.

5.3  Stock assessment

5.3.1  Assessment process

Assessment of dogfish stock has not been a high priority for the Fisheries Research Branch of DFO because of the lack of importance of the fishery. The last full assessment of the stocks was done in 1987 (Saunders 1988) using the model developed specifically for dogfish by Woods et al. in 1979. “Interim” stock assessments that mostly update catch information and repeat the yield recommendations of the 1987 document have been performed yearly since. An exception were the years 1996 and 1997 when no stock assessment and yield recommendations were prepared for the PSARC meetings. This was due to downsizing in PBS personnel, the human resources available and the need to service other priorities.

While stock assessments and yield recommendations are performed separately for each of the assumed dogfish stocks (offshore and coastal), no separation is made between the Canadian and US portions of each stock. Basically the assessment considers information on catches from the two countries and gives harvest recommendations that are applicable to the total Canada and US resource.

The stock assessment model of Woods et al. (1979) is a deterministic age-structured population model incorporating information on catch, growth, maturity, and fecundity. The population biology of dogfish is relatively well known through various studies performed by PBS. The model does not incorporate abundance information, partly because few surveys cover dogfish and because commercial CPUE information for dogfish is unreliable given the unknown (but suspected large) amounts of discards and misreporting in the fishery. The approach uses a Leslie fecundity and survival matrix model to project future populations for the marketable stock (i.e. ages 16–60y). The model uses a linear density-dependent function to relate change in abundance with change in natural mortality which acts as the underlying compensation mechanism for dogfish populations. Virgin biomass estimates ranging between 240 000 – 390 000t for the marketable portion of the offshore stock and were calculated using DeLury-Leslie approaches and information on fishing success, cumulative effort and cumulative catch (Ketchen 1986). The virgin biomass of the coastal stock (assumed simply to be a certain proportion of the offshore stock) was estimated to be between 95 000 – 140 000t (Saunders 1985). Because the stock assessment procedure is poorly documented it is not possible to provide more information or critically review the stock assessment process.

The characteristics of the current dogfish fishery in BC prevent any testing of the ability of the current management system to husband the resource. If a high demand for dogfish products was to drive a strong and growing fishery, the present situation of the stocks could be different. The apparent success of the management system to conserve dogfish when many other Pacific fisheries in Canada facie multiple problems, cannot be attributed solely to the management system itself, but rather because of the lack of interest in this species. In this sense, it is fortunate that Canada is now switching the emphasis of management towards a more holistic and precautionary approach. The establishment of broader-based and more open management bodies such as the planned Conservation Council should help ensure more success in the management of dogfish if the fishery matures into a full-exploited fishery. If this happens, new stock assessment procedures will be needed, together with a better information base.

Stock assessments of the offshore stock of dogfish based on spatially discrete fishing grounds using the delay-difference model of Deriso (1980) and incorporating catch and some limited survey information suggest that there is possible depletion in only 4 out of 19 such grounds along the BC coast (Walters and Bonfil 1997). The four grounds where depletion is indicated are along the west coast of Vancouver Island, precisely the part of the offshore stock hardest hit by the recent fishery. Although this study suggests that the MSY level for the entire offshore stock of dogfish in BC waters is low, about 502t, this is mostly an outcome of the conservative estimates of standing stock biomass that were obtained solely from spatially discrete CPUE data and a conservative assumption of F_opt. An interesting feature of the assessment of Walters and Bonfil is that the model predicted higher catches in early years (data for this assessment starts in 1954) than were actually recorded for many species, especially dogfish. If so, this suggests that large discards - not reflected in the catch data took place during the early part of this period, something that is known to have occurred but which remains unmeasured. At a minimum, the modelling exercise of Walters and Bonfil shows that there are other methods that should be explored in future assessments of dogfish in BC.

5.3.2  Measures of stock abundance

The present stock assessment procedure used for dogfish does not use explicit measures of abundance. This is probably because measures of abundance are not readily available for the dogfish stocks of BC. The intermittent nature of the directed dogfish fishery in the past and the lack of reliable information on incidental dogfish catches in other fisheries has prevented the calculation of time series of reliable fishery-based abundance indices. Further, given the lack of importance of the fishery, no surveys specifically of dogfish have been done on a consistent basis.

The DFO has conducted several survey campaigns for groundfish from which fishery independent measure of dogfish abundance could be derived (Table 17). However, as yet there is no published analysis of this information. The raw data from these surveys is available through several publications of the DFO (Beamish et al. 1982, McFarlane et al. 1983, 1984, Saunders et al. 1984, Scarbrook et al. 1984, Shaw et al. 1983a, 1983b, 1986, 1987, 1989a, 1989b).

^a abundance survey;
^b biological survey;
^? unknown.

Another possible source of information on dogfish abundance are the surveys of the International Pacific Halibut Commission. The IPHC conducts yearly halibut abundance surveys in the NE Pacific coast and information on bycatches of dogfish have been recorded during some years. Sampling of associated bycatch during IPHC surveys has not been a priority and therefore there is inconsistency in the gathering of data: earlier surveys are suspected of not rigorously counting dogfish bycatches. However, some relative indices of abundance may be constructed from the available data with the advantage that they would have good spatial detail. Data of halibut surveys from IPHC are available for the period 1976–86 and a few scattered years after that, plus fairly complete data for 1993 and 1995–97 (B. Leaman, IPHC, per. comm., Feb. 1998). A shortcoming of these surveys is that dogfish catch is recorded only in numbers of fish with no record of their weight or size. Despite this, information on historical dogfish abundance could be potentially useful for aiding stock assessments specially if used alongside other abundance information.

5.3.3  Biological advice review process

Stock assessment and yield recommendation reports prepared by DFO scientists for Pacific fisheries are subject to peer review. The official peer review process is done by the Pacific Stock Assessment Review Committee (PSARC). The review process involves both internal and external reviewers who are selected by the DFO. Every year, the biological advice papers are sent to external reviewers and their comments are considered in the PSARC meeting which discusses and reviews each assessment.

PSARC is part of the DFO and has been traditionally managed entirely by the DFO. While peer review of biological advice has always been an important part of DFO's policy, it has been a closed process with input limited to external experts selected by PSARC. The final decisions and consensus over biological advice are an internal matter. Nevertheless, recent policy changes are opening the PSARC process to wider participation. Recent documents note explicitly the DFO aim for open professional review of the stock assessments and for the achievement (but not the imposition) of consensus by this review (Rice et al. 1996). As a first step, PSARC has recently accepted external papers prepared by non-DFO scientists as long as they meet the same scientific standards and quality requirements of internal DFO papers. Also, there are currently discussions among the provincial and federal governments to set up a Conservation Council that would, among other things, oversee the management of fisheries in the Pacific coast. It is expected that if the Conservation Council becomes a reality, it would assume control of the peer review process for stock assessment. Thad said, the dogfish stock assessment and yield recommendation papers have not been tabled at the PSARC for the last two years. Further, it is unknown if the assessment methods so far used for dogfish in BC, or the yield recommendations derived from the latter, have ever received any criticism or specific suggestions for change or improvement.

5.3.4  Biological management reference points

Most groundfish stocks in the Canadian Pacific have usually been managed using F- based biological reference points (F = M and F_opt for rockfishes; F_O.l for Pacific cod and flatfishes; F_O.l and F_O.5 for sablefish; Leaman 1993). However, there are no explicit biological management reference points for dogfish. From the text of the stock assessment and yield recommendation reports of DFO (Saunders, 1985, 1988, Thomson 1994, 1995), it seems that stock biomass is the tacit reference point. But, there seems to be no explicitly stated definition of what is the target stock biomass for the two dogfish stocks.

5.3.5  Sustainability of the resource

It is fairly safe to say that there has been no reason for concern over the sustainability of the dogfish resource in British Columbia for almost 50 years. As noted in Section 2, the dogfish fishery in BC has been a minor activity since the end of the vitamin A liver-oil fishery. Subsequently, there were some voiced (but questionable; see Ketchen 1969, 1986) concerns over the high abundance of dogfish and the problems this supposedly presented to other fisheries. This lead to unsuccessful attempts to reduce the size of the stock. Thus, it could be concluded that sustainability of dogfish resources was not the prime concern during the recent past.

According to the last complete stock assessment prepared for dogfish (Saunders 1988), the size of the marketable part of the offshore stock of dogfish in 1987 was around 280 000t. The MSY level for this stock was estimated to range between 15 000 and 25 000t/yr. For the coastal stock of dogfish, biomass levels in 1987 were estimated to be in the order of 60 000t, whilst MSY was estimated at around 4000–6000t/yr. Thus the total MSY for dogfish in the NW Pacific is estimated to be between 19 000 and 31 000t/yr.

5.3.6  The manager's perspective

In the manager's opinion (B. Turris, DFO, per. comm., Dec. 1997) the fishery is currently a minor and relatively issue-free activity. There are some lesser concerns over unaccounted discards (e.g. in the halibut longline fishery), the lack of full market utilisation of the resource and the catches (mainly in the trawl sector), but no reason for concern over its sustainability. Most of the stock assessment and yield recommendations of the DFO researchers usually contain explicit indications of uncertainty. In the case of dogfish, not only is uncertainty on population dynamics specifically addressed in the PSARC papers, but unusually high-risk and low-risk yield ranges are expressed for manager's consideration.

5.3.7  User's perspective

It was not possible to get views from dogfish fishermen about the management of the fishery. The Access to Information and Privacy Act of Canada prevents government from releasing confidential information about fishermen's activities, consequently it was impossible to identify who are the individual fishermen directly involved in, and heavily dependent on, the dogfish fishery. However, given the high TAC's issued by DFO for over 20 years relative to the catches that are landed (see Table 16, Section 4.2.6), it is doubtful that there are serious complaints about the management system at this time.

5.3.8  Evaluation of the management process

The present environment of fisheries management in the Pacific coast of Canada seems to remain relatively centralised, closed, and under too much control by the DFO. Although there are several venues for stakeholders to participate in the management process, the final word remains that of the manager and ultimately the Minister of Fisheries. Industry has official representation in the advisory committees (GTAC/GHLAC) where their points of view and concerns are considered. Industry is often welcomed to share their knowledge for the planning and implementation of data gathering programmes, and for the review of stock assessment. However, there is still a lack of independent management bodies with wider representation (provincial government, independent academics/experts, conservation or public opinion groups, etc.). Fortunately, awareness of the need for change seems to be growing and several initiatives (e.g. the changes in PSARC and the possible implementation of a Conservation Council in the near future) could lead to a better management process.

6.  FISHERY MANAGEMENT REGULATIONS

6.1  The regulations

The dogfish fishery in BC is managed through regulations aimed mostly at the two groundfish sectors, trawl and hook and line. The only regulations directly related to dogfish are the TAC's and their allocation between the two fleets. There are no closed seasons for dogfish, and the few area closures in place for the groundfish fishery are aimed at preventing technological conflict among fisheries and the protection of certain weak stocks of other fishery resources. There are no size limit regulations for dogfish.

Most of the Strait of Georgia is permanently closed to bottom trawl fishing. Trawls - either bottom or mid-water - must have a mesh size of at least 76mm in all parts of the net including the codend. In addition, in some parts of the Strait of Georgia, the mesh size of bottom trawl nets must be no less than 108mm in the final 50 meshes including codend. In the Hecate Strait and eastern Dixon Entrance areas, the minimum mesh size in the last 100 meshes including codend is 140mm. There are no gear restrictions for any of the hook and line gears(longline, troll, handlines).

Another means of regulating the fishery is through fishing licence conditions. These set rules on matters such as type and size of gear that can be used, species allowed to be fished, trip limits (number of trips/month/year and/or catch ceiling/trip) during the fishing season, transport and transshipment requirements, information to be kept or reported by the fishing master at the beginning, during and at the end of each trip, authorised locations (ports) for the landing of fish, and methods for unloading, weighing and observer verification at landing points. However, it is beyond the scope of this study to detail the licence conditions for the two groundfish fishery sectors, which are several sheets long.

6.2  Regulations and the communication process

Some of the regulations for the fishery are gazetted in the various management plans and licence conditions that are prepared every year. However, there is no appraisal of the balance between gazetted regulations and legally biding rules or laws. The DFO has a permanent programme of enforcement for all fisheries. Fishery officers conduct checks on landing points, processing plants, fishing vessels, restaurants and fish buyers. There are also at-sea checks using coastguard vessels and overflights. In addition, the DFO requests the public's cooperation to report fishing regulations violations while assuring anonymity and confidentiality to those who do. The most recent improvements in enforcement are the at-sea and dockside monitoring programmes undertaken by an independent private contractor. These programmes offer 100% coverage at sea for the trawl fleet but none of the hook and line fleet, and 100% dockside coverage of all sectors of the groundfish fishery. Licence disputes are handled by the Pacific Region Licence Appeal Board. Other types of disputes, such as allocation or management issues can be appealed directly to the Minister by writing (B. Turris, pers. comm. March 1998).

7.  THE LAW AND ENFORCEMENT

7.1  Legal status

All fishery resources in Canada are considered common property. The DFO (a Federal Government department) has the mandate and legal power to manage these resources. The Province of British Columbia has its own Fisheries Act and regulations relating to issues of landing, handling, processing, recording catch, etc., once fish are landed and as they are processed. The DFO fishery officers are empowered under these statues as well as federal statutes.

Open access to groundfish (including dogfish) stopped in BC with the implementation of limited-entry licences (in 1976 for the trawl fleet and 1993 for the hook and line fleet) and more recently with the move towards the IVQ system currently in place for the trawl fleet and in the planning/discussion phase for the hook and line sector. Thus while all fishery resources in Canada belong to the people of Canada, the IVQ system actually provides access privileges rather than permanent ownership of the resource.

7.2  Enforcement problems

The groundfish fishery, especially the trawl sector, used to be plagued by enforcement problems, e.g. illegal fishing out of season, or in closed areas, misreporting catch location, fishing for prohibited species, taking catches beyond the TAC, large levels of discards, and dumping of unmarketable species. However, many of these problems are now under control with the recently established user-paid at-sea observer programme and its land-based counterpart, the dockside monitoring programme.

Large amounts of discards of dogfish that were not recorded or accounted for used to be common in the trawl fishery. This has ceased to be a problem of lack of information, as the at-sea observer programme provides quite reliable estimates of the levels of discard. However, due to the recent implementation of these programmes the information on dogfish discards has not yet been analysed and the magnitude of the problem remains to be assessed.

7.3  Surveillance

Dockside monitoring programmes exist for both sectors of the groundfish fishery. Dockside monitoring of the trawl groundfish fishery began in 1994, but this system was not adopted for the hook and line sector until 1995–97. During 1997, the hook and line dockside monitoring programme was expanded to include dogfish landings, so better quality data are expected from that point on. There are at-sea observers (100% coverage) since 1987 for all foreign fisheries in Pacific Canada and the local trawl fishery for groundfish has had a compulsory at-sea observer programme (100% coverage) since 1996.

The two mandatory observer programmes operate under full cost-recovery, i.e. they are user-paid programmes. The estimated cost of the dockside monitoring programme for the trawl fishery is 700 000/yr, while the at-sea observer programme has a cost of $CAN2.7 million/yr (1997 figures). There is considerable discontent among the trawl fleet over the total cost of the observer programme, however this policy is rational from business and economic efficiency perspectives.

7.4  The legal process

Canada has a criminal enforcement system only; Acts, Regulations and licence conditions are the only basis for enforcement at present (S. Hahn, DFO, per. comm. April 1998). This means that non-compliance may only be addressed through criminal prosecution, with the entailed delays, costs of prosecution, and possible doubt going in favour of the accused. There is always a strict burden of proof on the Crown to prove beyond doubt the guilt of a party because conviction could result in the loss of freedom through incarceration of an individual in addition to financial penalties.

The criminal penalties for conviction of an offence under the (Federal) Fisheries Act are (as per Section 78 of the Act): $Can100 000 for first offense, and possible encarceration for up to one year for subsequent offenses. The Act also sets out the possibility of proceeding by indictment, i.e. trial by judge and jury. Most fisheries proceedings are summary conviction proceedings unless they are an extremely serious infraction or for a multiple offender. Indictable procedures allow for penalties of up to $Can500 000. Violations by foreign fishing vessels under the Coastal Fisheries Protection Act have a maximum $Can300 000 penalty. Most fines for groundfish offences are in the range of 1000 to 6000 and always forfeiture of illegal catch (S. Hahn, DFO, per. comm. April 1998). Unfortunately, there is no authority at present to suspend licences unless there is a conviction first. If the charge is unlicensed fishing, and no licence is involved, there is nothing to suspend, even if the fisher was using his commercial boat with another licence (eg: a Salmon licence) to illegally take groundfish. Licence revocation is the most effective tool available, but it is one that the DFO is limited in being able to use without an administrative tribunal system.

8.  MANAGEMENT SUCCESS

There is little information, e.g. economic studies of the dogfish fishery, as to whether the dogfish fishery is profitable. The little that can be deduced indicates that given the constrains outlined above, the fishery should generate relatively low incomes and small margins of profit. Most fishermen participating in the dogfish fishery do so only on a part-time basis and specific information about those few fully dependent on dogfish is unavailable. Further, such information when in the possession of the DFO, is difficult to obtain due to confidentiality concerns and the restrictions Access to Information and Privacy Act.

9.  MANAGEMENT COSTS

Given that the dogfish fishery management is part of the larger groundfish fishery, the costs of management are minimal. Nevertheless, the costs of management for the groundfish fishery as a whole must be fairly large. Unfortunately, this type of information is unavailable. If the dogfish fishery grows in importance, the needs for data gathering, improved stock assessment and more specific management will grow substantially. Given the recent trends in Canadian fisheries management, it is expected that these increased costs will be borne mostly by those directly involved in the exploitation of the resource.

10.  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank for their assistance and information-sharing, the following people: Bud Graham, Sue Hahn, Suzanne Spohn, Lauren Gagnon, Rick Stanley, Gordon McFarlane, Mark Saunders and Barry Ackerman of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada; Bruce Turris, of Pacific Fisheries Management Inc.; David Smith and Jennifer Carson from the BC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food: Shawn Stebbins of Archipelago Marine Research Ltd., and Bruce Leaman of the International Pacific Halibut Commission. Sincere thanks are also due to Alina Yuhymets and Hreidar Valtysson for assistance in the preparation of some of the tables and figures. Alasdair Beattie gave very useful comments on particular aspects of the BC groundfish fishery.

11.  REFERENCES

Alverson, D. L., A. T. Pruter, and L.L. Ronholt 1964. A study of demersal fishes and fisheries of the Northeastern Pacific Ocean. H.R. MacMillan Lectures in Fisheries. Institute of Fisheries. The University of British Columbia. Vancouver. 190pp.

Anon 1979. Feasibility study of Europac Seafoods Ltd. Dogfish processing plant. 27pp.

Barraclough, W. E. 1948. Measures of abundance in dogfish (Squalus suckleyi). Trans. R. Soc. Can. 3(42):37–43

Beamish, R.J., G.A. McFarlane, K.R., Weir, M.S. Smith, J.R. Scarsbrook, A.J. Cass, and C. Wood 1982. Observations on the biology of Pacific hake, walleye pollock, and spiny dogfish in the Strait of Georgia, Juan de Fuca Strait, and off the west coast of Vancouver Island. Arctic Harvester July 13–29, 1976. Can. Manuser. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1982 No 1651. 155pp.

Bonfil. R. 1994. Overview of world elasmobranch fisheries. FAO Fish. Tech. Paper 341.FAO, Rome, 119pp.

Bonfil, R, and M.W. Saunders 1997. British Columbian spiny dogfish stocks are doing fine. Shark News 9, p.13.

Canada 1985. Economic growth. Natural resources. Natural resources programme: from crisis to opportunity. A study team report to the task force on programme review. 155pp.

Clayton, L. W .E. 1995. A British Columbia dogfish fishery quality control and product development initiative. British Columbia Dogfish Association. Lantzville, B.C. 81pp.

Compagno, L.J.V. 1990. Shark exploitation and conservation. pp. 391–414. In: H.L. Pratt Jr., S.H. Gruber, and T. Taniuchi, (eds.) Elasmobranchs as living resources: advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of fisheries. NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 90.

Compagno, L.J.V. 1984. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Parts 1 and 2. FAO Fish. Synop. (125) Vol. 4:1–655.

Deriso, R.C. 1980. Harvesting strategies and parameter estimation for an age-structured model. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37:268–282pp.

Fargo, J., and R. Kronlund in press. Flatfish stock assessments for the west coast of Canada for 1996 and recommended yield options for 1997. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci.

Holland, G. A. 1957. Migration and growth of the dogfish shark, Squalus acanthias (Linnaeus) of the Eastern North Pacific. Wash. Dep. Fish., Res. Pap. 2(1): 43–59pp.

Jay, C.D. 1996. Distribution of bottom-trawl fish assemblages over the continental shelf and upper slope of the U.S. west coast, 1977–1992. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53:1203–1225

Jones, B.C., and G.H. Geen 1977. Food and feeding of spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) in British Columbian waters. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34: 2067–2078

Ketchen, K.S. 1969. A review of the dogfish problem off the west coast of Canada. Fish. Res. Board Can. MS Rep. 1048: 25pp.

Ketchen, K.S. 1986. The spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) in the Northeast Pacific and a history of its utilization. Can. Spec. Pub. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 88. 78pp.

Larkin, P.A. 1977. An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 106 (11): 1–11pp.

Leaman, B.M. 1993. Reference points for fisheries management: The western Canadian experience. pp. 15–30. in: Smith, S.J., Hunt, J.J., and Rivard, D. (eds). Risk evaluation and biological reference points for fisheries management Can.-Spec.-Publ.-Fish.-Aquat.- Sci. 120.

Leaman. J.E. and J.M. Hamer 1985. User's guide to the groundfish catch statistics data system of the fisheries research branch, Pacific region. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1395. 31pp.

McFarlane, G.A., R.J. Beamish, M.W. Saunders, M.S. Smith, and T. Butler 1984. Data for the biology and diet studies of spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) in Hecate Strait, BC. August 1977 and June 1978. Can. Data Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1984 No 443. 413pp.

McFarlane, G.A., W.R. Shaw, and R.J. Beamish 1983. Observations on the biology of Pacific hake, walleye pollock, and spiny dogfish in the Strait of Georgia. February 20-May 2 and July 3, 1981. Can. Manuscr. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1983 No 1722. 115pp.

Parsons, L.S. 1993. Management of marine fisheries in Canada. Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 225. 763pp.

Rice, J.C., and L.J. Richards 1996. A framework for reducing implementation uncertainty in fisheries management. N. Am. J. Fish. Manag. 16: 488–494pp.

Rice, J., R.D. Humphreys, L. Richards, R. Kadowaki, D. Welch, M. Stocker, B. Turris, G.A. McFarlane, F. Dickson, and D. Ware (eds.) 1995. Pacific Stock Assessment Review Committee (PSARC) annual report for 1994. Can. Man. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2318: 404pp.

Rice, J., B. Leaman, L. Richards, R.J. Beamish, G.A. McFarlane, and G. Thomas (eds.). 1996. Pacific Stock Assessment Review Committee (PSARC) Annual Report for 1995. Can. MS. Rep. Fish. Aquat Sci. 2383: 242 pp.

Richards, I.J. 1994. Trip limits, catch, and effort in the British Columbia rockfish trawl fishery. N Am. J.Fish. Manag. 14:742–750pp.

Richards, I.J. and N. Olsen 1996. Slope rockfish stock assessment for the West coast of Canada in 1996 and recommended yields for 1997. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci.. 91pp.

Roedel, P.H. and W.M.E. Ripley 1950. California sharks and rays. State of California Department of Natural Resources. Division of Fish and Game. Fish Bulletin No. 75.

Salsbury, J. 1986. Spiny dogfish in Canada. Can. Indus. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 169: 57pp.

Saunders, M.W. 1985. Dogfish. Pp. 211–226. In Tyler A.V. and G.A. McFarlane (ed.). Groundfish stock assessment for the West Coast of Canada in 1984 and recommended yield options for 1985. Can. MS Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1813: 353pp.

Saunders, M.W. 1988. Dogfish. Pp. 151–158. In Fargo, J., M.W. Saunders, and A.V. Tyler (ed.). Groundfish stock assessment for the West Coast of Canada in 1987 and recommended yield options for 1988. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1617: 304pp.

Saunders, M.W. 1997. British Columbia shark fisheries, management and research. Paper presented at the Eastern Pacific Ocean Regional Strategy Development Workshop for the Conservation and Management of Sharks. Monterey, California, 8–9 December 1997. Unpublished paper.

Saunders, M.W., G.A. McFarlane, and M.S. Smith 1984. Abundance, distribution, and biology of spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) in Hecate Strait during Sept 7-Oct 1, 1982. Can. MS. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1984 No 1754. 165pp.

Scarsbrook, J.R., W. Shaw, and G.A. McFarlane. 1984. Hake and pollock study, Strait of Georgia cruise. R/V G.B. Reed, December 1–12, 1975. Can. Fish. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1984 No 430. 9pp.

Shaw, W., R.D. Davenport, and G.A. McFarlane 1987. Biological survey of Pacific hake, walleye pollock and spiny dogfish in the Strait of Georgia. R/V G.B. Reed, March 18–29, 1985. Can. Data Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1987 No 656. 91pp.

Shaw, W., R.G.A. McFarlane, and R.J. Beamish 1983a An examination of the biology and distribution of Pacific hake, walleye pollock and spiny dogfish in the Strait of Georgia. R/V G.B. Reed, May 25-June 18, 1976. Can. Manuser. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1983 No 1697. 245pp.

Shaw, W., R.G.A. McFarlane, and R.J. Beamish 1983b. Biological study of Pacific hake, walleye pollock and spiny dogfish in the Strait of Georgia. R/V G.B. Reed, March 22-April 2, 1976. Can. Data. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1983 No 398. 80pp.

Shaw, W., R.G.A. McFarlane, and S.E. MacLellan 1986. Biological survey of Pacific hake, walleye pollock and spiny dogfish in the Strait of Georgia. R/V G.B. Reed, March19–30, 1984. Can. Data Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1986 No 590.99pp.

Shaw, W., R. Tanasichuk, D.M. Ware, and G.A. McFarlane 1989a. Biological and species interaction survey of Pacific hake, sablefish, spiny dogfish and Pacific herring off the southwest coast of Vancouver Island. August 1987. Can. Manuscr, Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1989 No 2027. 155pp.

Shaw, W., R. Tanasichuk, D.M. Ware, and G.A. McFarlane 1989b. Species interaction and biological survey of Pacific hake, sablefish, spiny dogfish and Pacific herring off the southwest coast of Vancouver Island. F/V Caledonian, August 12–25, 1986. Can. Manuscr. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1989 No 2021. 138pp.

Stewart, H. 1982. Indian fishing: early methods on the north west coast. University of Washington Press. Seattle. 181pp.

Thomson, B.L. 1994. Spiny dogfish. pp. 321–333. in Stocker, M. and J. Fargo (eds.). Groundfish Stock Assessments for the west coast of Canada in 1994 and recommended yield options for 1995. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2069.

Thomson, B.L. 1995. Spiny dogfish. PSARC Working Paper G95-7. DFO, Pacific Biological Station. Nanaimo BC. 17pp.

Tyler, A.V. 1988. Biological basis for management of groundfish resources of the west coast of Canada pp. 218–234. In W.S. Wooster (ed) Fishery science and management: objectives and limitations. Springer Verlag.

Walters, C.J., and R. Bonfil 1997. Multispecies spatial assessment models for the B.C. trawl fishery. Fisheries Centre. University of British Columbia. 3pp.

Wood, C.C., K.S. Ketchen, and R.J. Beamish 1979. Population dynamics of spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) in British Columbia waters. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 36: 647–646pp.