This report presents the findings of a 10-day study on non-wood forest products (NWFP) in Ethiopia. The main objective of this short assignment was to compile data and information on the dominant NWFP in Ethiopia (honey, wax, gums and resins, etc) where there is relatively limited but organized data.
The study mainly depended on the review of existing published and unpublished literature, visits to a number of organizations, such as the Biodiversity Conservation and Research Institute, Beekeeping Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture, Gum and Incense Production and Marketing Enterprise and a number of private sector organizations which are active in the production and marketing of NWFP.
It should, however, be noted that because of the short duration of the assignment and the fact that no provision was made for travel outside of Addis Ababa, important institutions, such as the Holletta Bee Research and Training Center (which is some 45 km outside of Addis) and the Aromatic Plants Processing and Utilization Center (some 15 km) and the Regional Bureaux of Agriculture could not be visited. It should also be noted that most of the data and information exist at regional level. During the past administration, the regions were obliged to report to the central government about their activities. Since the change of government in 1991 and the subsequent establishment of regional self-governments, reporting to the federal Ministry of Agriculture has virtually stopped. The Regional Agricultural Bureaux only report to their Regional Council.
The information base on NWFP in Ethiopia is non-existent or at best weak. There is no single national or regional organization responsible for the collection, study and documentation of NWFP resources in the country.
Owing to its varied ecological and climatic conditions, Ethiopia is home to some of the most diverse flora and fauna in Africa. Its forests and woodlands contain diverse plant species that provide surplus nectar and pollen to foraging bees. The forests, woodlands and cultivated lands also provide as much as 75 to 90 percent of Ethiopia's rural population's requirements for traditional medicine especially medicinal plants for their primary health care. There are a large number of non-wood forest products including ginger, cinnamon, cardamum, etc., the production and consumption of which is not documented.
Ethiopia's wide climatic and edaphic variability have endowed this country with diverse and unique flowering plants, thus making it highly suitable for sustaining a large number of bee colonies and the long established practice of beekeeping. Nevertheless, the bees and the plants they depend on, like all renewable natural resources, are constantly under threat from lack of knowledge and appreciation of these endowments.
There is an ancient tradition for beekeeping in Ethiopia which stretches back into the millennia of the country's early history. It is an important activity for many rural people - both men and women - and is also carried out in homegardens and even houses in all parts of the country. There is no nationality in Ethiopia which doesn't have beekeepers and for some, beekeeping, and the collection and selling of honey and other bee products, is a major economic activity.
The density of hives on the land may be the highest, at the present moment, of any country in the African continent. There are an estimated 10 million bee colonies, out of which about 7.5 million are confined in hives and the remaining exist in the forest and crevices. In the western part of Ethiopia, there are beekeepers who own up to one thousand bee colonies. They do not count the number of hives any more, but only the number of tree on which the hives are hanging.
Ethiopia, having the highest number of bee colonies and surplus honey sources of flora, is the leading producer of honey and beeswax in Africa. On a world level, Ethiopia is fourth in beeswax and tenth in honey production. Honey and beeswax also play a big role in the cultural and religious life of the people of the country.
Total estimated honey production for Ethiopia as indicated by the International Trade Center (ITC) 1986, ranges from 19,400 - 21,000 tones per annum between the years 1976-1983. This contributed 23.28% to the total African honey production and 2.03% to the total world production in 1976. This went up to 23.58% and 2.13% for the total African and world honey production, respectively in the year 1983. Furthermore, there has been an increased production of honey over the period 1984-1994, i.e., from 21,480 tones in 1984 to 23,700 tones in 1994 (FAO, 1995).
The current honey production is estimated at 24,600 tones per year. The estimate is based on a 65% and 75% occupational efficiency of 7.5 million traditional hives and 20 thousand framed hives respectively.
Another valuable hive product obtained from honeybees is beeswax. It is largely collected from traditional hives rather than the moveable frame hives. The wax yield from traditional hives is 8 - 10 percent of the honey yield, compared to 0.5 - 2 percent from frame hives. The annual production of wax is estimated at 3,200 tones. This estimate is without considering much of the beeswax produced in remote areas where it is usually wasted. Thus, after China, Mexico and Turkey, Ethiopia is the fourth largest wax producing country with an estimated 3,000 tones per annum.
Honey is almost exclusively used for local consumption, to a very large extent for the brewing of mead, also called tej,-while a considerable proportion of wax is exported. Even though honey satisfies local demand, it is so crude that it will not compete in the international market. To this effect, an average of 3,000 tones per annum has been exported to neighbouring countries over the years 1984-1994 (Table 1).
Table 1. Export of honey (1984-1994)
year |
Honey (tone) |
Value in Birr |
1984 |
18.4 |
109,161 |
1985 |
5.9 |
44,422 |
1986 |
0.306 |
1,885 |
1987 |
0.563 |
4,382 |
1988 |
3.8 |
45,845 |
1989 |
0.825 |
6,289 |
1990 |
1.2 |
7,365 |
1991 |
N.A |
N.A |
1992 |
0.220 |
1,810 |
1993 |
0.859 |
14,759 |
1994 |
1.44 |
24,759 |
TOTAL |
33,513 |
260,677 |
Average |
3,05 |
23,697 |
Source: Ministry of Trade and Industry, Annual External Trade Statistics, 1984-1994.
Ethiopia is one of the five biggest wax exporters to the world market. An average of 270 tones was exported per year over the period 1984-1994 which in turn generated over ETH Birr 2 million per annum to the national economy (Table 2). Currently, the annual turn-over of the apicultural industry varies between 185 and 450 million ETH Birr. Exports only account for 5 million Birr of this large total. Almost the entire production is achieved by means of traditional beehives, comprising a wide range of some times very sophisticated models.
Table 2. Export of beeswax (1984-1993)
year |
Wax (tone) |
Value in Birr |
1984 |
756 |
5,260,000 |
1985 |
229 |
1,632,000 |
1986 |
134 |
939,000 |
1987 |
210 |
1,416,000 |
1988 |
373 |
2,483,000 |
1989 |
325 |
1,483,000 |
1990 |
215 |
1,458,000 |
1991 |
102 |
689,000 |
1992 |
130 |
1,328,540 |
1993 |
229.44 |
4,049,884 |
TOTAL |
2073 |
20,738,424 |
Average |
270.34 |
2,073,842 |
Source: Ministry of Trade and Industry, Annual External Trade Statistics, 1984-1993.
Although the annual production of both honey and wax is large compared to other African countries, the system of production commonly exercised in the country is traditional. Productivity of honeybees is very low and only an average of 5-6 kg of honey could be cropped per hive per year. However, in areas where improved technology has been introduced, an average of 15-20 kg/hive/year has been recorded.
The major constraints that affect apiculture in Ethiopia are lack of beekeeping knowledge, shortage of trained manpower, shortage of beekeeping equipment, pests and predators and inadequate research works to support development programmes.
The principal resource base for beekeeping has, however, become seriously degraded in the course of time. The potential of the Ethiopian landscape for honey and wax production does now, undoubtedly, only constitute a small fraction of its former wealth. Moreover, the destruction of the remaining resource-base can be observed going on at a steadily accelerating pace. This unfortunate development is being checked, and even reversed, in some areas by the active planting of nectar-yielding vegetation. The large Eucalyptus plantations that have sprung up in some localities constitute a new and compensatory honey resource. In many places the beekeepers themselves have endeavoured to redress the situation by planting good honey plants near their hive colonies, such as Vernonia amygdalina, Salvia spp.
Despite such local improvements, which in some places are spectacular, there can nevertheless be little doubt that the national beekeeping resource-base, looking at the country as a whole, is deteriorating at an alarming pace at the present moment. This deterioration can be expected to continue accelerating unless some major changes are brought about in general land use.
As a matter of fact, immense tracts of denuded land, in particular on the highlands north of Addis Ababa, have already ceased to present any worth while potential for beekeeping.
Deterioration of this sort does not only present an inconvenience to eventual consumers of honey and wax, and to those who might have benefited from getting an extra income from beekeeping. It can also be assumed to have deleterious effects on the successful growing of crops and fodder plants that require pollination by bees as e.g. noug, rapeseed, flax, sunflower, clover, etc. Pollination, it should be added in this context, may naturally be ensured also by wild bees or by other insects, butterflies, certain fly species, etc. However, it can be assumed that the numbers of all efficient pollinators is declining, together with the deterioration of the nectar resource base.
Wild bees are already known to be much fewer than they were previously. In addition to the food resource on which they depend having become scarce, they find it increasingly more difficult to locate suitable hollows in old trees for establishing colonies, and are in many areas now confined to rock-crevices.
As mentioned earlier, beekeeping in Ethiopia is a traditional exercise carried out in all areas where human beings are settled. Forest beekeeping and backyard beekeeping are common cultural practices of many farmers. Honey collection from wild colonies in forests and crevices is also common to honey hunters found in extreme south-western, southern and north-western parts of the country. Traditional hives made of bark, climber, cow dung, bamboo, etc., are some of the hives used for decades. But not only is the honey yield obtained low but also the quality is inferior.
It was in 1978 that beekeeping extension started in the country. Many efforts were made since that time which include training, introduction of new technologies, production and distribution of equipment and institutional capacity building. These are briefly discussed below.
Great attention has been given to train extension workers and farmers in apiculture so that they acquire better beekeeping knowledge and develop skills that would enable them to improve the backward bee culture and increase the production of honey and beeswax. The Holletta Beekeeping Station (which is currently upgraded to Bee Research and Training Center) has been responsible for beekeeping training in the country. The Agarfa Farmers Training Center is also involved in the training of farmers. A total 873 extension staff and over 50,000 farmers have been trained over the last two decades from the above institutions.
Considerable effort has been made to introduce movable frame hive technology to the country for better management of bees, to boost the yield both in quantity and quality and to exploit the natural plant resources that would otherwise be wasted. The adoption of this technology has shown significant improvement in the management of hives, bees and production of honey and wax. Intermediate or low cost beekeeping technology was recently introduced and has been tested in certain agroecological zones. Results have shown that better quality honey and beeswax could be harvested from intermediate hives but, with little increase of yield from that of the traditional hives.
At the national level, the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) is responsible for the overall development of apiculture in the country. The Holletta Bee Research and Training Center, the Assela and Agarfa Farmers Training Centres are involved in the production of trained manpower and beekeeping extension activities. Following the establishment of the Regional National States, the Regional Agricultural Bureau of the respective regional states took over the responsibility of the sectoral development. Other institutions involved in the development programme are the Wondo Genet College of Forestry, Ethiopia Children Ama, and development corporations such as Coffee and Tea Development Enterprises and State Farms Corporation.
Although the Holletta Bee Research and Training Center has no mandate to conduct basic research, it is the only institution that undertakes adaptive and applied apicultural research works. The research conducted so far encompasses improving the quality of hive products, identifying honeybee races and honeybee flora, survey and diagnosis of honeybee diseases, pests and predators. No other agricultural research institutes, universities and colleges have started research works in the country.
Exudates of the gum type, i.e., water soluble carbohydrates, are obtained from a considerable number of Ethiopian shrubs and trees, partly by active tapping and partly by simple collection of gum that occasionally "oozes" from some tree species without any need of human interference.
Since time immemorial, the aroma of incense smoke constitutes a striking feature of religious rituals in many countries. Within some cultures, incense is furthermore used to add a very special element of beauty to private homes and other places where people like to congregate in a pleasant atmosphere.
The gum-yielding species of Ethiopia are confined almost exclusively to low-lying areas, subjected to hot and arid conditions. With the exception of the provinces of Illubabor and Kefa, woodland and shrub forest, with a potential for gum products, is encountered in all provinces and the areas where some sort of gum is, or could be, produced account for about half of the national land surface. However, these areas are the least inhabited parts of the country. Hardly any gum at all is found on the highlands or on well-watered locations at medium elevation.
Because of present day market importance, the following species appear to play a significant role:
Boswellia papyrifera, yielding frankincense, also called olibanum Tigray type is found in large amounts in Tigray, Gondar, Wollega and Gojjam provinces and thinly spread in Wello and Shewa. Boswellia ogadensis, yielding a similar produce, is commonly found in Hararghe, Bale and Sidamo, and on a smaller scale in Gamu Gofa.
However, the most important species in Sidamo, in this particular category, is Bosellia rivae (possibly also known as B.carteri) yielding the southern variety of fraincense, also called black incense. The same species on a small scale is also encountered in Gamo Gofa.
True gum arabic is obtained from Acacia senegal, which only seems to occur in significant amounts in the provinces of Gojjam and Gondar along the Sudan border. A lower grade produce, also sold under the name of gum arabic, is obtained from Acacia seyal, a species which occurs widely in the Rift valley depression, especially on sites subjected to annual water logging.
A gum of relatively low quality is also obtained from a low shrub, Acacia drepanolobium which occurs in the southern-most part of the country.
A third valuable gum is Myrrh, may be the most highly valued incense of all. It is obtained from a small shrub Commiphora myrrh which principally is found in Ogaden, Bale and Sidamo. The predominant product, market-wise, of these various gums is frankincense, which during recent years has accounted for about 80% of total output. Most of the production originates from the north-western part of the country, Tigray and Gondar in particular. Second in importance is gum arabic with around 14% of production, while myrrh occupies third position with 6%.
Reliable data on the production and utilization of the gum products of Ethiopia at national level is not available, simply because the regional self-governments no longer report to the central Government.
While the national average annual output during the period 1978-91 exceeds 1500 tons, much higher figures are registered for the seasons 83/84 and 84/85 i.e., 3,500 tons and 4,200 tons respectively.
Since 1992, production has levelled to over 2000 tones per annum. The increase in production is attributed to the entrance in the business of the private sector particularly the Guna Trading House Pvt. Ltd and Sihul Project Company. Together with the Natural Gum Production and Marketing Enterprise (a Government parastatal), these companies are especially active in one of the leading producers of gum/olibanum resin in Ethiopia, Tigray National Regional State. Table 3 below shows the production of natural gum/olibanum in the Tigray Region for the period 1992 - 1997.
Table 3. Gum/olibanum production in Tigray regional state (1992-1997)
Production /quintal/year | |||||||
Organization |
Product |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 |
Olibanum |
- |
6000 |
40000 |
33000 |
7500 |
- | |
Guna Trading House |
N. Gum |
- |
855 |
2250 |
2800 |
- |
- |
NGPME |
Olibanum |
16000 |
53000 |
- |
- |
9200 |
7000 |
Sihul Project Company |
Olibanum |
- |
5050 |
4000 |
2842 |
5600 |
10000 |
Total |
16000 |
64905 |
46251 |
38642 |
22300 |
17000 | |
Source: Offices of the above three Organizations, 1997.
Marketing involves the flow of gum/olibanum resin from the producers (enterprises, groups, individuals) to the consumers (domestic and export trade, consumption by households and religious institutions) through intermediaries (enterprises, wholesalers and retailers).
The economic importance of gum and olibanum as raw materials in the manufacture of varnish, laxative, essential oils, perfume, chewing gum, etc., is well documented. More importantly, it is one of the top employment generating activities in the remotest parts of Ethiopia. Table 4 below shows the number of seasonal workers employed in tapping, collection and processing in the Tigray Regional State during the period 1992-1997.
Table 4. Number of seasonal workers involved in collection and processing of gum/olibanum resin in Tigray region (1992-1997).
Type of Work |
Number of seasonal workers | ||||||
Organization |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 | |
Tapping |
- |
860 |
4562 |
4200 |
3500 |
2000 | |
Guna Trading House |
Grading |
- |
25 |
1050 |
3575 |
- |
- |
NGPME |
grading |
666 |
1000 |
1000 |
200 |
380 |
290 |
Tapping |
2000 |
6625 |
- |
- |
1150 |
875 | |
Tapping |
- |
630 |
500 |
355 |
700 |
1250 | |
Sihul Project Company |
Grading |
- |
210 |
166 |
118 |
233 |
416 |
Total |
2666 |
9350 |
7278 |
8548 |
6763 |
4831 | |
Source: Offices of the above three Organizations, 1997.
At national level, the number of seasonal workers engaged in tapping and grading is estimated to range between 20,000 - 30,000 per year.
In addition, it is a very important source of income for most rural people. The price paid for collectors on the sites and cleaners/sorters in the main stores is as follows: collectors receive 155 ETH. Birr per quintal while collectors get Birr 110, 90, 70, 50, and 30, per quintal for grades 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively.
About 1,500 tons of gums and incense are sold annually through official trading channels, nearly 50 percent of the produce is exported. The demand for incense exceeds the supply, and the prices are increasing. Table 5 provides the volume of sales in both domestic and export markets.
Table 5. Domestic and Foreign Sales in Eth. Birr (1979-1997)
Domestic sales |
Export | |||
Year |
volume |
value |
volume |
value |
1979 |
2701 |
607335 |
822 |
367489 |
1980 |
5990 |
2179511 |
2082 |
726667 |
1981 |
8103 |
2205331 |
8362 |
3169233 |
1982 |
9740 |
3141839 |
10430 |
3854400 |
1983 |
8281 |
2116628 |
19042 |
6829153 |
1984 |
7132 |
2540453 |
9791 |
3937549 |
1985 |
9130 |
3944211 |
9985 |
3761414 |
1986 |
13975 |
4343400 |
7700 |
4671118 |
1987 |
10844 |
4660900 |
6634 |
3115149 |
1988 |
9239 |
3908000 |
7708 |
3366000 |
1989 |
11030 |
5551400 |
7259 |
3057000 |
1990 |
5358 |
2775000 |
1903 |
1174000 |
1991 |
1028 |
5480000 |
1170 |
847000 |
1992 |
5409 |
2852165 |
560 |
373520 |
1993 |
11880 |
6843000 |
3949 |
5522000 |
1994 |
12061 |
5124000 |
13256 |
11530000 |
1995 |
4875 |
7002000 |
11103 |
10165000 |
1996 |
22456 |
7141000 |
7189 |
10846597 |
1997 |
11654 |
4545900 |
19780 |
16465300 |
Total |
22456 |
76962073 |
148725 |
93778589 |
Source: Offices of the above three Organizations, 1997.
As indicated earlier, olibanum resin is burnt in most households consuming about 5-10 grams per day on average. The total domestic consumption can be estimated using the total household number of 9 million in the country. Similarly, the consumption of churches (an estimated 35,000 churches exist in Ethiopia) is estimated to be about 1.5 quintal per church per year.
Currently olibanum is sold locally at Birr 4 per kilo, depending on the grade, and about Birr 10 per kilo for exports by wholesalers. The retail price to the consumer is usually between Birr 15-25 per kilogram depending on the quality.
Table 6 presents the current market price of gum/olibanum resin, while tables 7 and 8 show prices from producer to the three enterprises and prices from the three enterprises to wholesalers.
Table 6. Current market price per quintal of gum/olibanum resin
N0 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 | |
I |
EXPORT |
|||
black grezo |
- |
360.91 |
455.60 | |
1st grade Tigray type incense |
1331 |
1329.30 |
1340 | |
2nd grade " " ' |
1046 |
1044.45 |
1038.50 | |
3rd grade " " " |
919 |
917.85 |
871 | |
Gum Humera Type |
1902 |
1899 |
670 | |
Gum Harar/Sidamo type |
1204 |
1202.90 |
603 | |
Gum seyal |
667 |
664.65 |
||
II |
DOMESTIC PRICE |
|||
1st grade Tigray type incense |
- |
850 |
762 | |
4th special " " ' |
575 |
570 |
540 | |
4th grade regular incense |
450 |
450 |
430 | |
5th grade " " " |
200 |
200 |
200 | |
Ogaden regular incense |
900 |
800 |
400 | |
Borena regular incense |
800 |
300 |
210 | |
Gum Harar/Sidamo |
1204 |
1138 |
670 | |
Gum Gumero |
697 |
800 |
603 |
Source: Natural Gum Production and Marketing Enterprise (NGPME), 19972
Table 7. Domestic price (in Birr) from producer to NGPME and the other two companies
Type of produce |
cost of tappers |
cost of processors and graders |
Grades |
White Grezo |
156 |
80-90 |
1st |
70-80 |
2nd | ||
60-70 |
3rd | ||
Black Grezo |
55-78 |
50-60 |
4th |
20-30 |
5th |
Source: Guna Trading House; NGPME; Sihul Project Company, 1997
Table 8. Domestic sale price (in Birr) from the three organizations to wholesellers
Year |
Grades and Wholesale Price | ||||
1st |
2nd |
3rd |
4th |
5th | |
1993 |
600 |
580 |
550 |
400 |
175 |
1994 |
700 |
600 |
500 |
420 |
165 |
1995 |
798 |
707 |
560 |
336 |
153 |
1996 |
887 |
817 |
516 |
324 |
150 |
Source: Guna Trading House; NGPME; Sihul Project Company, 1997
As far as marketing prospects are concerned, the situation also differs between the two types of gum products. While substitutes already exist for replacement of the acacia gum in certain domains of utilisation, it also seems quite likely that the chemical industry will develop alternative products, on an increasing scale, for replacing this relatively costly raw material It appears more doubtful whether synthetics will ever seriously threaten the market for frankincense (or olibanum as it is also called) or myrrh. Instead of the employed reasoning, one might admittedly employ a far more optimistic view for future market prospects for gum arabic and related acacia gums. There is in fact a possibility that present world-wide trends which favour utilization of healthy, 'ecological' products, may lead to increased future demand for such a perfectly natural product as gum, rather than to the suggested decline of its use.
In conclusion, the following may be stated about the potential for gum production in Ethiopia. The resource base is almost certainly vastly under-exploited but under heavy pressure from shifting cultivators, fuelwood collectors and charcoal makers. After discussions with a number of competent people at the Natural Gum Marketing Enterprise and in the forestry service, and also drawing on previous field observations, the consultant would think that sustainable annual output could be increased to five or even 10 times the recent production level of 1500 tons. However, as it should be clear from the preceding analysis, this statement does not amount to anything more than an even not very well informed guesstimate.
In an attempt to evaluate long term prospects, the situation is complicated further by our ignorance about the speed with which the natural resource base is becoming degraded, and the extent to which it may be possible to slow down this unfortunate development by appropriate counter-measures. Very little is also known about prospects for improving the resource base by active afforestation. It is known that the important frankincense tree can be planted simply by sticking a cutting into the ground at the onset of the rains, and that the same simple technique will work with the myrrh producing Commiphora sp. However, for rural people to become motivated to carry out planting on a large scale, they must be assured that the trees established in this manner will start yielding incense in significant quantities within a relatively short period. In the case of Acacia senegal it is known that it can be tapped successfully for gum arabic about five years after planting. No such data seems to be available for frankincense and myrrh producing trees, a fact which makes it impossible to evaluate the economic soundness of promoting afforestation by the government or by individuals, with these species, and makes it no easier to appreciate whether such an activity would make sense to rural people.
