The management of large-scale industrial fisheries, and the research into these fisheries has been for a century or more achieved through close international collaboration (particularly through regional fishery bodies of one kind or another). This period, which may be dated from the beginnings of trawling with steam-powered vessels in the North Sea in the last quarter of the nineteenth century is for most stocks now coming to an end as a result of the changes in the legal regime of the ocean.
The reason for international collaboration was simple; most fishing was done on the high seas, beyond the jurisdiction of any one coastal state. Once a good fishing ground was established, anyone was free to fish there, and often fishermen from several countries did so. Where there might be fishing vessels from half a dozen countries fishing on the same ground, perhaps within a mile of each other, collaboration has taken a number of forms. The first was to bring some order to the actual fishing operations, and to minimize actual physical interference between vessels by setting rules, e.g., the North Sea Convention of 1882 specifies how various types of fishing vessels should operate, for example, in stipulating that decked vessels should shoot their nets to windward of undecked vessels. International collaboration in research has almost as long a history notably in the northeast Atlantic following the establishment of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) in 1903 (see, for example, Went, 1972).
One reason for the establishment of ICES was the concern of several countries over the decline in catches of the more choice species in the North Sea. This was soon shown to be due in large measure to heavy fishing, and the demonstration of this by the scientists naturally led to the third form of collaboration - in the formulation and implementation of measures to conserve and manage the stocks. By the mid nineteen-seventies there were many international agreements, and formal commissions with responsibility for managing stocks in one or other specified regions of the world (see Gulland and Carroz, 1968; Cushing, 1972).
Extension of limits of jurisdiction over fisheries out to 200 miles has completely changed this situation. Though there are still wide areas of ocean beyond these limits, catches of fish in these areas account for barely 1% of the world catch. The rest is taken within the jurisdiction of one or other coastal state. The state within whose jurisdiction the fishing ground falls will have full responsibility for research, management and control of fishing operations on that ground. Vessels from other countries may be allowed to fish, but only under conditions set by the coastal state. On the face of it therefore the need for international collaboration and coordination no longer exists.
This is far from being true. Individuals of nearly all commercial types of fish (including most apparently sedentary molluscs and crustaceans) move from one location to another, if sometimes only during certain stages of their lives. Equally, most of the organisms on which they feed also move. In many cases these movements, especially of the younger stages of commercial species, or of food organisms, are a result of passive drift in the ocean current systems. Many of these movements take place across the new marine boundaries between national jurisdictions. Thus events in one area can affect what happens in another, and it may easily happen that the attempts by one country to manage the fishery in its area of jurisdiction can be nullified by uncontrolled exploitation on the same stock in some other area of jurisdiction.
Some form of international collaboration will therefore often be desirable, and sometimes be essential. However, the nature of such collaboration, which involves actions taken by countries in areas where they claim jurisdiction rather than on the high seas, is not at present clear. This doubt can have at least two kinds of ill effects. The first has already been noted - in the absence of adequate collaboration there are a number of fish stocks where effective measures cannot be taken by individual countries acting in isolation. Conversely, there are other fish stocks which, because of the restricted nature of the displacements of the individual fish or their schools, can be managed by an individual country without reference to actions of others. The latter group includes several for which management measures are urgently required, but for which action has been inhibited by uncertainties about what pattern of international collaboration, if any, is needed.
The need for collaboration has been recognized by those participating in the U.N. Conference on the Law of the Sea. In addition to special provision for so-called “highly migratory species” (Article 64), the draft text calls upon states “to seek either directly or through appropriate sub-regional or regional organizations to agree upon the measures necessary to coordinate and ensure the conservation and development of such stocks (which occur within the exclusive economic zone of two or more states)” (Article 63). However, the text does not discuss the nature of such coordination, or the degree to which it may depend on the biology and behaviour of the stocks.
This paper is intended as part of continuing studies by FAO to assist in consideration of these issues. It discusses general issues, including the different patterns of movement and behaviour of fish stocks, the types of coordination that are needed, the factors that might be taken into account in taking any joint action, and the information requirements. Later papers are planned to provide brief over-views, region by region, of the main stocks that occur in two or more areas of national jurisdiction. These studies will not be concerned with suggesting specific actions, but only with pointing out where there appears to be needs for such action.
