BACKGROUND
GENERAL OUTLINE
I.1. ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS
I.2. STATE OF FOREST RESOURCES
I.3. MANAGEMENT OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES
I.4. POLICY, PLANNING AND INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS
I.5. RELATED AND SUPPORT ACTIVITIES
I.6. REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION
I.7. CONCLUSION
The following synthesis is based on information supplied in the national reports and from the participants in the Sub-regional workshop on the conservation, management, sustainable utilization and enhancement of forest genetic resources in sub-Saharan (Sahelian) Africa (Ouagadougou, 22 - 24 September 1998), for the following eighteen countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Chad and Togo. Cape-Verde also provided general information. The list of national reports considered in the synthesis is given in appendix 13. Contributions were also considered from Messrs B. N. Kigomo and A. Nikiéma, who on behalf of FAO, IPGRI and ICRAF visited several countries in the sub-region to discuss the preparation of national reports in 1997 and 1998. In order to ensure consistency between information sources, basic country data (including population, forest cover, forest cover change) available in FAO’s publications State of the world’s forests 1997 and State of the world’s forests 1999 have been used.
The outline of the State of forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa is structured in line with the plan recommended for the national reports (see Appendix 12). The first chapter presents the general ecological and socio-economic features of countries in the zone. The following chapter describes the state of forest resources, especially the threats these resources face from non-sustainable utilization. The third chapter presents activities related to the utilization and conservation of forest genetic resources. The fourth chapter refers to the institutional framework relating to forest genetic resources. The fifth chapter assesses support capacities for research and training. Finally the sixth chapter outlines the state of bilateral, regional and international cooperation.
I.1.1. Climate and relief in the Sahelian and North-Sudanian sub-region
I.1.2. Eco-geographic typologies
I.1.3. Country socio-economic characteristics
Whether the sub-region is traversed from north to south or east to west, climatic or typographical homogeneity is difficult to find. Low temperatures (10°C annual average in the mountainous zones of East Africa) and very high temperatures (more than 30°C in the plains of central and West Africa) can be experienced.
Rainfall is just as heterogeneous. Annual average rainfall varies from less than 300 mm to more than 1 000 mm. Maritime influence to the west and east accentuates this heterogeneity. Pagney (1994) explains these important differences by the fact that the fringes of the Sahel are contact zones between arid climates (desert-like in their most extreme form) and humid climates (equatorial). These influences foster many local climatic nuances.
The climate of the study zone is a tropical climate with a marked, very marked dry season. The intensity of this season is modified by altitude and the influence of the Gulf of Guinea. Climatic heterogeneity has visible consequences on the distribution of flora, in which interwoven Sahelian, Sudanian and Guinean components can be distinguished.
Certain authors (Le Houérou, 1989; Donfack, 1998) distinguish several eco-climatic zones distributed along a rainfall gradient. The zones are relatively regular to the west where they trace the isohyets which are roughly parallel with the Gulf of Guinea; to the east, the zones depend primarily on relief. Taking into account the various phytogeographical areas mentioned in the national reports, this gradient can be summarized thus:
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Average annual rainfall above 1,200 mm: |
Guinean area; |
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Rainfall of between 1 000 and 1 200 mm: |
Sudanian-Guinean area; |
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Rainfall of between 800 and 1 000 mm: |
Sudanian area; |
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Rainfall of between 600 and 800 mm: |
Sahelo-Sudanian area; |
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Rainfall of between 350 and 600 mm: |
Sudano-Sahelian area; |
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Rainfall of between 350 and 200 mm: |
Sahelian area. |
This classification presents advantages but also drawbacks associated with the gradual transition between extreme conditions. As the objectives of this document do not require such precise classification and with a concern for clarity, we preferred to adopt Menaut’s (1983) simplified classification, which distinguishes three broad phytogeographical areas in the region:
- the Sahelian area, characterized by average annual rainfall of between 300 and 650 mm. From west to east, this area covers (see map in appendix 3) the south of Mauritania, the far north of Senegal, the central coastline of Mali, central Niger, the far north of Cameroon, central Chad and central Sudan;- the Sudanian zone, where annual rainfall averages between 650 and 1 000 mm. This area covers from west to east the rest of Senegal, all of Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, southern Mali, northern Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, northern Cameroon, southern Chad, the north of the Central African Republic, southern Sudan, and northern Uganda;
- the eastern zone, where annual average rainfall is between 150 and 350 mm (highly arid zones), 300 to 500 mm for arid areas, and 450 to 900 mm (semi-arid zone assimilated here to the Sudanian area). East Africa is the subject of special classification owing to its strong altitudinal gradient and the appearance of mountain flora mixing with Sudanian and Sahelian elements from the west. This area includes the following countries: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania.
Summary tables of basic country data are given in Appendix 4. They can be summarized as follows:
- Population: apart from Nigeria and Ethiopia, where there are more than 60 million inhabitants (FAO, 1999), most other countries have populations of less than 28 million inhabitants. The average of the 21 countries listed in appendix 4 is 18 million inhabitants, including the moist regions of countries around the Gulf of Guinea. Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Somalia and Sudan have more than 10 million inhabitants. All these countries are characterized by high population growth above 2%.- Economic activities: For several countries in the zone (Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, Mauritania and Senegal), the contribution of agriculture to GDP ranges from 20 to 29%. This figure is more than 30% in the other countries (World Bank, 1991).
I.2.1. Plant formations
I.2.2. Wooded surface areas
I.2.3. Main forest species
I.2.4. Utilization patterns for forest trees
I.2.5. Pressures exerted on forest resources and forest genetic resources
The term dry tropical forest often used in contrast with moist tropical forests can lead to ambiguity as it encompasses extremely different formations. The plant formations covered in this study include:
· Dry dense forests
· Open forests
· Savannah
· Wooded steppe
· Tree steppe
· Shrub steppe
According to FAO terminology, «forests» include plant formations with raised cover of over 10% and a surface area of more than 0.5 ha11. This standardized definition has been employed in the tables of general country data and the surface area of forest cover (Appendixes 4 and 5). Everywhere else, the quantitative information on genetic resources taken from national reports refer to the specific definitions of each country.
11 FAO, Forestry Department. FRA 2000 - Terms and Definitions. Forest Resources Assessment Programme, Working Paper 1, Rome, 18 November 1998. “http://www.fao.org/FORESTRY/FOR/FRA/docs/FRA_WP1eng.PDF”
The surface area of forest cover is given by country in Appendix 5. Western Sahelian countries total approximately 41 000 ha of wooded formations (using the FAO definition) and eastern Sahelian countries approximately 59 000 hectares. The surface area of dryland forest in countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea is guestimated at approximately 26 000 hectares.
The distribution of the main forest species by eco-geographical zone is presented in the following paragraph.
In the Sahelian area, the flora is made up of about 1,200 species, 40 of which being strictly endemic (Kigomo, 1998a). The Sahelian area is the privileged domain of Acacia. The main woody species found are12:
12 See also FAO. 1996.
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Acacia nilotica, A. raddiana, A. senegal, A. seyal, A.
tortilis, Balanites aegyptiaca, Borassus aethiopum, Boscia senegalensis,
Calotropis procera, Combretum glutinosum, Commiphora africana, Dalbergia
melanoxylon, Faidherbia albida, Hyphaene thebaica, Phoenix
dactylifera. |
In the Sudanian area there are about 2,750 species, a third of which are endemic. The main woody species include:
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Adansonia digitata, Acacia sieberana, Anogeissus
leiocarpus, Ceiba pentandra, Daniella oliveri, Ficus sycomorus, Isoberlinia
doka, Khaya senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Piliostigma thonningii, Prosopis
africana, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Sclerocarya birrea, Strichnos spinosa,
Tamarindus indica, Vittelaria paradoxa, Ziziphus mauritiana, Ziziphus
mucronata |
In the eastern area, flora is made up of about 2,500 species, with about a half being endemic. The woody species vary according to the humidity of the macroclimate:
- in the arid and semi-arid zones, Acacia and Commiphora are prevalent. The main tree species include:
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Casipourea malosana, Combretum molle, Diospyros abyssinica,
Juniperus procera,, Lawsonia inermis, Olea africana, O. hochstetteri, Podocarpus
gracilior and Teclea simplicifolia. |
- in semi-humid zones, the following can be found:
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Acacia mellifera, Acacia etbaica, A. reficiens, A. senegal,
A. tortilis, Dodonaea angustifolia, Euphorbia sp., Faidherbia albida and
Pappea capensis. |
General utilization features of Sahelian and North-Sudanian trees
While most dryland forests have relatively low potential for timber production, compared to humid lowland forest, they provide a wide range of wood and non-wood products which are vital for local people, not to mention their many important environmental functions(see Figure 1). These products are harvested for household use or for sale on local markets and their significance is often underestimated in statistics, national policy and programmes.
Dryland trees and forests provide fuelwood and small roundwood for poles, carpentry or tool handles, and a whole range of non-wood products, including human foods or game, forage for domestic animals, medicinal products or raw material for craftsmen (oils, tannins, gums, etc.). Among their environmental services, the most important is soil conservation against erosion and the preservation of fertility, not to mention shelter from wind and sun.
Sahel trees are multi-usage. Of more than 310 species mentioned in the national reports, all have more than one type of use. The 114 woody species of the Sahelian zone listed by Von Maydell all have multiple uses13. The uses of the various parts of forest trees vary from one country to another (see in particular Appendix 9). In the same country, the species can have various types of use.
13 Von Maydell, H.J., 1986.
The various use patterns are grouped thereafter in 7 categories:
(1) Species producing timber and service wood
Most of the Sahelian population have only few raw materials, among which wood occupies a privileged place. The trees, shrubs and bushes of drylands provide small diameter roundwood used for making posts, frames or tool handles:
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Anogeissus leiocarpus, Azadirachta indica, Balanites
aegyptiaca, Commiphora africana, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Daniella oliveri,
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Hyphaene thebaïca, Isoberlina doka, Khaya
senegalensis, Melia volkensii, Prosopis africana, Prosopis juliflora,
Pterocarpus erinaceus, Sclerocarya birrea, Terminalia brownii. |
Source: country reports (1998)
Use types include: fuelwood, charcoal; posts, poles, roundwood; non-wood products (gums, resins, oils, tannins, medicines, dyes...); food; timber production; fodder; shade, shelter; agroforestry systems; soil and water conservation; amenity, esthetic, ethical values; pulp and paper.
(2) Forage species
The pastoral economy is one of the population’s main resources in the Sahel, especially in the northern part. Fodder from trees and shrubs on the rangelands of arid and semi-arid zones is essential for cattle, particularly during the dry season. Pastoral communities also draw an important benefit as milk represents one of their most important basic foodstuffs.
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Acacia holosericea, Acacia senegal, Adansonia digitata,
Anacardium occidentale, Annona senegalensis, Balanites aegyptiaca, Borassus
aethiopum, Boscia senegalensis, Bauhinia rufescens, Detarium senegalensis,
Diospyros mespiliformis, Faidherbia albida, Ficus sp., Grewia bicolor, Hyphaene
thebaica, Moringa oleifera, Parkia biglobosa, Prosopis juliflora, Sclerocarya
birrea, Spondias mombin, Sterculia setigera, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia
brownii, Vitellaria paradoxa, Ziziphus mauritiana. |
Whether in the form of plants or animals, forest products play a critical part in food security in Africa, directly and indirectly. In addition to products used frequently in foods and directly contributing to nutritional well-being, forests and trees outside forests are an income source for purchasing food products and provide fuelwood to cook food. They also supply products which are sometimes less appetising but which can be essential food complements during bad harvests14.
14 See also FAO. 1984
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Acacia holosericea, Acacia senegal, Adansonia digitata,
Anacardium occidentale, Annona senegalensis, Balanites aegyptiaca, Borassus
aethiopum, Boscia senegalensis, Cordia pinnata, Detarium microcarpum, Detarium
senegalensis, Diospyros mespiliformis, Faidherbia albida, Ficus sp, Grewia
bicolor, Hyphaene thebaica, Lannea microcarpa, Maerua crassifolia, Mangifera
indica, Moringa oleifera, Parinari macrophylla, Parkia biglobosa, Phoenix
dactilifera, Prosopis juliflora, Saba senegalensis, Sclerocarya birrea,
Tamarindus indica, Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex doniana, Ximenia americana,
Ziziphus mauritiana. |
Populations in dry Africa depend heavily on non-wood forest products (various drugs, raw materials, chemicals). Thus medicinal products from forests are highly important, especially for village communities, and play a fundamental role in rural production systems.
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Acacia holosericea, Acacia laeta, Acacia nilotica, Acacia
raddiana, Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal, Adansonia digitata, Anacardium
occidentale, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Azadirachta indica, Balanites aegyptiaca,
Borassus aethiopum, Cassia singueana, Ceiba pentandra, Combretum micrantum,
Combretum microcarpum, Commiphora africana, Diospyros mespiliformis, Faidherbia
albida, Guiera senegalensis, Hyphaene thebaica, Hyphaene compressa, Khaya
senegalensis, Lannea microcarpa, Lannea acida, Lawsonia inermis, Mangifera
indica, Moringa oleifera, Moringa stenopetala, Moringa volkensii, Parinari
macrophylla, Parkia biglobosa, Piliostigma thoningii, Pistia strastiotes,
Pterocarpus erinaceus, Rottbellia exaltata, Salvadora perica, Sterculia
setigera, Tamarindus indica, Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex doniana, Ziziphus
mauritiana. |
The high rate of population growth in Sahelian zone countries and the relatively low revenue have contributed to an important increase in fuelwood and charcoal consumption. Popular dependence on this fuel threatens resource sustainability in some cases and therefore supplies. Supply problems in rural settings are restricted to isolated cases, while in some large urban conurbations or metropolises, problems are already reaching catastrophic proportions. In theory, almost all trees and shrubs can be used for fuel if they are dry enough; however, their calorific properties vary considerably. The most sought after burn without unpleasant smoke or sparks or provide an excellent charcoal (certain acacias, Anogeissus, Balanites, Eucalyptus, Prosopis); others are used only as a last resort. The species mentioned in the national reports include:
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Acacia holosericea, Acacia laeta, Acacia nilotica, Acacia
raddiana, Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal, Acacia tortilis, Afzelia africana,
Annona senegalensis, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Azadirachta indica, Balanites
aegyptiaca, Bauhinia rufesens, Boscia senegalensis, Cassia sieberiana, Combretum
microcarpum, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Daniella oliveri, Detarium microcarpum,
Diospyros mespiliformis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus tereticornis,
Faidherbia albida, Ficus sp., Grewia bicolor, Grewia tenax, Isoberlinia doka,
Khaya senegalensis, Lannea acida, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Leucaena
leucocephalla, Moringa oleifera, Mangifera indica, Parinari macrophylla, Parkia
biglobosa, Piliostigma thonningii, Prosopis africana, Prosopis juliflora,
Pterocarpus erinaceus, Sclerocarya birrea, Sterculia setigera, Tamarindus
brownii, Tamarindus indica, Vitex doniana, Ziziphus mauritiana. |
The paramount contribution of forests and trees to food security is indirect: it resides in their protection of essential natural resources for agricultural production15. The following species are closely associated with agroforestry systems, which confirms their economic importance:
15 For more information, see also Boffa, J.M. 1999.
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Acacia mellifera, Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Acacia
sieberiana, Acacia tortilis, Adansonia digitata, Anogeissus leiocarpus,
Azadirachta indica, Anacardium occidentale, Balanites aegyptiaca, Borassus
aethiopum, Ceiba pentandra, Combretum microcarpum, Cordyla pinnata, Diospyros
mespiliformis, Faidherbia albida, Gmelina arborea, Guiera senegalensis, Hyphaene
thebaica, Lannea acida, Lawsonia inermis, Leucaena leucocephala, Moringa
oleifera, Mangifera indica, Moringa volkensii, Parkia biglobosa, Pinus spp,
Pterocarpus erinaceus, Salvadora perica, Tamarindus indica, Thevetia nervifolia,
Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex doniana, Ziziphus mauritiana. |
The most obvious protective effect is the shade trees produce. Many species are appreciated and planted close to rural dwellings, localities, along roads and riverbanks.
In an area where arborescent vegetation is generally small in size, giant trees stand out all the more and often the object of veneration and religious or artistic demonstrations. It is not surprising that the baobab tree, which figures among the largest and oldest representatives of the Sahel plant kingdom, earns much respect. Few species rival them in size, but under favourable conditions, the following species are recognized for their protective, cultural or ornamental value:
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Acacia macrostachya, Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal,
Adansonia digitata, Anacardium occidentale Anogeissus leiocarpus Azadirachta
indica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Borassus aethiopum, Casuarina equisetifolia, Ceiba
pentandra, Combretum microcarpum, Diospyros mespiliformis Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Faidherbia albida, Gmelina arborea, Lawsonia inermis, Leptadenia
pyrotechnica, Khaya senegalensis, Mangifera indica, Moringa oleifera, Parkia
biglobosa, Parkinsonia aculeata, Prosopis africana, Prosopis juliflora,
Piliostigma thonningii, Senna siamea, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Vitellaria
paradoxa. |
I.2.5.1. Pressures of climatic origin
I.2.5.2. Pressures of man-made origin
I.2.5.3. Species and populations considered under threat
The forest resources of the Sahelian and North-Sudanian zone are subject to strong pressures which contribute to their embrittlement and, gradually, to their reduction and marginalization. These pressures can be climatic or man-made in origin.
Since 1965, the curve of annual variations in rainfall (Catinot, 1988) demonstrates that the zone has experienced successive droughts. Of particular note are the droughts at the beginning of the 1970s and above all in the 1980s. One of the long-term results of these droughts was the alteration of grassland flora. In some regions, perennial species (Andropogon gayanus) were replaced by mixed composition flora and introduced annual species such as Cenchrus biflorus and Sida cordifolia.
The resistance of woody species to these successive droughts varied from species to species. In Chad, the drought caused considerable loss among stands of Acacia senegal, Anogeissus leiocarpus and Khaya senegalensis.
Threats from climatic fluctuations spring not so much from the drought itself as from uncontrolled human intervention in already fragile environments. Consequences for a given species can consist of localized destruction of several individuals or the whole population. In extreme circumstances, the whole functioning forest ecosystem can be threatened. In countries such as Cameroon and Senegal, annual destruction of dry savannah is estimated at nearly 100 000 ha. The most vulnerable species are Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Pterocarpus lucens, Sclerocarya birrea, Prosopis africana, Lannea microcarpa and Dalbergia melanoxylon.
In addition to climatic drought, edaphic drought can occur from an increase in soil salt content. This is the case with the “tannes” or salted soils in Senegal, as well as the “harde” or sterile soils in Cameroon. In Senegal, this combination of drought and soil salinity has led to the disappearance of certain forests in Cavor area and palm groves in Casamance.
These are linked to numerous uncontrolled human interventions on forests and trees. The unmanaged exploitation of soils, forests and water reserves is manifested in the uncontrolled spread of agriculture, over-development of aerial grazing, sporadic multiplication of brush fires, anarchic exploitation of fuelwood, timber and service wood and finally the unsustainable utilization of non-wood forest products.
Agriculture: two types of agriculture can be distinguished: (i) shifting agriculture, which is practised particularly during the rainy season on sandier soils that are fairly poor in mineral content; and (ii) counter-season agriculture, which is carried out at the end of the rainy season within temporarily flooded areas on relatively hydromorphic soils.
Species threatened by shifting agriculture are: Faidherbia albida, Acacia senegal, Cordyla pinnata, Sterculia setigera, Parkia biglobosa and Tamarindus indica. These species occupy mostly light soils (clayey-sand to sandy), with poor water reserves available. The joint action of drought and continuous clearing contribute to their disappearance.
Species associated with heavier soils (vertic soils) which are subjected to counter-season cropping like sorghum are the most threatened. In effect, counter-season crops grow when there are weak soil reserves and consequently cannot withstand any competition from woody species left in the cultivated areas. Therefore trees are systematically felled in cropped areas with low water reserves. The most threatened species are: Acacia seya and Acacia nilotica.
Grazing: Certain species are used as food sources for cattle grazing. This is the case for: Acacia raddiana, Acacia senegal, Commiphora africana and numerous Ficus. Every year, these species are subject to mutilations, from leaves to the whole tree.
Industrial wood: The most widely sought after species for house building, boat building, and the manufacture of mortars and other cooking implements, are: Khaya senegalensis, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Daniella olliveri, Borassus aethiopum, Diospyros mespiliformis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Azadirachta indica and Dalbergia sissoo.
Fuelwood harvesting: When concern started to mount regarding dryland forests at the beginning of the 1970s, the main issue was focused on fuelwood supply. The fear of shortages hitting both rural and urban people led many countries to establish fuelwood plantations, notably using recently introduced or sub-spontaneous species. During this time, large-scale exploitation of local resources continued in order to meet the energy requirements of an ever-increasing population. Despite considerable efforts made by countries to increase fuelwood supplies and reduce consumption (in particular using improved wood stoves), results did not live up to expectations. Furthermore, statistics show that both rural and urban demand for wood-based energy has increased and should continue to increase owing to demographic growth (see Appendix 6) and to macro-economic evolution (as an indirect result of structural adjustment programmes). Hence progress achieved towards reducing pressure on natural forests and local genetic resources has been nullified. Today, the species Acacia nilotica, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Diospyros mespiliformis and Vitellaria paradoxa and certain Combretacea are particularly sought after.
Harvesting of non-wood forest products: The impact on genetic resources can be direct or indirect.
- Direct consequences, when reproductive organs (flowers, fruits and seeds) are removed. This is the case with most Acacia, where cattle eat the flowers and cloves. Also worthy of mention are the seeds of Khaya senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa and Vitellaria parkii, used to produce multiple-use oils. Finally there are species bearing edible fruits, such as Sclerocarya birrea and Ximenia americana. We should also mention Acacia nilotica; the extracts of its cloves are used as tannins.- Indirect consequences include disfigurements to trees from the extraction of particular organs (bark, cambium, roots, leaves, etc.). Such damage can impact flowering or fructification of individuals and hence reduce the number of mating individuals.
In both cases, resource exploitation, too often combined with the action of brush fires, can lower the number of individuals participating in reproduction and reduce possibilities for natural regeneration, aggravating the risk of genetic erosion.
National experts have provided lists of species of national significance with their degree of security and alleged threats. The result of the compilation of individual country reports is given in Table 1, Figures 2 and 3. More details on the nature of the threats, orders of magnitude by populations by country and ecological zone (when available), are given for 16 top priority species in Appendix 11
TABLE 1: SPECIES AND POPULATIONS CONSIDERED UNDER THREAT
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Countries |
Threats at species level |
Threats at population level |
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Benin |
Afzelia africana, Khaya senegalensis, Pterocarpus
erinaceus |
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Burkina Faso |
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Acacia senegal, A. seyal, Anogeissus
leiocarpus |
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Cameroon |
Azadirachta indica |
Acacia nilotica, Acacia seyal |
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Chad |
Azadirachta indica |
Acacia senegal, Anogeissus leiocarpus |
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Côte d’Ivoire |
Cassia sieberiana, Ceiba pentandra |
Anogeissus leiocarpus |
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Eritrea |
Acacia etbaica, Adansonia digitata |
Balanites aegyptiaca, Dodonaea angustifolia |
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Gambia |
Bombax buonopozence, Khaya senegalensis |
Afzelia africana, Borassus aethiopum |
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Kenya |
Acacia tortilis, Balanites aegyptiaca, Faidherbia
albida |
Tamarindus indica, Ziziphus mauritiana |
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Mali |
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Gilbertiodendron glaudolosum, Guibourtia
copallifera |
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Mauritania |
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Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Adansonia digitata,
Ziziphus mauritiana |
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Niger |
Acacia senegal, Diospyros mespiliformis |
Acacia nilotica, Acacia seyal |
|
Nigeria |
Bombax costatum, Guiera senegalensis |
Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal |
|
Senegal |
Faidherbia albida |
Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal |
|
Sudan |
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Acacia mellifera, Acacia seyal, Acacia
tortilis |
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Togo |
Anogeissus leiocarpus, Botrichium
chamaeconium |
Borassus aethiopum |
Source: country reports (1998)
FIGURE 2: ESTIMATED LEVELS OF SECURITY OF 16 TOP PRIORITY SPECIES*
Total number of populations considered: 159, representing 16 top priority species in 18 countries. The degree of security of each population has been ranked according to the following scale:
1.: implementation/enforcement of protection/conservation regulations probable, and regulations scientifically sound; or threat mild/occasional; 5: implementation/enforcement of regulations unlikely; or threat severe with high probability of genetic degradation or loss; 2 to 3: intermediate between 1 and 5. 16 species considered top priorities in the region by country experts include: Faidherbia albida, Tamarindus indica, Khaya senegalensis, Acacia nilotica, Adansonia digitata, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Parkia biglobosa, Acacia senegal, Azadirachta indica, Borassus aethiopum, Diospyros mespiliformis, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Balanites aegyptiaca, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Vitellaria paradoxa and Ziziphus mauritiana. See II 2.3 for more details.
FIGURE 3: NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF THREATS RELATED TO 16 TOP PRIORITY SPECIES
Nature and importance of threats related to 16 species and their populations in Sahelian and North Sudanian Africa. Information provided in country reports for each species’ population regarding its level of security and the nature of possible threats has been compiled. Number of species studied: 16; number of populations: 159. “Others” include vegetal, insect or disease pests, and fire. The relative low importance given to bush fires may be linked to the fact that it is not considered as a primary factor of threat, but associated with human activities such as agricultural extension and (over)grazing. See Figure 2 for the list of species.
I.3.1. Conservation programmes and activities
I.3.2. Plantations and forest seed demand and supply
I.3.3. Tree selection and improvement
In operational terms, action relating to the genetic resources of forest trees and shrubs translates into three types of technical activities:
- conservation, for maintaining the adaptability of tree species and populations;- utilization, for drawing benefit from genetic variation through tree selection and improvement;
- identification and supply of reproductive material (seeds, cuttings, etc.).
These actions are interdependent. Thus, genetic improvement programmes supply superior reproductive materials for planting and afforestation; to be pursued sustainably, these programmes require a broad base of genetic material which has to be conserved and maintained.
There is more and more tendency to take into account interactions between the objectives of conservation and sustainable utilization through the concept of sustainable management of genetic resources, thereby underlining that the conservation of forests and their genetic pools is generally compatible with their managed utilization to meet human requirements. In turn, efforts are under way to integrate forest genetic resources conservation concepts into wider frameworks, such as national forestry programmes, sustainable forest management plans, forest biological diversity status and action plans, and protected areas establishment and maintenance initiatives.
In countries of Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa, several phases of forest policies and environmental regulations have influenced activities regarding forest genetic resources:
- protection measures, which led to the creation of parks and reserves for the protection of wildlife or wild flora, or of exceptional sites;- large-scale plantation programmes, which aimed to water conservation, soil erosion and desertification control, particularly following the first droughts of the 1970s;
- efforts towards the sustainable management of natural forests. In the 1980s, policy measures started to address the issue of the management of natural forests in African drylands, promoting multi-disciplinary and participatory approaches.
I.3.1.1. Location of forest genetic resources
I.3.1.2. In situ conservation
I.3.1.3. Ex situ conservation
Technical programmes to conserve genetic variation between and within species (populations, individuals, genes) can use two basic strategies: in situ conservation (on the spot), i.e., in the natural or original habitat; or ex situ conservation (outside the natural habitat), i.e., in gene banks (seeds, tissue, pollen, stocks), or collections of individuals (botanical gardens, arboreta, ex situ conservation stands, tree improvement trials).
Forest genetic resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa are distributed in various types of sites and areas, including forest stands and woodlands, either managed or unmanaged, trees outside forests, classified (gazetted) forest systems, natural reserves and protected areas. Information from national reports show that, the tree populations of 16 priority species are located in forests or wooded lands with some kind of control or management (either for soil or water conservation, for the production of wood and non wood products, or as grazing lands). Sites offering some kind of protection (reserve, protected area, gene conservation stand, parks) only retain 15% of these tree populations (Table 2). It should be noted however that no specific information is provided on the effectiveness of control, management, or protection systems.
TABLE 2: MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND POPULATION SIZES OF 16 SELECTED TREE SPECIES IN COUNTRIES OF SAHELIAN AND NORTH SUDANIAN AFRICA*
|
Management type/population size
|
Protected site
|
Managed for |
Not managed |
Total by size |
|||
|
soil/water |
wood |
grazing |
Uncontrolled felling |
Uncontrolled grazing |
|||
|
< 100 trees |
3% |
5% |
2% |
4% |
4% |
4% |
22% |
|
100 to 500 trees |
2% |
2% |
3% |
2% |
3% |
3% |
16% |
|
500 to 1 000 trees |
5% |
6% |
7% |
2% |
6% |
3% |
29% |
|
> 1 000 trees |
2% |
1% |
4% |
1% |
3% |
1% |
12% |
|
unknown size |
4% |
3% |
6% |
3% |
3% |
2% |
21% |
|
Total by type |
15% |
16% |
23% |
13% |
20% |
13% |
|
|
TOTAL |
15% |
51% |
33% |
|
|||
* The species have been considered top priorities in the region by country experts and include:
Faidherbia albida, Tamarindus indica, Khaya senegalensis, Acacia nilotica, Adansonia digitata, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Parkia biglobosa, Acacia senegal, Azadirachta indica, Borassus aethiopum, Diospyros mespiliformis, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Balanites aegyptiaca, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Vitellaria paradoxa and Ziziphus mauritiana. See II 2.3 for more details.
The protection afforded by natural reserves, national parks, or other protected systems, theoretically guarantees the maintenance of the functioning of whole ecosystems (see Table 3). This does not necessarily ensure the conservation of a given species or tree population, supposing that forest ecosystems are included in the reserve. Considerations behind the decisions relating to the delimitations of classified forests, natural reserves or protected areas generally did not take into account the genetic variation of forest species.
In reality, it is rare to find national protected area systems which are sufficiently comprehensive to encompass all of the country’s ecosystems, not to mention species and their variation. More alarming is the fact that some national parks established to protect wildlife are now characterized by animal overpopulation, causing damage to plants and jeopardizing tree regeneration.
Concerning the conservation of forest genetic resources, total protection measures today appear as a temporary, emergency solution which should be used with moderation in special cases only (for very rare and high value species, populations or individuals which face numerous threats, and for which reproduction and silvicultural techniques are still poorly known).
Protected areas are subject to fairly systematic follow-up and monitoring by administrations. In particular, tourism in national parks generates significant revenue in some countries. Some reports suggest that tree genetic resources may be better conserved in protected areas and sacred forests than in classified forests.
TABLE 3: CLASSIFIED (GAZETTED) FORESTS AND NATURAL RESERVES IN SOME DRYLAND AFRICAN COUNTRIES
|
State |
B.F. |
Cam* |
Chad* |
CI* |
Eth. |
Ghan |
Gnea |
Maur |
Nger |
Ngria |
Sen. |
Sdan |
Tgo |
|
Classified forests |
57 a |
|
15 a |
90 a |
- |
- |
156a |
30 a |
84 a |
|
242a |
12,8b |
72a |
|
Protected areas |
14 a |
6 a |
7 a |
|
21a |
- |
2 a |
5 a |
7 a |
6 a |
18 to |
85b |
11a |
* Not all data make distinction between classified forests and protected areas
Legend:
a = Number of classified forests or protected areas
b = Surface area estimated in km2 x 1000
|
B.F. = Burkina Faso; |
Cam = Cameroon; |
CI = Côte d’Ivoire; |
Eth. = Ethiopia; |
|
Ghan = Ghana; |
Gnea = Guinea; |
Maur = Mauritania; |
Nger = Niger; |
|
Ngria = Nigeria; |
Sen. = Senegal; |
Sdan = Sudan; |
Tgo = Togo |
Only a limited number of forest species can be preserved appropriately ex situ. Major technical difficulties refer to several species whose seeds are recalcitrant or intermediate (they cannot be dehydrated below a certain threshold, and cannot be preserved for a long time). The cost of installing and maintaining cold chambers and conservation stands can be crippling given the low final commercial value of forest trees. In forestry, at the difference of cultivated crops, ex situ conservation is conceived as a complementary, secondary method to in situ conservation.
The countries of Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa use several ex situ conservation methods for their forest genetic material:
- storage of seeds, cuttings, and other reproductive materials;- storage of in vitro organs or plants;
- maintenance of field trial areas, botanic gardens, arboreta and ex situ plots.
The conserved species vary from one country to another. However two criteria seem to have guided decisions at national level:
- The level of utility of the species in plantations programmes. The seed of the following trees are frequently stored for planting and afforestation purposes: Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Anacardium occidentale, Azadirachta indica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Faidherbia albida, Mangifera indica, Tectona gandis, Parkinsonia aculeata, Prosopis juliflora and Ziziphus mauritiana. The list includes a significant number of introduced species.- The progress of selection and genetic improvement programmes. The numerous genetic materials generated by the most advanced programs are available in field trials, conservation stands or arboreta. It is the case of Anacardium occidentale, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus microtheca, and Faidherbia albida.
In vitro conservation of whole organs or plants is rarely used.
I.3.2.1. Historical background to plantation efforts in the Sahel
I.3.2.2. National forest seed and germplasm demand
Seed requirements followed the evolution of forest policy, particularly with respect to plantations. At the beginning of the 1970s, large-scale plantation operations were initiated, aimed at meeting wood energy requirements and at combating desertification. Fast-growing species (Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Senna siamea) were used abundantly in afforestation programmes. Despite the enormous efforts by countries to increase fuelwood production, the results did not live up to expectations. The mediocre results gradually led authorities to scale down the afforestation programme and to try and improve the management of existing resources, particularly by encouraging natural or assisted regeneration of native species stands.
Since the 1990s, modest afforestation efforts has been carried out, particularly within the framework of community forestry. Forest seed demand is now oriented towards those trees consider useful by local people. In most countries, there has been a significant reduction in planted areas and a parallel increase in the use of local species.
Forest seed demand as well as an assessment of quantities produced are difficult parameters to quantify in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa. The sources of seed supply are diversified (often consisting of simply harvesting fruits at the foot of a tree) and are not always documented. There is no regulatory obligation for forest seed user to purchase seed through a national forest seed centre (when such a centre exists).
However, seed demand can be estimated when planted areas are known. Estimates have been provided for a number of countries and species and are available in Appendix 8. Apart from Burkina Faso and Senegal, which provided recent data on forest seed demand, countries provided global data only (all species together) which are uneasy to compare because of large differences in forest tree seed size and weigh. Annual requirements for Ghana are given at 10 tons, while those for Mali are at between one and two tons per year, and those for Niger are estimated at 2 tons.
National forest seed centres and warehouses exist in the sub-region. They are unequally distributed, East Africa being the best covered region (Table 4).
TABLE 4: DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST SEED AND STORAGE CENTRES IN SAHELIAN AND NORTH-SUDANIAN AFRICA
|
Country |
Existence of a forest seed centre or a forest seed
storage facility |
Status of the seed centre or the forest seed storage
facility |
|
Benin |
No |
- |
|
Burkina Faso |
Yes |
Governmental (CNSF) |
|
Cameroon |
No |
- |
|
Chad |
No |
- |
|
Côte d’Ivoire |
No |
- |
|
Eritrea |
Yes |
Governmental (Research) |
|
Ethiopia |
No |
- |
|
Gambia |
No |
- |
|
Ghana |
no |
- |
|
Guinea |
yes |
Gov.(CNSF) and private |
|
Kenya |
Yes |
Governement (KFSC): Res., training |
|
Mali |
no |
- |
|
Mauritania |
yes |
Gov.(res..) and private |
|
Niger |
no |
- |
|
Nigeria |
yes |
Gov. (res.) |
|
Uganda |
being set up (PRONASEF) |
Gov. |
|
Senegal |
yes |
Gov. (CNSF) |
|
Sudan |
yes |
Gov.(res.) |
|
Togo |
yes |
Gov. (CNSF) |
In Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa, exotic forest species were introduced as an attempt to increase forest production. Several introduced species and provenances were tested in comparative field trials. In the most advanced programmes, the best individuals (or families) were retained in order to establish seed orchards.
A number of native species have also been considered in tree selection and improvement programmes, although the methodology used for introduced species was not always followed. With the exception of some provenance tests for Faidherbia albida (i.a. in Burkina Faso and Cameroon), Parkia biglobosa (in Burkina Faso) and certain Acacia (see Box 1), few species have been the subject of systematic investigation with comparative testing of documented provenances. Intraspecific genetic diversity has more recently been investigated using enzymatic or molecular markers, sometimes complementing common garden experiments. Species investigated include Parkia biglobosa in Burkina Faso, Acacia nilotica, A. senegal, Moringa oleifera and M. stenopetala in Kenya, Azadirachta indica in Niger, Casuarina equisetifolia in Senegal, and Faidherbia albida in Cameroon.
As demonstrated in Table 5, numerous gaps remain to be filled as regards knowledge of intra-specific variability of most local species.
BOX 1: EVALUATION OF SEEDLOTS COLLECTED WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE FAO PROJECT ON GENETIC RESOURCES OF ARID AND SEMI-ARID ZONE ARBOREAL SPECIES
|
The project was initiated by FAO’s Forestry Department in 1979 with financial support from IBPGR16 and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The main purposes of the project were to act as a catalyst for gathering genetic materials and information on arid and semi-arid zone woody species, and to aid countries in the practical application of the results. 16 Now the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) From 1983-1987 seeds of 281 provenances of 43 species (mainly of the genera Acacia and Prosopis) were under FAO coordination collected in 11 arid and semi-arid countries. Seeds from these collections were distributed for evaluation from 1983 to 1989. In this period, field trials of sub-sets of the seedlots were established by 40 institutes and projects in 22 countries, including Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Kenya, Niger, Senegal and Sudan. The primary objective was to establish trials suited to national conditions and priorities. An overall global evaluation of a selection of trials was initiated by FAO in 1989 in consultation with countries concerned, and in collaboration with DANIDA Forest Seed Centre (DFSC). This global evaluation complements the evaluations carried out at national level by countries concerned, since the establishment of the trials. During 1990-1994, 26 trials in 6 countries (Brazil, Burkina Faso, India, Pakistan, Senegal and Sudan) were assessed. An overall synthesis including the analyses of all the trials assessed will be prepared and is planned for publication in 2000/2001 as a joint effort between all national institutions involved, DFSC and FAO. Progresses in the evaluation of field trials established within the framework of the FAO Project on Genetic Resources of Arid and Semi-arid Zone Arboreal Species have been reported in Forest Genetic Resources No. 16 (FAO, 1988) and Forest Genetic Resources No. 23 (FAO, 1995). Lars Graudal, Danida Forest Seed Centre,
1999. |
|
Species |
Species, provenance or progeny tests |
Seed collection stands, seed orchards |
Vegetative or sexual propagation |
Molecular analyses |
Countries involves in this research work |
|
Acacia auriculiformis |
V |
V |
|
|
CI, Mal |
|
Acacia bevenosa |
V |
|
|
|
Maur |
|
Acacia nilotica |
V |
|
V |
V |
Cm |
|
Acacia senegal |
V |
V |
V |
|
BF, Cm, K, Mal, Ng, Sd |
|
Acacia seyal |
V |
V |
|
|
K, Ng, Sd |
|
Acacia tortilis |
V |
V |
|
|
S, K, Sd |
|
Anacardium occidentalis |
V |
V |
|
|
S |
|
Anogeissus leiocarpus |
V |
|
|
V |
BF, Be, Mal |
|
Atriplex halumus |
V |
|
|
|
Maur |
|
Atriplex numularia |
V |
|
|
|
Maur |
|
Azadirachta indica |
V |
|
V |
V |
BF, Cm, Ng, S |
|
Casuarina equisetum |
V |
|
|
V |
S |
|
Eucalyptus camaldulensis |
V |
V |
V |
V |
BF, CI, Cm, K, Ng, Na, S, Sd, Tgo |
|
Faidherbia albida |
V |
V |
|
V |
BF, CI, Cm, Ng, K, S, Sd |
|
Khaya senegalensis |
V |
|
V |
V |
BF, Cm |
|
Melia volkensii |
V |
|
|
|
K |
|
Parkia biglobosa |
V |
|
|
V |
BF, Cm, Na |
|
Parkia biglobosa |
V |
|
V |
V |
BF |
|
Prosopis africana |
V |
|
|
|
BF, Ng |
|
Prosopis cineraria |
V |
|
|
|
Maur |
|
Prosopis juliflora |
V |
|
|
V |
BF, Ng, S |
|
Pterocarpus erinaceus |
V |
|
|
|
Be, CI, Mal |
|
Tamarindus indica |
V |
|
|
V |
BF, Cm, K |
|
Tectona grandis |
V |
V |
V |
|
CI, Tgo |
|
Ziziphus lotus |
|
|
V |
|
Maur |
|
Ziziphus mauritiana |
V |
|
|
|
BF, S |
Source: country reports, 1998Abbreviations:
|
BF= Burkina Faso |
Be= Benin |
CI= Côte d’Ivoire |
Cm= Cameroon |
|
K= Kenya |
Mal= Mali |
Maur = Mauritania |
Ng= Niger |
|
Nga= Nigeria |
S= Senegal |
Sd= Sudan |
Tgo= Togo. |
I.4.1. General features of forestry policy
I.4.2. Policy and legislation regarding forest resources
I.4.3. Forest management
I.4.4. National institutions and organizations concerned
In most countries, forest legislation has been in place since the beginning of the 20th century, even though forest policies as such did not exist at that time. However, weaknesses in forestry laws and lack of enforcement have limited their effectiveness in protecting forests and genetic resources.
During the mid 1980s, the Tropical Forests Action Programme (TFAP) was adopted in almost all countries in order to improve planning in the forest sector (see Appendix 7). The ensuing forest action programmes recommended taking into account biological diversity conservation. During the period 1990-1995, the sub-region was characterized by a multiplicity of different planning frameworks which often overlapped, sometimes complemented each other and finally contradicted each other. This greatly hindered the formulation and implementation of good quality national forestry plans17.
17 Source FAO, 1998b
At international level, the economic context has been influenced since the 1970s by economic restructuring and the establishment of structural adjustment policies. These changes, strongly supported by the main international funding bodies, have considerably affected the forestry sector. In a number of countries, the vast majority of forest lands are owned by the state and public services and institutions are responsible for managing them. Within the framework of structural adjustment programmes, the budgets and manpower of national forest services and research institutions were generally reduced, sometimes considerably, and the role of these services has been scaled down.
Forest policy sought, and still seeks, to adapt to these new issues. It is now generally recognized that a balance should be found not only regarding the respective functions of governmental institutions and society (through NGOs for example), but also with respect to how authority and action is articulated between national and local levels. The decentralization of structures and devolution of responsibilities to provincial or local authorities underway in most countries on the one hand, and the privatization of estates and services on the other hand, have immediate implications for systems of ownership, management, conservation and utilization of forest genetic resources.
The major obstacles blocking the adoption and effective implementation of integrated and decentralized forest management policies are the same which limit the protection and conservation of forest genetic resources: inadequate security regarding tenure and usufruct of land and renewable resources, structural weaknesses of land use legislation and poor adjustment of policies for agroforestry and forestry activities.
TABLE 6: ADMINISTRATIVE AND LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS REGARDING FOREST MANAGEMENT
|
Country |
Forestry code updated in |
Forestry code being updated |
Institutions involved in forest genetic
resources |
|
Benin |
1993 |
No |
Min. env. habitat and urb.; Min. rural dev.; |
|
Burkina Faso |
1997 |
No |
Adm. eaux et forêts; Conseil nat. gestion
env.; |
|
Cameroon |
1994 |
No |
Min. env. et for.; Developmt projets; IRAD; |
|
Chad |
Various texts. National desertification control
plan. |
Yes |
Min. env. et eau; Min agric.; Min elev.; |
|
Côte d’Ivoire |
1965 |
In progress |
Min. env. & forêt. - Min. ens. sup. et rech. scie.
- |
|
Eritrea |
1980 |
In progress |
Ministère de l’Agriculture |
|
Ethiopia |
1980 |
Unknown |
Min. Agriculture; Min. natur. & envir. protect.; |
|
Gambia |
1978 |
In progress |
Dir. Forestry.; NGOs; private |
|
Ghana |
1945 |
In progress |
Min. For. and Land Use; Envir. protection agency; |
|
Guinea |
1989 |
No |
Min. agri. eaux et for.; Min. trav. publ.; |
|
Kenya |
No |
In progress |
Direct. Forestry & wildlife; KEFRI; |
|
Mali |
1995 |
No |
Min. env.; Min. dév. rural et eau; Min. ens. sup. et
rech. |
|
Mauritania |
1997 |
No |
Min. dév. rur. env. rech. |
|
Niger |
1974 |
In progress |
Min. hydrau. et env.; rech.; Univ.; NGOs. |
|
Nigeria |
Forestry and Fauna policy of 1988 |
No |
Min. Sc. & Techno.; Ins. Rech. |
|
Senegal |
1997 |
No |
Min. env.et prot. Nat.; Devel. projets; |
|
Sudan |
Law of 1989 |
No |
Min. agric. & for.; Off. nat. for.; Cent. rech. |
|
Togo |
Unknown |
In progress |
Min. env. & prod. for.; CNSF; Ins.rech. univ. |
Source: country reports, 1998.
Forest policies vary significantly among countries in the sub-region. Most policies now aim at reconciling an ever increasing number of interests and objectives, including resource conservation, forest product supply and devolution of managerial responsibilities to local people.
The majority of countries in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa have ratified the international frameworks and agreements adopted at the United Nations Convention on Environment and Development (UNCED), including the Convention on Biological Diversity18 and the Convention to Combat Desertification. One of the main beneficial effects of these conventions has been the progressive incorporation in national legislative systems of considerations regarding the multiple functions of forests and the various actors in the forestry sector. A more integrated and decentralized approach to forest management was progressively mapped out, which is important in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa, where community forestry is traditionally well evolved. Other international initiatives and conventions of relevance to forest genetic resources include the African Convention for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the Convention on the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage, and the Man and the Biosphere programme of UNESCO.
18 UNEP. 1992.
In practice, difficulties have arisen in the implementation of the legislative and regulatory measures affecting forest resources in general and forest genetic resources in particular. In the past, the application of laws, regulations and management plans suffered from several limiting factors, including:
- lack of an appropriate legal framework for national and local conditions;
- the non-consideration in these texts of customary law;
- inadequate integration of rural people’s grazing and forestry activities;
- complex and unsatisfactory land ownership structure;
- lack of training among officers and rural people.
New political options have led a number of countries to start reformulating their legislation regarding forest resource management. This process of reformulation has concerned forest laws, environmental codes, and laws and regulations relating to land regimes (see Table 6). In the new legislative and regulatory texts on forests and nature protection, the technical focus tends to be at ecosystem level. The level concerning forest genetic resources is generally not given special attention, nor even mentioned.
Only in recent times has concern been raised about the sustainable management of natural dryland forests. In the Sahelian sub-region in the strict sense (excluding countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea), nearly 93% of the roundwood produced in 1996 (for a total of about 150 million m3), was used for fuel19 (see Appendix 6). The proportion of wood used as fuelwood in the same year was 88% in the countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea (Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria), which is also significant. In western Sahelian Africa, the importance of fuelwood is such that cooperative management of natural forests for fuelwood is promoted and rural markets have been established for this product.
19 Source: State of the World’s Forests, FAO, 1999
The mediocre results obtained by legislative and regulatory protection, and the disappointing outputs from plantations of introduced species, have helped change policy orientation towards improving the management of natural stands. Results from participatory models of forest management, along the lines of Burkina Faso, Gambia and Mali, have often been highlighted and some of them are being consolidated. These approaches are now being institutionalized in a number of cases, and several countries have strengthened the legal framework used for participatory management of dryland forests. Moreover, many countries have handed over, or are in the process of doing so, direct responsibility for forest management in favour of local people or private partners, while maintaining a supervisory role. In addition, the importance of stable land ownership regimes and access to open resources, have been acknowledged.
However these orientations are not without side effects at local level. The expansion of protected zones, decentralized management and the privatization of certain resources, have contributed to the development of numerous conflicts between stake holders regarding access to forest resources and their utilization.
No country in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa has a national institution that deals exclusively with forest genetic resources. Several national institutions contribute to defining policies and implementing management actions and resource conservation. In general, a particular institution plays the role of driving force and focal point.
At government level, forestry issues are generally supervised by a single ministry (ministry of forestry, ministry in charge of the environment, or ministry responsible for natural resources). This institution sets frameworks, planning and objectives through the country’s forestry and/or environmental policy. The establishment of management and conservation regulations, the supervision of the execution of programmes and the monitoring of plans, may be carried out at national or sub-national levels, or a combination of both.
Research institutes: national agencies involves in research activities include research institutions per se (national agronomic or forestry research institutes), universities, and sometimes forest seed programmes or forest services.
Public agencies: state agencies include organizations like Office national de développement des forêts (ONADEF, Cameroon), Société de développement des forêts (SODEFOR, Côte d’Ivoire) and Forests National Corporation (FNC, Sudan). These institutions are often placed under the authority of the ministry responsible for forestry and the environment. They operate on behalf of the ministry in carrying out and monitoring programmes and plans, and sometimes as executive agencies.
Cooperation and development projects: these projects associate one or more national agency or partner, one or several external technical or funding partners (donors, international cooperation agencies) and possibly an implementation agency. Several national forest tree seed centres in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa, including in Burkina Faso, in Senegal and in Togo, have been established through, or benefited from, a cooperation and development project.
NGOs: The number of both national and international non-government organizations operating in the forestry sector has grown rapidly. National NGOs involved in the field of forestry often participate in village-based rural development projects such as assistance to tree planting, environmental education, and technical extension. Some international NGOs have a more strategic and global approach regarding specific sectors: the World Conservation Union (IUCN) supports to the establishment and maintenance of natural reserves and protected areas; the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) has developed a Special Programme for Developing Countries aiming to expand and foster forestry research capacity in developing and economically disadvantaged countries (a regional coordinator has been appointed for Africa).
Several national institutions are reported suffering from a lack of financial means and trained staff to carry out stated policy.
I.5.1. Forest genetic resources training
I.5.2. Forest research20
I.5.3. Research institutes
If the majority of countries in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa have training structures for technicians and forest engineers, only Kenya, Nigeria and Sudan have further training structures for forest genetic resources (Table 7). Most countries admit suffering from a lack of specialists in the area of forest genetic resources.
TABLE 7: NATIONAL CAPACITY FOR TRAINING AND RESEARCH (FORESTS AND FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES)
|
Country
|
Technical training
|
Higher education - forest and forest genetic resources |
Forest research carried out at: |
||
|
Engineer level |
MSc and Ph.D. |
Forest Research Institutes |
Universities |
||
|
Benin |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
INRAB |
Yes |
|
Burkina Faso |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Inst.Env R.Ag. |
Yes |
|
Cameroon |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
IRAD |
Yes |
|
Chad |
Yes |
Unknown |
No |
Nn |
No |
|
Côte d’Ivoire |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
CNRA |
Yes |
|
Eritrea |
Unknown |
Unknown |
Unknown |
Unknown |
Unknown |
|
Ethiopia |
Yes |
Yes |
Unknown |
FRC |
Yes |
|
Gambia |
Unknown |
Unknown |
Unknown |
NARI |
Unknown |
|
Ghana |
Unknown |
Yes |
Unknown |
FORIG |
Yes |
|
Guinea |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
Yes |
|
Kenya |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
KEFRI |
Yes |
|
Mali |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
CNRST |
No |
|
Mauritania |
Unknown |
Unknown |
No |
Centre de Boutilimitt |
Unknown |
|
Niger |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
INRAN |
Unknown |
|
Nigeria |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
For.Res.Ins.N |
Yes |
|
Senegal |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
ISRA |
Yes |
|
Sudan |
Unknown |
Yes |
Yes |
FRC |
Yes |
|
Togo |
Yes |
No |
No |
No |
Yes |
Source: Country reports, 1998 (list in Appendix 13).
20 For further information, see also Carlson, L.W. and Shea, K.R. 1986.
Many countries in the sub-region are in the process of restructuring their national agricultural research system, of which forestry research is a component.21 The general trend is towards the regionalization of agricultural research, with regional programmes carried out by multi-disciplinary research teams. While justified and positive from many points of view, this restructuring has sometimes weakened national forest research capacity by diluting expertise which in many cases is already below requirements. In some countries, the coordination of forestry research is inadequate at national and regional level as a result of this restructuring. In extreme cases, forest research is being marginalized.
21 Source: Summary Report, FAO-IUFRO Expert Consultation on Forestry Research, Accra, Ghana, 30 September - 2 October 1997. Available at http://iufro.boku.ac.at/iufro/spdc/.
Government and donor funding has considerably dropped in the last ten years. Forest research has generally not been attractive for the private sector and decision-makers owing to the lack of appreciation of the socio-economic benefits accruing from research activities. In Sahelian countries, sectoral and macro-economic policies contribute to an under-evaluation of the services and products supplied by forests and trees, particularly when rural people benefit from them within the framework of a non-monetary, or informal, economy. These distortion lead to an inadequate allocation of internal resources to the forestry sector. There is no effective legislative provision for funding allocation to support forest research. The restructuring and economic liberalization programmes underway in many African countries have a negative impact on the funding of forest programmes, especially forest research activities. At the same time, (often short-termed) funding opportunities from donors strongly orientates policy choices and forestry priorities at national level.
Research activities are carried out by specialized institutes, universities and sometimes by forest seed centres. Work essentially involves species elimination tests or comparative trials, provenance tests and progeny tests. Studies also concern plant propagation and in vitro cultivation (Kenya) and the study of seed conservation and manipulation, particularly seeds with recalcitrant behaviour. On the other hand, little work had been done (exceptions mentioned in Burkina Faso, Cameroon, and Kenya) on investigating intra specific variability.
A survey commissioned by CIFOR in 1999 sampled a number of countries in West Africa and assessed capacity for forestry research. Results of human resources survey are shown in Table 8.
TABLE 8: HUMAN RESOURCES FROM THE SURVEY SAMPLE AGGREGATED BY COUNTRY
|
Country |
Total |
% female |
Ph.D. |
M.Sc. |
B.Sc. |
Expat. |
|
Benin |
4 |
25 |
0 |
4 |
0 |
0 |
|
Cameroon |
25 |
4 |
14 |
9 |
0 |
2 |
|
Côte d’Ivoire |
20 |
5 |
2 |
5 |
11 |
2 |
|
Ghana |
47 |
19 |
20 |
17 |
10 |
0 |
|
Nigeria |
55 |
7 |
18 |
36 |
1 |
0 |
Source: M.J. Spilsbury, G.S. Kowero and F. Tchala-Abina. 1999. Capacity for Forestry Research in Selected Countries of West and Central Africa. CIFOR Occasional Paper No 24, Nov. 1999.
I.6.1. Regional cooperation
I.6.2. International cooperation
I.6.3. External funding of forest resource activity
Numerous networks and specialized mechanisms exist in Africa although most do not relate specifically to forest genetic resources. Many national reports reveal a strong desire to strengthen country cooperation in a concrete manner, using existing or new network facilities. In particular, these reports express the need to set up a facilitating mechanism for the exchange of thematic information and joint work on precise topics related to forest genetic resources.
The main sub-regional political and economic groups (see Table 9) include the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD). Only the Organization of African Unity (OAU) reunites both western and eastern Sahelian and North-Sudanian countries in one structure.
In theory, forest research forms part of the African sub-regional networks on agricultural research ASARECA22, CORAF23 and SACCAR24, which were recently federated into an African Forum for Agricultural Research (FARA). However, forest research is not a priority of these networks, which remain traditionally focused on agricultural crops. As a result, the lack of a suitable mechanism means that information dissemination is inadequate and cooperation is under developed for forest research.
22 Association of Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa23 Conference of Directors of Agronomic research in West and Central Africa
24 Southern African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research
TABLE 9: MAIN REGIONAL AND SUB-REGIONAL POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GROUPS AND RESEARCH NETWORKS ACTUALLY OR POTENTIALLY ACTIVE IN THE FIELD OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES
|
Body |
Name |
Field of Action |
Country or zone of operation |
|
AFREA |
Association of Forestry Research Institutions of Eastern
Africa |
|
Membership in 10 countries of East Africa |
|
AFORNET |
African Forestry Research Network |
Extended area |
All Africa |
|
ASARECA |
Association of Agricultural Research in East and Central
Africa |
Strengthening agricultural research |
Eastern and central Africa |
|
CACEU |
Central African Customs and Economic Union |
Broad area |
Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, RCA, Guinea Eq., Chad |
|
Club of Sahel |
|
Mobilizing support |
All Sahelian countries |
|
CILSS/INSAH |
Sahel Institute |
Forestry research |
Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Chad |
|
CORAF/WECARD |
Conference of Directors of Agronomic Research in West and
Central Africa/West and Central Africa Council for Agricultural Research and
Development |
Management, improvement, wood |
All countries, particularly French-speaking |
|
CORAF-Forêt |
West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and
Development |
Broad area |
20 members institutions in West and Central Africa |
|
EAC |
East African Community |
Extended area |
Eastern African Community |
|
ECOWAS |
Economic Community of West African States |
Extended area |
Burkina Faso, Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Côte
d’Ivoire, Nigeria |
|
FORNESSA |
Forestry Research Network for Sub-Saharan Africa |
Federation of forestry research institutions |
41 countries, members of AFREA, SADC-FSTCU or
CORAF-Forêt. |
|
GFIS |
Global Forestry Information Service |
Information system, research |
IUFRO project; all countries and territories in
Africa |
|
ICRAF/SALWA |
International Centre for Research in Agroforestry |
Agroforestry |
Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, Mauritania |
|
IGAD |
Intergovernmental Authority on Development |
Extended area |
Eastern African countries |
|
LCBC |
Lake Chad Basin Commission |
Extended area |
Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria, Chad |
|
NAPRECA |
Natural products Research Network for Eastern and Central
Africa |
study, promotion, and development of the science of natural
products |
nine branches |
|
OMVS |
Senegal River Development Organization |
Extended area of the Senegal river valley |
Mauritania, Mali, Senegal |
|
OSS |
Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel |
Broad area |
African countries in affected areas and northern
countries |
|
OAU - STRC |
Scientific, Technical and Research Commission |
Broad area |
All African Countries |
|
PRASAC |
|
Agricultural research |
Cameroun, Chad et RCA |
|
Prog.Rég.Am.Bass.Vers.Haut Niger et Haute
Gambie |
|
Guinea, Guinea Biss.,Mali, Mauritania, Niger,
Senegal. |
|
|
Projet Jachères |
|
Agroforestry |
Burkina Faso, Senegal, Mali, Niger, Côte
d’Ivoire |
|
SADC-FSTCU |
Forestry Sector Technical Coordination Unit of SADC |
Broad area |
Research institutions in 14 countries of the Southern Africa
Development Community |
|
SAFORGEN |
|
Forest genetic resources |
All sub-Saharan countries |
|
UNSO |
Office to Combat Desertification and Drought |
Environment and energy |
All member countries affected by desertification and
drought |
International cooperation is the area of partners such as UN agencies (FAO, UNEP, UNDP, the World Bank), the centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), international NGOs (IUCN, IUFRO, WWF), bilateral cooperation and development agencies (see Table 10). There is no administrative, financial or technical coordination structure between the national, bilateral or international organizations. Many country reports mention the need for a better harmonization of the interventions of large international agencies at national level.
Countries in the Sahelian and North-Sudanian sub-region depend heavily on outside sources for the funding of their forestry sector. Domestic funding comes primarily from the public sector.
A number of bilateral funding donors and other donors are increasingly turning away from funding individual projects in favour of a global approach (called programme approach), favouring an integrated vision and involving the national government in the administrative and technical management of support activities. Through the revision of forest action plans and other planning and legal texts, a certain number of Sahelian and North-Sudanian counties are oriented towards a new handling of forestry issues. As reported in national documents, these approaches might include a decentralization of natural resource management and the development of an integrated technical and operational framework. The programme approach in theory appears suitable if inter-sectoral links are important, which is the case with forest genetic resources (strong interaction with the agricultural, forestry, the environment and natural resources, and rural development sectors). It is not clear from country reports whether the programme approach can easily be translated into operational action in forest genetic resources.
At national level, the policy of state disengagement and decentralization discourages investments that are not directly related to the productive sector. Financial constraints reported by most countries in the sub-region seriously compromise domestic commitment and investment capacity in the field of forest genetic resources.
TABLE 10: SOME BODIES OPERATING IN INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION
|
BODY |
FIELD OF ACTION |
COUNTRY OR ZONE OF OPERATION |
|
African Development Bank |
Broad mandate |
African member countries |
|
CFD/France |
Broad funding |
Especially developing French-speaking countries |
|
CIRAD-Forêt/France |
Forest research |
All countries, especially French-speaking |
|
CRDI/Canada |
Forest research and protection |
All countries |
|
DANIDA/Denmark |
Forest seeds |
All countries |
|
DGIS/Netherlands |
Forest management and protection |
None |
|
European Union |
Forest research and management |
All developing countries |
|
FAO |
Forest Resources Division. |
All member countries |
|
Fondation Int. pour la Sc |
Funding agricultural research |
All developing countries |
|
GTZ/Germany |
Nature management and protection |
All countries |
|
ICRAF |
Agroforestry |
All countries |
|
ICRISAT |
Dryland agricultural research |
All countries |
|
IFAD |
International Fund for Agricultural Development. |
All countries |
|
IITA |
Regional tropical agricultural research |
All countries |
|
ILRI |
Veterinary and zoological research |
All countries |
|
IPGRI |
Forest genetic resources |
All countries |
|
IUCN |
Nature conservation |
Burkina Faso, Guinea Biss., Mali, Niger, Senegal |
|
IUFRO |
Forest research |
All member countries |
|
ODA/Great Britain |
Nature research and protection |
All countries, especially Commonwealth members |
|
ORSTOM/France |
Various research fields |
All countries, especially French-speaking |
|
UNDP |
Development Funding |
All developing countries |
|
UNEP |
Environment |
All member countries |
|
UNESCO |
Protection and training (Prog.MaB) |
All member countries |
|
Univ. Wageningen/Netherlands |
Forest and recalcitrant seed research |
All countries |
|
Univ.Toulouse/France |
Brush fire |
Burkina Faso |
|
Univ.Leiden/Netherlands |
Resource management |
Burkina Faso and Cameroon |
|
World Bank/GEF |
World Fund for the Protection of Nature |
All countries |
|
WWF |
Financial NGO for nature protection |
All countries |
The Sahelian and North-Sudanian eco-geographic zone of Africa identified in this document groups together 21 countries25, covering a total surface area of 12 million km2 and with a population of 365 million inhabitants26. The area groups together Sahelian countries in West Africa, dry zone countries in East Africa and countries with dry areas bordering the Gulf of Guinea. Rainfall in the area studied varies approximately between 300 and 1 000 mm and three main phytogeographical areas are represented: the Sahelian area, the North-Sudanian area and the western area.
25 Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti*, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambie, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia*, Sudan and Togo. No national report has been requested from countries with *.26 Source: State of the World’s Forests. FAO, 1999. See Table in Appendix 4.
The populations, mostly rural, live mainly from agriculture and livestock breeding. Industrialization is limited, consisting essentially of primary processing units. The portion of fuel from harvested and used wood is close to 90%. Rural and urban people remain very dependent on the goods and services supplied by forests, trees and multiple use woody plants. The overexploitation of forest resources due to population growth and uncontrolled human activities (harvesting of wood and non-wood products, grazing, clearing, brush fires) represents the most serious threat to the maintenance and sustainable development of forest resources. The man-induced depletion of forests and woodlands is amplified by recurrent episodes of climatic drought.
Growing awareness of the excessive pressures on the environment and natural resources has led several countries in the sub-region to review or envisage the revision of legislative and regulatory texts regarding trees and forests. New forest policies tend towards better indirect protection of forest genetic resources. Nevertheless policies, including new ones, are not always implemented efficiently.
Forest plantations established in the framework of desertification control, albeit with varying degrees of success, have encouraged the production and supply of forest seeds and in some countries the creation of national forest seed centres. Attention and efforts have recently shifted to local species, mainly used for small-scale tree planting by rural communities and individuals. Although most genetic variability of woody species is located in forests and other non-managed formations, natural parks, reserves and classified forests represent important reservoirs.
Further education on forest genetics in the sub-region is provided by national bodies (schools and universities). In the past, much research work focussed on selection and genetic improvement in order to supply reproduction material for plantation efforts. Now the focus is more on knowledge of natural formations.
Despite efforts at country level, management of forest genetic resources is globally deficient in the sub-region, and the following reasons have been reported by national experts:
- legislation and regulations encompass a broad area (forest resources or biological diversity) and do not target genetic resources specifically. Moreover, many of these texts do not take enough account of the country’s socio-economic context and are poorly implemented;- overpopulation and the impact of macro-economic policies have led to changes in the way of life of certain rural groups, which are now sedentary and competing with other groups for access to resources and land use;
- the training of the agents, technicians, engineers and officers specialized in forest genetic resources remains inadequate and most countries have limited capacity;
- scarce applicable technical knowledge is available on local species and their variability;
- while remaining limited, scientific and technical information is poorly circulated and research results are publicized selectively;
- national institutions lack financial resources to be able to intervene actively in the conservation and sustainable management of forest genetic resources.
Nonetheless the new approaches to resource management brought to light at local, national and world level, and the experiments carried out in a number of countries, together with possible overall decreases in population growth, generate a certain optimism as to the possibilities of reducing pressures on forest genetic resources27.
27 See also Clément, J. 1997.
The writers of the national reports evaluated the state of forest genetic resources in their country and formulated a certain number of recommendations. The main recommendations reported by national experts concern the basic actions necessary for:
- sensitizing local people and all interested parties as to the importance of the conservation and sustainable utilization of the genetic resources of forest species and to the compatibility of these two themes;- proposing clear and suitable policies and legislation, in compliance with country obligations with respect to the Convention on Biological Diversity;
- facilitating dialogue and joint and coordinated actions among all parties concerned by forest genetic resources at national level;
- facilitating the preparation of management and conservation plans for forest genetic resources and promoting their effective implementation;
- identifying the priorities and activities which could be treated in a coordinated way at regional level, in support of national efforts.
These recommendations were discussed, complemented, targeted and structured by participants of the workshop on the conservation, management, sustainable utilization, and enhancement of forest genetic resources, which was held in Ouagadougou in 1998. The genetic resources experts sent by 15 regional countries not only examined the plan of the sub-regional synthesis report, but also prepared the outline of a sub-regional action plan on forest genetic resources. The detail of this action plan forms the subject of the second part of this document.
