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Part 2 (contd.)

Table 7
Forest cover state and change for developing countries

 1990annual change, 1980–1990
regionnatural forest (million ha)net plantations (million ha)natural forest (million ha)natural forest cover as a percentage of total landnet plantations (million ha)total forest* (million ha)
Africa5414.4-4.2-0.80.23-4.0
tropical5282.1-4.1-0.70.13-4.0
non-tropical132.2-0.1-1.00.100
Asia and the Pacific region44156.2-4.4-0.93.40-1.0
tropical31522.6-3.9-1.22.11-1.8
non-tropical12633.6-0.4-0.31.28-0.8
Latin America and the Caribbean countries9607.7-7.7-0.80.41-7.3
tropical9186.0-7.4-0.80.37-7.0
non-tropical421.7-0.3-0.60.05-0.3
total tropical1 76130.7-15.4-0.8-2.61-12.7
total non-tropical18137.9-0.9-0.5-1.370.5
total developing1 94168.6-16.3-0.84.10-12.1*

* Table 10 (see pages 35–38) shows net annual change in area of forest and other wooded land totalling -10.2 million ha for developing countries.

Developing countries in the Asia and Pacific region have the largest share with 79 percent. The remainder is distributed between Latin America and Caribbean countries (13 percent) and African countries (8 percent). Six countries account for 85 percent of the developing countries plantations: China (31.8 million ha), India (13.2 million ha), Indonesia (6.4 million ha), Brazil (4.9 million ha), and Viet Nam and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea with 1.5 million ha each.

An overall average survival rate of about 70 percent has been calculated based on 56 plantation inventories in 18 developing countries. Applying this survival rate to the reported plantation area in developing countries yields a net total plantation area of 60 million ha for 1990. It must be noted, however, that the results of these plantations inventories may not be typical of all plantations; some plantations have survival rates of 30 percent or less due to poor maintenance or protection.

About 50 percent of the reported plantations have been established during the 1980s—60 percent in tropical and 35 percent in non-tropical developing countries. The average reported annual increase in plantation area in the tropics during the decade 1980–90 was about 4.1 million ha, or a net increase in plantation area of 2.9 million ha.

Among the main species planted are eucalypts, pines, teak and acacias. While pines and teak are planted mostly for industrial purposes, eucalypts are planted for both industrial and non-industrial purposes and various acacia species are important for fuelwood, fodder and gum arabic production.

Cultivating trees with agricultural crops and growing woodlots outside gazetted forests gained considerable momentum in the 1980s. In order to estimate the planted area outside the traditional forests, many countries have fixed national criteria to convert seedlings raised in the nurseries and distributed or planted, into area. It is difficult to make estimates at global level for these forms of tree planting.

In the developing countries, further development of plantation forestry is constrained by the shortage of land. With expanding farming populations using all the unforested land for food production, the areas available for plantations are becoming increasingly restricted. The experience of the past two decades demonstrates that degarded or waste land may be the only resource available to the landless poor. There are, however, large areas where the natural forest has been badly degraded or abandoned farmland where soil fertility has been lost through exhaustive agricultural use, which could be used for plantations.

Forest management for wood production

Developed countries have 41 percent of the world's forest, but account for 76 percent of the industrial roundwood production. On the other hand, the developing countries account for 87 percent of the fuelwood and charcoal use. Over the past 50 years, forest management in most developed countries has aimed at improving industrial roundwood producing capacity. Harvesting levels, total annual growth, growing stocks and biomass have increased substantially as a result. To a large extent, the developed countries have achieved these results through the replacement of poorly stocked and slow growing forests and intensive silvicultural practices.

Table 8 provides information on trends in harvesting intensity and harvested areas by region. In addition to the total area harvested, information is presented on the estimated areas of previously unlogged and previously logged forests. All three regions exhibit a slow but steady increase in the share of harvesting operations that occur in secondary forest. This effect is due partly to the fact that less primary forest remains each year and partly from the fact that changing market conditions increasingly improve the economic opportunities for relogging areas that were harvested two or more decades ago. This is especially true of the increase in market acceptability of ‘lesser known’ tree species. Although the increase is seldom dramatic, it is relatively steady and, over a period of decades, the effect is significant.

Table 8
Estimated harvesting intensities and areas of broadleaved forest harvested annually in the three major regions of the tropics

 AfricaAsia and the PacificLatin America and the Caribbeanall tropical countries
  area of forest harvested annually (thousand ha) area of forest harvested annually (thousand ha) area of forest harvested annually (thousand ha) area of forest harvested annually (thousand ha)
periodaverage harvest intensityprimary forestsecondary forestaverage harvest intensityprimary forestsecondary forestaverage harvest intensityprimary forestsecondary forestaverage harvest intensityprimary forestsecondary forest
61–651439491425107871 24757172 152226
66–70145061374375013581 26076202 516348
71–7514593166351 34322181 485119203 422505
76–8014612215331 73231982 011183194 356717
81–8514634239321 71836982 297251184 648859
86–9013723248331 86145382 287320194 8711 020

Table 9
Number and extent of conservation areas in the forestry, wildlife and other sectors

 forestrywildlifeothersall sectors
regionarea (million ha)area (million ha)area (million ha)area (million ha)conservation area as a percentage of total land
Africa25.9197.70.6224.210.0
Asia and the Pacific70.555.60.8126.914.2
Latin America and the Caribbean116.5118.4120.7355.621.5
total212.9371.7122.1706.714.8

Source: Assessing the Conservation Status of the World's Tropical Forest. WCMC contribution to the FAO FRA 1990 Project

Regional differences in the annual area harvested and the stocking density of commercial species are significant. For example, even though the volume of non-coniferous sawlogs and veneer logs produced annually in the Asia and Pacific region during 1986–90 was 3.7 times the comparable volume produced in the Latin America and Caribbean region, the estimated total area harvested in tropical Asia is 89 percent of that in tropical America. This is due to the fact that the average commercial timber harvest volume per unit area in the Asia and Pacific region during 1986–90 is estimated to be about 33 m3/ha compared to an average of only about 8 m3/ha in the Latin America and Caribbean region.

Forest management for conservation

Conservation areas are lands managed through legal or customary regimes to protect and maintain biological diversity and natural and associated cultural resources.19 Table 9 summarises the findings of an assessment carried out by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). The data in this assessment suggest that nearly 15 percent of the tropics is under conservation management or protection.

This quantitative information must be tempered by a realistic appraisal of on-the-ground management effectiveness and the threats to existing sites. Throughout the tropics there tends to be inadequate legislation and ineffective application of the legal measures that do exist. Weak institutional support, inadequate or non-existent management and insufficient funding are common. Consequently, there is a tendency towards ‘paper parks’ whose existence is largely theoretical and is not reflected by substantive and durable conservation reserves on the ground. Furthermore, those sites that do exist are under increasing pressure from competing land uses.

Despite the seemingly encouraging picture that emerges from the data, it is often impossible to know whether or not a conservation area network is representative, particularly in terms of biological diversity. A survey conducted by WCMC shows that out of 8 715 conservation areas only 5 percent are known to have been inventoried for one or more taxonomic groups. Conservation areas have frequently been established with little or no regard to ecological criteria for their selection. Continuing and growing pressure on land throughout the tropics, particularly in densely populated Asian nations, has forced the selection of conservation areas to be made on pragmatic and not necessarily scientific grounds.

19 This definition was agreed upon at the IV World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, 10–12 February 1992.

Figure 2
Wood harvesting in 1990 (related to total forest area)

Figure 2

Table 10
Forest and wooded land coverage by country

a) Africa
countryforest and other wooded landforest area other wooded land
total areaannual changetotal areaforest area as a percentage biomass (milliontotal area
(thousand ha)(thousand ha)(percent)(thousand ha)of total landha/captonnes)(thousand ha)
Burkina Faso13 813  4 436160.493499 377
Cape Verde78  1640.04162
Chad32 450  11 43892.0171821 012
Gambia286  98100.1110188
Guinea-Bissau2 162  2 022722.13167140
Mali28 791  12 158101.3075016 633
Mauritania4 536  55610.27353 980
Niger10 442  2 56220.36827 880
Senegal13 400  7 656401.045175 744
West Sahelian Africa105 956-297.2-0.2840 94180.962 62865 015
Djibouti1 320  2210.0521 298
former P.D.R. of Ethiopia41 991  14 354130.312 03927 637
Kenya16 815  1 30520.0511315 511
Somalia15 945  75810.107715 187
Sudan68 955  43 179181.712 64825 776
Uganda16 023  6 366320.353779 657
East Sahelian Africa161 048-642.2-0.3965 983130.545 25495 065
Benin11 497  4 961451.051986 536
Côte d'Ivoire18 952  10 967340.878707 985
Ghana18 013  9 608420.648178 405
Guinea17 484  6 696270.9755910 788
Liberia6 632  4 639481.821 0491 993
Nigeria65 654  15 785170.141 61649 869
Sierra Leone6 969  1 895260.462005 074
Togo4 566  1 370250.40993 196
West Africa149 765-85.4-0.0655 919270.355 40993 845
Cameroon35 905  20 366441.962 95115 539
Central African Republic46 754  30 5684910.493 80916 185
Congo25 285  19 902589.985 4665 383
Equatorial Guinea2 719  1 829655.35480890
Gabon19 966  18 2567115.595 1181 710
Zaire166 076  113 317503.1528 52352 759
Central Africa296 704-571.2-0.19204 238513.8746 34992 466
Angola77 197  23 194192.311 62554 004
Botswana26 561  14 2622511.1054612 299
Burundi1 315  325130.0616989
Malawi3 724  3 612380.43486112
Mozambique55 881  17 357221.111 38438 524
Namibia26 296  12 569159.4548113 727
Rwanda945  252100.0327694
United Republic of Tanzania68 497  33 709381.231 44534 788
Zambia60 337  32 349443.832 27327 988
Zimbabwe26 144  8 981230.9254017 163
Tropical South Africa346 895-735.80.21146 609261.548 824200 287
Comoros41  1150.021630
Madagascar23 225  15 999281.341 6807 226
Mauritius44  1260.01132
Reunion135  100400.172235
Saint Helena9  150.2308
Seychelles3  3120.05180
Insular Africa23 457-89.4-0.3816 127271.131 7377 331
Tropical Africa1 083 826-2 421.2-0.22529 818241.0970 201554 008
Algeria3 945  2 03910.081971 906
Egypt34  3400.0000
Libya Arab Jamahiriya846  40000.0913446
Morocco5 744  3 86450.154321 880
Tunisia569  56940.0730
North Africa11 137-73.1-0.686 90510.066714232
Lesotho23  700.00016
South Africa41 543  8 20870.221 42733 335
Swaziland146  14680.1970
Non-tropical South Africa41 712-333.5-0.788 36170.211 43433 351
Non-tropical Africa52 850-406.6-0.7615 26720.102 10537 583
TOTAL AFRICA1 136 675-2 827.8-0.25545 084180.8572 306591 591
b) Asia and the Pacific region
Bangladesh1 472  1 00480.01104468
Bhutan3 168  2 813601.97508355
India82 648  64 959220.084 80617 689
Nepal5 751  5 079370.27549672
Pakistan3 128  2 02330.022031 105
Sri Lanka3 997  1 885290.111982 113
South Asia100 163596.30.6477 762190.076 36822 402
Cambodia13 724  12 170691.482 1631 554
Laos21 436  13 177573.242 5448 259
Myanmar49 774  29 091440.706 25920 683
Thailand14 968  13 264260.241 5851 704
Viet Nam23 499  9 782300.151 52413 717
Continental S. E. Asia123 400-1 087.3-0.8577 484410.4414 07545 916
Brunei Darussalam458  458871.72136n.a.
Indonesia145 108  115 674640.6422 26129 434
Malaysia22 248  17 664541.024 5914 584
Philippines13 640  8 034270.131 8485 606
Singapore4  470.0010
Insular S.E. Asia181 458-1 509.2-0.81141 834580.5428 83739 624
Papua New Guinea42 115  36 030808.986 8906 085
American Samoa14  000.00014
Fiji859  853471.181606
French Polynesia115  000.000115
Guam10  000.00010
Kiribati2  000.0002
New Caledonia1 289  710394.22138579
Niue6  000.0006
Pacific Islands40  000.00040
Samoa164  133470.842731
Soloman Islands2 456  2 410867.5348145
Tonga8  000.0008
Vanuatu809  809665.391730
Pacific47 886-44.7-0.0940 945766.757 8706 941
Tropical Asia452 907-2 044.9-0.45338 025380.2157 149114 883
Afghanistan2 614  1 19920.07131 415
Bahrain0  000.0000
Iran11 437  1 73710.033329 700
Iraq192  8300.005109
Jordan173  5110.023122
Kuwait5  500.0000
Lebanon144  7880.03766
Oman0  000.0000
Qatar0  000.0000
Saudi Arabia902  20200.014700
Syrian Arab Republic484  24510.025239
United Arab Emirates60  6010.0400
Yemen1 921  900.0001 912
Middle East17 931164.70.973 66810.0336914 263
China162 029  133 799140.1216 00928 230
Dem. People's Rep. of Korea7370  6 170510.284231 200
Republic of Korea6 291  6 291640.157550
Mongolia13 741  9 40664.295644 335
Temperate Asia189 431539.00.33155 666130.1317 75133 765
Non-tropical Asia207 362703.80.39159 33490.1218 12048 028
TOTAL ASIA AND PACIFIC660 269-1 341.1-0.21497 359190.1775 269162 911
c) Latin America and the Caribbean
Costa Rica1 569  1 456290.48262113
El Salvador890  12760.0212763
Guatamala9 465  4 253390.467255 212
Honduras6 054  4 608410.905271 446
Mexico129 057  48 695260.553 17480 362
Nicaragua7 732  6 027511.561 0881 705
Panama3 266  3 123411.29695143
Central America158 033-825.5-0.5168 289290.586 48389 745
Barbados5  000.0005
Bermuda1  000.0001
British Virgin Islands5  3200.1902
Cayman Islands6  000.0006
Montserrat4  3250.2301
Netherlands Antilles7  000.0007
St. Pierre & Miquelon1  000.0001
United States Virgin Islands14  14410.1310
Antigua and Barbuda26  10230.13116
Bahamas186  186190.72220
Belize2 117  1 9988810.98255119
Cuba3 262  1 960180.192091 302
Dominica50  44590.5456
Dominican Republic1 530  1 084220.15106446
French Guyana8 318  7 9979186.922 500321
Grenada11  6180.0715
Guadeloupe93  93550.27110
Guyana18 756  18 4249417.724 571331
Haiti139  3110.002108
Jamaica652  254230.1043399
Martinique71  43410.13528
Puerto Rico336  324370.093812
St. Kitts and Nevis24  13360.25211
St. Lucia34  580.03129
St. Vincent12  11280.0911
Suriname15 094  14 7769536.673 831317
Trinidad and Tobago235  168330.133368
Caribbean50 989-48.8-0.1047 447691.3511 6403 543
Bolivia57 977  49 345466.757 3768 632
Brazil671 921  566 007673.76106 053105 914
Colombia63 231  54 190521.7010 5159 041
Ecuador15 576  12 007431.112 3553 569
Paraguay19 256  12 868323.017966 388
Peru84 844  68 090533.0516 01416 754
Venezuela69 436  45 943522.338 61523 493
Tropical South America982 242-4 793.2-0.48808 450603.28151 723173 792
Tropical Latin America & Caribbean1 191 265-5 667.5-0.47924 186562.31169 847267 079
Argentina50 936  34 436131.078 54016 500
Chile16 583  8 033110.611 7768 550
Uruguay933  81350.26145120
Non-tropical South America68 453-397.7-0.5543 283120.8910 46025 170
TOTAL LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN1 259 718-6 047.2-0.47967 469482.16180 307292 249
d) Developed countries
Finland23 3735.5 20 112664.039453 261
Norway9 565n.a. 8 697282.05313868
Sweden28 0150 24 437602.851 3933 578
Nordics60 9535.50.0253 246522.992 6517 707
Belgium6201.9 620200.06530
Denmark4661.0 466110.09380
Iceland123n.a. 000.000123
Ireland4294.8 39660.111333
Netherlands3341.0 334100.02320
United Kingdom2 38024.2 2 20790.04124173
North Western Europe4 35232.90.814 02380.04260329
Austria3 87714.2 3 877470.504850
former Czechoslovakia4 4912.0 4 491360.296600
France14 1548.0 13 110240.231 2191 044
Germany10 73546.9 10 490300.131 584245
Luxembourg880.1 85330.2383
Poland8 6725.0 86 872280.239370
Switzerland1 1866.6 1 130280.1719956
Central Eastern Europe43 20382.80.1941 855290.205 0911 348
Albania1 4490.1 1 046380.3248403
Bulgaria3 6837.8 3 386310.38207298
Cyprus2800.2 140150.204140
Greece6 0320.9 2 512190.25853 520
Hungary1 6758.2 1 675180.161860
Israel124n.a. 10250.02622
Italy8 550n.a. 6 750220.125471 800
Romania6 2650.2 6 190270.2768175
Turkey20 1993.1 8 856110.1555811 343
former S.F.R. of Yugoslavia9 45434.5 8 371330.358621 083
South East Europe57 71155.00.1139 028200.193 18418 683
Portugal3 10213.8 2 755320.26124347
Spain25 6220.9 8 388170.2255417 234
Iberia28 72414.70.0511 143190.2367817 581
Europe194 943190.80.13149 295270.2611 86445 648
Belarus6 25627.3 6 016290.59499240
Other former USSR926 035n.a. 739 729362.5650 302186 306
Ukraine9 23924.0 9 213160.1884826
Former USSR941 53051.30.01754 958352.1551 648186 572
Canada453 3000 247 164279.3225 458206 136
USA295 989-316.5 209 573230.8419 49086 416
North America749 289-316.5-0.11456 737251.6544 948292 552
Australia145 6130.6 39 83752.332 430105 776
Japan24 718-4.8 24 158660.201 498560
New Zealand7 472n.a. 7 472282.232090
Oceania177 803-4.2 71 46790.504 137106 336
TOTAL DEVELOPED COUNTRIES2 063 565-78.6-0.011 432 457271.07112 598631 108
Summary
Developing countries3 056 662-10 216.1-0.332 009 912260.50327 8821 046 751
Developed Countries2 063 565-78.6-0.011 432 457271.07112 598631 108
GRAND TOTALS5 120 227-10 294.7-0.203 442 368270.64440 4791 677 859

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