LOOKING FORWARD: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES - Chairman: Rebecca Metzner, Fisheries Western Australia, Perth

The Fishing-Rights on Marine Resources in China - Z. Wu
The Implementation of Fishing-Rights Systems in Southeast Asia: a Case Study in Thailand - S. Anuchiracheeva

The Fishing-Rights on Marine Resources in China - Z. Wu

Z. Wu
Bureau of Fisheries Administration and Fishing Port
Superintendence of South China Sea, Ministry of Agriculture
No 11 Nonghanguan Nan, Beijing 100026 China
<[email protected]>

1. INTRODUCTION

China is a coastal country with a large area of marine waters and rich natural resources, especially in inshore areas. There are many commercial fisheries that have undergone rapid development, particularly in the last 20 years, with adoption of an open policy and development of appropriate fishing techniques and industries. By 1998, the total output was 39.06 million tonnes of which the production from the Exclusive Economic Zone was 14.05 million tonnes.

China has the largest fisheries labour-force and national population in the world. The full-time marine labour-force is 2.71 million people and there are in the fisheries over 5.37 million people. Twelve million people are part-time fishers engaged in fisheries-related side production.

With development in China, the fisheries have also been managed by legislation. More than 500 fisheries regulations have been formulated for the purposes of fisheries management, providing legal foundation and support for sustainable fisheries development. But China is also a developing country with a large population and fisheries products are essential food-stuffs. How to utilize the fisheries resources rationally is still a new concept, e.g. what should be rights of access to fisheries resources. Property-rights for fisheries resources is a crucial issue in relation to the survival of the population of several dozen million along the coast of China's maritime provinces. Under the current circumstances, how to allocate fisheries resources rationally is one of the most important issues in fisheries management. Therefore, it is very necessary to find a better and more effective way to set up a new mode of fisheries management - property-rights to fisheries resources - for sustainable fisheries development.

2. THE STATUS OF MARINE FISHING RIGHTS

Until now, there has been no universal definition of property-rights in fisheries in China. Property-rights are commonly understood as a fishing-right, i.e. the right to fish the marine fisheries resources.

Historically, the marine fisheries resources were exploited by labourers along the coast. Before the 1950s, when fishing skills and productivity were poor, while the fisheries resources were rich, there was no clear division between fishers and non-fishers because both could freely catch fish. In the early 1950s, with development of the economy, the division between fishers and non-fishers started becoming more obvious. The non-fishers gradually turned into farmers and had the user-rights to land, while fishers had fishing-rights. Since then, the clear division between the fishers and farmers has become more formal, that is, fishers make a living on sea and farmers on land. Meanwhile, the government control led prices of fish products in the markets and fishers had no right to market fish products. Under the planned economy, grain was allocated to fishers by the government at fixed prices.

After the adoption of an open-market policy, radical economic reforms started. As a result, the fisheries system under the planned economy was decentralized. The new system of fisheries companies and private fishing units was started everywhere. Even non-fishers were engaged in fisheries activities and fisheries investment. The previous pattern of fishing-rights had also to change accordingly.

3. THE CURRENT STATUS OF FISHING RIGHTS

The Chinese government put fisheries-management as a top priority. Fishing-rights in management has affected legislation and has played an important role in fisheries development.

The manner of assigning fishing-rights is "the fishing licence system". Under The Fishery Law of the People's Republic of China, anybody engaged in inland and inshore fishing operations must apply for a fishing licence from the fisheries authorities. Enforcement regulations have also been issued by the Minister of Agriculture to regulate fishing vessel construction, numbers of vessels, their tonnage, horse-power, gear, operation time, fishing grounds, species taken, as well as allowable catch levels. The fisheries authorities can control and identify the fishing-rights and sort of fish species to be taken, by ratifying, and issuing, fishing licences. The integrated procedures for ratifying and issuing fishing licences have been set out to ensure regulatory controls.

China has legal regulations on the price of access-rights to the fisheries resources. Anyone who is involved in fishing production has to pay tax for fisheries resources enhancement (resources tax) in addition to other taxes. According to "The Fee Collection for Fisheries Resources Enhancement and Protection", anyone and any organization that undertakes fisheries production in inland, mudflats, territories and other waters subject to Chinese sovereignty has to pay the Fisheries Resources Enhancement and Protection fee which is 1-3% of the total production value. If the value is especially high, then the tax will be 3-5% of the value. The taxes will be used for the conservation of fisheries resources.

After these changes in the legal sector, the fisheries in China have basically been developing in a healthy way. But some problems have appeared in the management of fishing-rights. One of them is that the qualifications of users’ fishing-rights are not clear and lack of legal definition. Under the incentive for economic gain, more fishers start fishing and this causes excess fishing capacity to develop. The other problem is that the many other new businesses also involved in fishing compete with traditional fishers now reducing their incomes. The third problem is the abuse of rights in issuing fishing licences through "flexible" fishing-rights management.

4. DISCUSSION OF FISHING-RIGHTS

4.1 The quota system of fishing

The fisheries resources are the base of fish production. In the initial stage of exploitation, the fisheries resources may be so rich that no one doubted quantity-production in large-scale fisheries - but this is a mistake. But after uncontrolled development and these fisheries resources have been over-exploited, it has been realized that quantity-oriented production just led the degeneration of the resources. Therefore, some better and more reasonable management mechanisms have to be studied to formulate new policies and measures.

From the late 1970s, a fishing moratorium was initiated for the fisheries resources production in China. In the 1980s, the fishing licence system began to be implemented. Up to the 1990s, the fishing moratorium spread to the whole country. With implementation of these regulations, the fisheries resources have been well conserved and fishing intensity has been greatly controlled. The biomass of some fishes have recovered but these measures are not perfect and the most reasonable ones, cannot completely solve the problems of fishing capacity and allocation of fisheries resources. The production should depend on the sustainability of the fisheries resources, and fishing-capacity should be according to the total allowable catch level, that is, by a quota system.

4.2 To commercialize fishing-rights of fisheries resources

According to Chinese law, the marine fisheries resources are state-owned property and belong to the government. But under economic market-driven policies, the fisheries resources, to some extent, must meet market demands. In order to acquire the biggest share of the resource, some people have made every effort to expand and raise the efficiency of fisheries production. This will demand more fishing-rights accordingly. On the other hand, China has a large fisheries-related population and the demand for fishing-rights is gradually getting stronger. All of these aspects have formed considerable pressure on both the fisheries authorities and the marine fisheries resources. If management fails to solve these problems in time, they will trigger a social and political crisis. Therefore, a proper and effective management system must resolve the conflicts between fishers, fishing-capacity imbalance and fisheries resources productivity. When the total allowable catch level is certain and defined, it will be possible to specify a fleet fishing capacity. The most difficult issue is how to solve the conflicts among the fishers. The best way is to introduce the market mechanism to commercialize the fishing-rights which could then be openly sold among those who have qualification to own fishing-rights. That means that fishing-rights could be sold through auctions. And the licence of fishing-rights as a kind of a commodity could be transferred and circulated among the fishers.

4.3 The strict integrated management of user's rights of fisheries resources

Due to the migration and reproduction of the fisheries resources, the incentives for fishing activity and commercialized fishing-rights, it is necessary to conduct strict integrated management of the user's rights for access to fisheries resources. It has been proved that the previous decentralized-management mode is no longer suited to the current fisheries management problems. The original purpose of decentralized management was to allow the fisheries authorities at different levels to be involved actively in fisheries resources management. Meanwhile management of this kind has permitted local fisheries authorities to pursue their own local interests and has resulted in local protectionism, leading to an imbalance of interests in the whole region. This is harmful to sustainable fisheries resource-utilization and fisheries economic development. Therefore, fishing-rights management has to be the strictly integrated and subject to the fisheries authority of the central government, in cooperation with the necessary supervision and inspection measures.

The Implementation of Fishing-Rights Systems in Southeast Asia: a Case Study in Thailand - S. Anuchiracheeva

S. Anuchiracheeva
SEAFDEC Training Department
P.O. Box 97 Phrasamutchedi, Samutprakan 10290 Thailand
<[email protected]>

1. INTRODUCTION

The contribution of fisheries to food security, employment and income is recognized worldwide. Globalization is manifested in the fisheries sector through expanding trade, a greater reliance on market forces in policy-making and a rapid increase in the amount and international mobility of private investment capital. One result is that growth in the demand for fish products, no matter where it occurs, may affect fish production anywhere in the world through the mechanisms of foreign private investment and, or, trade.

It is estimated that between 15 and 20% of all animal protein comes from aquatic animals. Fish is highly nutritious and serves as a valuable supplement in diets providing essential vitamins and minerals. The world's oceans, lakes and rivers are harvested by artisanal fishers who provide vital nourishment for poor communities, not only in Africa and Asia, but also in many parts of Latin America, the Pacific islands and Indian ocean. Of the 30 countries most dependent on fish as a protein source, all but four are in the developing world.

Not only fish is a vital food, it is also a source of work and money for millions of people around the globe. In 1996, an estimated 30 million men and women derived an income from fisheries. An overwhelming majority of them - some 95% - were in developing countries.

In Southeast Asia, fisheries development is an integral part of the countries' economic and social development plans. The general policy objectives regarding the development of the fisheries sector are to increase fish production, to ensure food security and to increase employment, income and export earnings.

The marine and coastal waters of the Southeast Asian Region are some of the world's most productive regions. The region constitutes a rich area in which shallow water marine plants and animals reach a peak of species diversity. This diversity is associated with a high production of organic matter, which in turn is converted into high fishery yields. Coastal ecosystems such as upwelling areas are capable of producing over ten times as much organic matter per unit time as offshore waters. This high production of organic matter is transformed into a tremendous variety of economically valuable products that are used by the people in the region.

Marine fisheries of the Southeast Asian region are characterized by the use of multifarious fishing gear by a large number of small-scale fishermen, estimated at more than four million. However, since the 1960s, fishing pressure has increased particularly in coastal areas, which has led to a depletion of fishery resources and conflicts among the users of the resources. In addition, the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) has declared the new management regime of 200 nautical miles to be the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) in which coastal states have national jurisdiction.

There have been efforts to devise management schemes to effectively develop the fisheries sector particularly in the coastal areas. However, the existing problems and constraints mentioned above have become even more critical. This may be due to the use of the unsuccessful management regime of open-access in developing the sector. It is hoped that using the fishing-rights system under community-based fisheries management, through the strengthening of fisher’s groups, may offer a better solution to properly manage the fishery sector, particularly in coastal fisheries.

2. PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS OF THAI FISHERY DEVELOPMENT AND HOW THEY REFLECT UPON THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN REGION

2.1 Impact of past fishery-development policies

There has been a focus by governments on increasing fishery production, but issues obstructing the development of fisheries toward sustainability are becoming critical. An analytical clarification of the major issues in fisheries, such as the depletion of marine fishery resources, unequal sharing of benefits, social conflicts, etc. may be required to further explore a better approach to manage the fisheries sector.

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, fishing was considered an attractive profitable industry. Fisheries development policies in the Southeast Asian Region focused upon the commercial fisheries sector and these fishery policies encouraged the use of modern fishing technologies and provided access to investment funds to support these innovations. The government policy centred on credit schemes and technological innovation, both of which favoured the commercial sector. Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines received over US$ 590 million in fisheries aid, 88% of which was for capital investment, primarily mechanization and modernization of fishing vessels and technologies (Christy 1986; Lampe 1991 as cited by Pomeroy and Cruz-Trinidad 1996).

Artisanal fisheries management policy in the Thailand, including other countries in Southeast Asia, have been based mostly on advice derived from biological, resource-oriented studies. Thus, the fisheries policy-makers and managers have little knowledge about the economic, social and cultural aspects of the fishers and limited understanding of the linkage between fishery resources and fisher communities.

2.2 Depletion of marine fishery resources

The common-property nature of most renewable resources, like fisheries, implies that users have free and open access for their exploitation. Such exploitative conditions lead to problems of over-capitalization and incompatability between artisanal/small-scale fishermen¹ and commercial fishermen². The main cause of the decline of marine resources in Thai waters is “over-fishing”, which is a direct result of rapid development of fishing industry. It has been estimated that over-exploitation by trawlers in the Gulf of Thailand started in the late 1960s or early 1970s. The number of fishing boats and their efficient gear seriously depleted what had been abundant marine resources. Statistical analysis found that the sustainable-production capacity of demersal fish resources in the Gulf of Thailand, from the shore out to 50m isobath depth, is 750 000t, corresponding to about 8.6 million operation hours of trawlers (Muntana and Somsak 1982 in SEAFDEC 1987). However, trawlers have exceeded this catch of demersal fish since 1973.

¹ Small-scale fishermen can be classified using these criteria; location of fishing grounds: within 3 kilometers from shore and fishing expedition is a one day trip, size and type of fishing boats: under 15m in length and without a wheelhouse, type of fishing gear: traditional fishing gear including small push-nets, baby trawls, beach seines, gill nets, cast nets, scoop nets, hook and line and traps, and labor force: normally are only members of the family and not more than two persons.

² Commercial fishermen including the owners of the boats and crews. The income of the crews is paid in terms of a percentage of the total catch value of each trip.

Other obvious evidence indicating declining marine resources in Thai waters was the marine catch-rate of trawlers (CPUE) which in 1961 was 297.6kg/h, but fell to 54kg/h in 1985. In 1988 the CPUE declined even further to 38kg/h. The production consisted of 33.3% commercially-valuable species and 66.7% trash-fish. Of the trash-fish, 30.1% were small individuals of economically important species (Chantawong 1993). This is further evidence of the serious decline of the marine fishery.

Fisheries destruction is happening on a wider front. The mangrove forests, which provide the nursery habitat for fingerlings and juveniles of fish and other marine animals, decreased by an estimated 50% from 3679 km² to 1687km² during 1961-1993. There are two reasons for the decline of the mangrove forest. The first is the cutting of trees for charcoal and the second is tiger prawn aquaculture. By law, the owners of these businesses cannot trespass upon the conservation of mangrove forest. Unfortunately, because of the weakness of the law it fails to protect the mangrove forests. In addition, the waste-water draining from tiger prawn farms, which is mixed with pesticide and chemicals from prawn feed, has polluted the coastal areas, which are the fishing grounds of the artisanal fishermen and the nursery grounds for young fish.

2.3 Law and enforcement

The most important regulation is the Fisheries Act, B.E. 2490 (1947), which relates to fishermen and is usually used to control fishing activities in Thai waters. When the laws were written the marine resources were abundant. The main purpose of enacting this law was to manage the fisheries and collect taxes from fishermen. However, many of its sections are out-dated and it appears necessary to make changes because the situation of the fishery industry has changed. Alternatively, new legislation may be required. However, to achieve sustainable use of the marine resources, regulations should be accompanied by the creation of awareness and education of both the artisanal and commercial fishermen to conserve the sea’s resources. Weakness in law enforcement is not only the case in Thailand but it also occurs in all the countries in the Southeast Asia.

2.4 Unequal sharing of benefits and social conflicts

It may be seen that marine catch by commercial fishermen is far more than that caught by small-scale fishermen, who comprised (1990) 87% of the total fishermen in Thailand (Figure 1).

This unequal sharing between small and large-scale fishermen of the benefits from the marine resource leads to conflict among them. For instance, even though there is a regulation that trawlers and push netters are not allowed to operate in areas within 3 km of the shore, which is the fishing ground of small-scale fishermen, in practice control cannot be achieved. This is because the fine for illegal fishing is much lower than the benefit that the fishermen get from illegal fishing operations. The gear used also destroys the fish traps and small gill nets, which used in these inshore areas by the small-scale fishermen.

3. ATTITUDES OF THAI FISHERMEN TOWARD FISHERY MANAGEMENT AND FISHING-RIGHT SYSTEMS

3.1 Surveys of attitudes

Community-based fisheries management has become the focus of countries wishing to achieve better management of coastal fisheries and the fishing-right system as opposed to an open-access regime is an integral part of this. There have been efforts at testing the approach in many of Southeast Asian countries. In Thailand, there have been various research studies on this topic to determine the attitude of fishermen toward the problems and constraints of the present situation as well as to fishery management and the fishing-right system in their fishing activities.

Figure 1: Production volume of small-scale and large-scale fisheries

Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1992

According to the definition of the Department of Fishery of Thailand, “The fishing right is a kind of a property right, by which fishermen will have exclusive rights to use the sea areas and resources, which have been specified in each fishing right. In this system, a Territorial Use Right in Fishery will be granted to a fishermen’s group based on a legal framework (law) established by the government. With the Fishing Right System, fishermen themselves may create their own fisheries management systems, which should result in the conservation of fishery resources as well as an improvement to their income and living conditions."

The results of the interviews show that:

i. 79% of the interviewed fishermen agreed that the fishing right system, as defined by the Department of Fisheries, would ease conflicts between them and the commercial fishermen.

ii. More that 50% of the interviewed fishermen believed that the system would increase their catch and reduce fishing costs.

iii. 82% of interviewed fishermen agreed to take responsibilities for conserving and managing the fisheries resources.

iv. About 80% of the interviewed fishermen agreed that the government should continue law enforcement.

v. Almost 100% of the interviewed fishermen were uncertain whether the present fishery law is applicable to the system.

vi. The majority of the interviewed fishermen agreed that the government should urgently issue the laws and regulations that are required for the system.

vii. Most of the fishermen interviewed accepted the establishment of fishermen's management groups.

viii. 74% of the fishermen interviewed indicated an intention to participate in the activities of such groups.

³ There were six villages, Had Chao Mai, Ban Pra Muang, Ban Modtanoi and another three villages on Libong Island

Sustainable management of coastal marine resources should be the most important issue in fishery development policy and should take precedence over the need to increase marine production. However, both issues should be planned together so as to move in the same direction and to be mutually supportive. This means that the government should plan to increase marine production in the long-term by conserving and restoring marine resources to ensure that they will continue to be productive. The government should also have clear plans to support artisanal fishermen in this new role of taking care and protecting resources in the coastal areas. Any activities that work against the plans should be prohibited; including issuing of mangrove forest concessions for charcoal-making and tiger prawn farming, which are damaging the mangrove forests and the coastal areas. Trawling and push-netting operations, which damage the fishing grounds and destroy fish stock should also be banned.

3.3 The right to protect the coastal fisheries resources

In the fishery villages the artisanal fishermen must help to conserve the coastal resources in front of their villages by stopping the use of illegal fishing gear. However, because they have no authority to do so, they have often found that it is difficult to stop other fishermen who still use illegal gear. If they cannot stop them, the problem of declining of marine resources will not be solved. Local fishermen need the right to protect the sea. However, it should not be interpreted that they require authority to investigate and arrest fishermen who practice illegal fishing. They just need acceptance from other fishermen who are damaging the sea and that they have the authority to protect the resources used by their villages.

3.4 Support from extension agencies and organizations related to coastal marine resources management projects

There are many coastal marine resources management projects that involve the artisanal fishermen in certain villages in the southern part of Thailand; these projects include Mangrove Forest Planting, Sea Grass and Dugong Protection, Sea Turtle Conservation, Educational Projects for Village Members to Stop Illegal Fishing Gear and Artificial Reef Construction. These types of project need support from the government in terms of finance, scientific knowledge, advice, authorization, and the enforcement of legislation.

3.5 Raising awareness of artisanal fishermen toward the use of marine fishery resources

Many artisanal fishermen in the study area are still using illegal and destructive fishing gear, namely, dynamite, poison, push nets and baby trawls because such practices catch a lot of fish compared to the time and money invested. The fishermen do not know, or understand, that they are damaging the fishing grounds and fish stock and they are not aware of the importance to conserve the marine resources. Under these circumstances, they need to be made aware and understand the ecological web of this complex problem. If they can understand and accept the importance of marine conservation and the benefits they can get in the long-term, compliance will be assured.

3.6 Linkages with other local organizations

Due to the migratory nature of some marine resources, management of the coastal fishery resources cannot be done by an individual fisherman or a village within a particular area. The establishment of linkages between the local fishers’ organizations between villages has become necessary because they can coordinate among themselves through such linkages in management systems, sharing experiences and learning from each other how to cope with the problems. In some cases they need mutual support to exert their power and influence on national fishery policy.

In addition, the implementation of fishing-rights in Thailand is currently being conducted as a pilot project. This is in the nature of a feasibility study; studying fishermen’s attitudes toward the fishing-right system, studying the law and regulations; plus the implementation of a pilot project in Bangsapan district, Prajuab Kirikhan province. Here, open access to the sea and marine resources has been used for a long time. Fishermen are used to this system and afraid to use the new system. It takes time to educate fishermen to understand and accept a new system.

4. FISHING RIGHTS DEFINITIONS AND ESTABLISHMENT OF FISHING RIGHTS IN COASTAL FISHERY MANAGEMENT

There are many types of fishing rights are being used in various countries, which may be summarized as followed:

i. A fishing right is the right to fish, but also has a wider meaning. It can be described in terms of the licensing of fishing gear and boats, etc.

ii. Property right/ territorial use right (TURF) is the right to the resources within an area. This right can be granted to appropriate groups, giving the authority to use, manage and control harvesting. The definition is similar to the definition of the Department Fishery of Thailand mentioned above, which appears appropriate in the context of coastal fisheries management in Thailand.

iii. User rights are the rights to the resources within a particular area that may be granted to the original users of those resources. The users are the stakeholders in the exploitation of the resources.

The result of the IPFC Symposium 1987 (Piumsombun 1994) concluded that “Although there are various techniques for controlling excess capacity, it seems that the two techniques most relevant for Southeast Asia are the decentralization of management authority to local fishermen groups as for example, through territorial use rights in fisheries (TURFs), which are generally more suitable for small-scale fisheries, and the limitation of fishing units through a licensing system, generally more suitable for large scale fisheries".

In fishery management in the past, fishermen were forced to follow the fishery laws and regulations; seasonal closures, mesh size limit, fishing gear restriction, etc. This method of management was not successful because there was no participation from the local fishermen who are considered as resource users in this management. The fishermen lack the sense of ownership of the marine resources. They do not only take as much as they can from the sea, but also nobody takes care and accepts responsibility for the resources. Fishing Rights (TURFs) can be organized under the umbrella of a fishery management arrangement. Granting Fishing Rights (TURFs) to the fishermen, will enable them to create their own management system, which can solve the problems of fishery management in the past. “Resource users are resource managers”, is an approach that can allow fishery management to succeed. Involving local fishermen in the management can be achieved by encouraging and allowing them to participate in such activities. If they involve, or participate in these activities, awareness of the need to sustain marine resources will be created as Pretty (1995) states that: “One views community participation as a means to increase efficiency, the central notion being that if people are involved, then they are more likely to agree with and support the new development or service. The other sees community participation as a right, in which the main aim is to initiate mobilization for collective action, empowerment and institution building”.

The limited number of personnel and patrol boats may not be the reason for the problem of management failure. It should be understood that without conservation-awareness toward the marine resources of the fishermen themselves, there will never be enough manpower and patrol boats to make law enforcement effective. In some cases social sanctions are far more effective than legal sanctions for achieving compliance. Peer pressure increases compliance and the strong participation of fishers in management planning and implementation of the coastal fishery management activities reduces management costs including those for monitoring, control and surveillance of fishing activities. Social sanctions can also reduce excessive competition among fishers (both the small-scale fishery sector and the commercial sectors) and thus enable management of resources for optimum economic benefits for all concerned.

In the Regional workshop on Coastal Fisheries Management based on Southeast Asian Experiences, organized by SEAFDEC in 1996; it was concluded that the participatory approach must be given a high priority in coastal fisheries management. It also pointed out that community-based fisheries management can be developed and successful only when fishers understand that they own the fishery resources. Granting fishing rights to fishers, and a limited-entry scheme provides the best opportunity for them to establish their own organizations.

5. FISHERY COOPERATIVES IN FISHERY MANAGEMENT

5.1 Requirements for success

To manage coastal fishery resources with the participation of the local fishermen, it is necessary to encourage the local fishermen to build their own organization to participate in organizing management activities, to coordinate with the government and other institutions, and to share benefits from the resources among themselves. A fishing right can be granted to such organizations, and the government can devolve its authority to manage the marine resources to them. Such local organizations should belong to the fishermen by regulation and practice. They should have control over their organization in terms of management and sharing of the benefits. Fishery cooperatives are one of the possible means of organization.

5.2 Advantages of using fishery cooperatives to manage coastal fishery resources

The members of a cooperative are real members by law and practice. The members have rights to be involved in the cooperative’s activities and to monitor and select their own leaders. This can guarantee that the benefit of the cooperatives will be shared equally among the members. According to the principle of cooperatives, members will be encouraged to participate in and be responsible for the cooperative’s activities.

If management of the coastal fishery resources is successful, the production of the fishermen will increase. Marketing and processing of the products will be the issues that the fisher organizations have to deal with in the near future. The fishery cooperative is a legal organization that has the authority to run businesses concerned with fishery production and marketing. Mostly, activities of the cooperatives are involved with marketing and processing of fish and fishery products, providing their members with fishing equipment and other necessities at cheaper prices compared to the market, and in providing loans at low interest rates to their members.

Cooperatives can make full use of the local knowledge and experience of local fishers in formulating management regulations that fit local conditions. Rules and regulations are agreed upon by fishermen in advance, and thus do not need to be enforced by an outside agency. In the Regional workshop on Coastal Fisheries Management based on Southeast Asian Experiences organized by SEAFDEC in 1996 it was concluded that the establishment of fishers’ organizations or fishery cooperatives could lead to the success of cooperative-based fisheries management and fishery cooperatives can work if they are allowed to.

5.3 Factors to be considered in establishing and organizing cooperatives

Cooperatives should have clear benefits for the fishermen. Their activities should be concerned more with fishery management such as implementing community-base fishery management including the establishment of territorial use right fisheries (TURFs). Providing fishing rights will encourage the fishermen to become members of the cooperative.

The direction of cooperatives should focus on responding to the immediate problems or needs of the fishermen. They should concern themselves with both economic and fishery management activities. Providing support only for inputs for fishing operations may lead to the fishermen becoming more indebted if problems of fishery-resource decline are not yet solved. Involvment in coastal fishery management will allow cooperatives to have real power and be attractive to the fishermen.

A fishery cooperative law should be issued to facilitate the new direction and role of fishery cooperatives in fishery management. Most cooperatives concern themselves with economic activities to improve the living standards of their members. The objectives of fishery cooperatives should be both the short and long-term. Among short-term objectives should be to responses to the immediate problems of the fishermen, namely the development of fishing grounds. Long-term objectives should focus on the improvement of social conditions of fishermen and the sustainable development of fishery resources.

The current problems and constraints in the operation of fishery cooperatives, namely, a lack of understanding by the members of cooperative principles, lack the managerial skills of the committee members and cooperative workers, or low salaries for the cooperative workers should be minimized to ensure their success.

5.4 The role of fishery cooperatives in coastal fishery management

To represent the local fishermen in management of the coastal fishery resources, cooperatives should play an extra role beyond their normal activities. These extra roles could be as follows:

i. To be authorized and responsible for management of the fishing areas granted by the government.

ii. To delegate the fishing rights, e.g. TURFs, among the members of the cooperative.

iii. To use and manage the coastal fishery resources in fishing for the benefit of the members in the long-term.

iv. To set up coastal fishery management regulations for the fishing area with the involvement of the members.

v. To plan the coastal fishery development and management programmes.

vi. To create awareness of the members on sustainable fishery development.

vii. To coordinate between the government and the local fishermen.

There are many key conditions, which can make community-based fisheries management successful. The first and most important condition is the establishment of TURFs for fishing. It is important to establish the physical boundaries of such areas to be managed. This means the creation of a property right will grant the authority to the local fishermen to manage the area. The second condition is that the community-based fishery management concepts and regulations should be integrated into a framework of national fisheries policy and legislation. The third condition is support from the government, without which the management of the coastal marine resources with the participation of the artisanal fishermen may be unsuccessful. The support can come in terms of decentralization and delegation by the central government authority to local government and fishers’ organizations as well as the issuance of laws and regulations, that support the fishers’ organizations, such as fishery cooperatives. In addition, support may also include the provision of financial help, information and training to improve the skills and knowledge of the local fishermen in resource management and creating awareness of management needs among fishermen. The last important condition is the active participation of the fishermen in management planning and implementation in fishery management activities.

Apart from promoting fishing rights in coastal areas, control of the investments and licenses for commercial fisheries should also be done. And, development of the commercial fishery should be in line with coastal fishery management.

7. LITERATURE CONSULTED

Anuchiracheeva S. 1996. Dissertation for MSc course on “The Development of a Sustainable Fishery in Thailand Through Increased Participation of Artisanal Fishermen”, UK, The University of Reading, AERDD, 78 pp.

Chantawong, T. 1993. Monitoring in Phang-Nga Bay. Technical Paper No. 17/1993 Marine Resources Survey Unit Andaman Sea, Fishery Department Center, Marine Division, Department of Fisheries, Thailand. pp16

FAO 1997. “The Role of Fishery Cooperatives in Promoting Sustainable Coastal Fisheries in Thailand”, Report of the National Seminar, Thailand, 5-7 November 1997, 115 pp.

Fisheries Engineering Division 1995. “Fisheries Extension in Thailand”. Thailand: Department of Fisheries.

Menasvata, D. and P.I. Andhi 1968. “Country Paper: Thailand”. A paper submitted to the Seminar on Possibilities and Problems of Fisheries Development in Southeast Asia, Berlin, 10-30 September, 1968, FAO, 20 pp.

Piumsombun, S. 1994. Report on “the Socio-Economic Feasibility of introducing Fishing Right System in the Coastal Waters of Thailand”. Submitted to the IPFC Symposium, Thailand, 23-26 November 1993, FAO, 15 pp.

Pomeroy, R.S. and C. T. Annabele 1996. “Socio-economic Aspect of Artisanal Fisheries in Asia”, Perspective in Asia Fisheries, Philippines, ICLARM, 19 pp.

Pretty, J.N. 1995. Regenerating Agriculture: Policies and Practice for Sustainability and Self-Reliance. London, Earthscan Publications, pp320

SEAFDEC 1980. “Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area”, Thailand SEAFDEC, Training Department.

SEAFDEC 1985. “Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area”, Thailand SEAFDEC, Training Department.

SEAFDEC 1987. The Future of Thai Fisheries, Thailand, 4-6 June 1987. in Thai

SEAFDEC 1990. “Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area”, Thailand SEAFDEC, Training Department.

SEAFDEC 1992. “Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area”, Thailand SEAFDEC, Training Department.

SEAFDEC 1997. “Proceeding of The Regional Workshop on Coastal Fisheries Management based on Southeast Asian Experiences”. Thailand, 19-22 November 1996, 348 pp.

Wongsanga, P., K. Jantarashote, S. Aujimangkul, M. Kaewnern and P. Suanrattanachai 1997. “Attitudes of Small-Scale Fishery Toward the Fishing Rights System, A case Study on Fishery Households in Chantaburi Province”. Thailand, SEAFDEC, Training Department, 101 pp.