I. Dimensions of the problem

FATALITIES IN FISHERIES

Comparing fatality statistics in the fishing industry with those for other occupational categories reveals that fishing is one of the most dangerous occupations. In Australia, between 1982 and 1984, the fatality rate for fishermen was 18 times higher than the national average (143/100,000 person-years compared with 8.1/100,000); in Denmark, from 1989 to 1996, the rate was 25-30 times higher than the rate for those employed on land; in the United States in 1996, the death rate in fisheries was estimated at eight times that of persons operating motor vehicles for a living, 16 times higher than occupations such as fire-fighting and police work and over 40 times the national average. Other estimated comparative rates for 1997 include (x indicating the national average occupational fatality rate): Republic of Korea (15x); Estonia (11x); Italy (21x); Lithuania (11x); Poland (9x); Spain (6x); and Canada (3.5x).¹

Box 1. Estimated number of people engaged in fisheries

The ILO's Occupational Safety and Health Branch estimates that 24,000 fatalities occur worldwide per year in fisheries. It seems plausible that the fatality rates in countries for which data is not available might be higher than it is in those that do keep records. Recent reports from the Nordic countries indicate that the fatality rates in fisheries lie between 90 and 150 per 100,000, and yet the accident prevention, survival training and search and rescue services offered in these countries are among the best in the world.² From the developing countries much higher figures are cited: it has been estimated that fatality rates in Sri Lanka's offshore fisheries are ten times higher than in Norway³; a study on fatality rates in canoe fishing in Guinea in 1991-94 gave an indicative rate of 500 per 100,000; and in a number of other countries along the West African coast, the artisanal canoe fatality rates appeared to be in the range of 300 to 1,000 per 100,000 fishermen.⁴ Recent figures from South Africa report 585 fatalities per 100,000 fishermen.⁵

Box 2. Composition of the fishing fleet

INADEQUATE DOCUMENTATION OF INJURIES

Non-fatal injuries are very common in the fishing industry as shown by separate studies and records from national health and welfare services in many countries.⁶ In spite of the high numbers cited, it is clear that these injuries are grossly under-reported. According to an Icelandic pilot study on fishermen's attitudes towards safety, 80% of fishermen have either suffered an injury or witnessed someone else onboard being injured. Official injury reports do not reflect any such numbers.⁷ In general, records on injuries and fatalities in fisheries are inadequate and not comparable between countries, because of different systems of data collection and classification. Many countries do not provide any such records. Although the members of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) decided that the collection and analysis of statistical information on casualties, including fishing vessels and fishermen, should be prepared on an annual basis, they acknowledged in 1999 that there has been very limited response.⁸

The nature of employment arrangements in fishing, which may place many fishermen outside traditional occupational accident and disease reporting systems, also contributes to this lack of information. Where recorded, injuries in fisheries may be included in the more general category of Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing. The ILO recommends that governments should adopt classification schemes which are convertible to the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), revision 3.⁹ Classifying fisheries as a separate entity is warranted by the unique and dangerous working conditions, which cause more accidents than are known in any other occupation. The causes of accidents need to be identified so that preventive actions can be defined and prioritized.

Uniformity in data collection between countries or regions is an ambitious goal, which may never be attained. However, this is mainly important for comparative studies. Whether comparable or not, collecting data on accidents within each region is important for the planning and prioritizing of preventive actions. Only by knowing where and how accidents occur, can suitable measures for intervention be found. Fisheries are very diverse. Vessels range from huge and highly mechanized factory trawlers down to one-man, dug-out canoes. The causes of accidents obviously reflect the type of fisheries involved, vessel, gear, climate and weather, conditions at sea, harbouring facilities, etc. Not least, the "human factor" is of prime importance, including inadequate training, lack of experience and skills, recklessness, undermanning and fatigue to name but a few. Often risk factors coincide, as aptly put by the US Coast Guard officers, who note that sometimes "vessels are operated in an unsafe condition, in unsafe places at unsafe times".¹⁰

The word "accident" implies that the event in question is isolated and unforeseen. Indeed, some of the losses or injuries to fishing vessel and crew are regarded as unavoidable casualties of unpredictable and often treacherous working conditions at sea. Inevitably, however, a combination of circumstances and incidents lead up to the unfortunate event. One useful way to look at why accidents occur and to emphasize the complexity of accident causation, is illustrated by "Reason's model" put forward by Prof. James Reason of Manchester University, U.K. This model looks beyond the immediate circumstances of the accident and scrutinizes the preconditions at the time of the occurrence. This may be a useful tool in identifying who should take what actions to prevent and mitigate the effect of future accidents.

Figure 2. Reason's model

Box 3. Reason's model

INHERENT DANGERS IN FISHERIES

The main reason for fishing being so dangerous is the fact that the human being is a terrestrial species. To humans, being immersed in water constitutes a lethal danger. People drown in swimming pools and even in bathtubs. Onboard a vessel, work is conducted under strenuous conditions on a moving, exposed and slippery platform where people often need to assume awkward work postures. These circumstances cause constant physical strain and contribute to long-term fatigue, which is further exacerbated by excessively long working hours. Fatigue in itself increases the danger of injuries.¹¹ Vessels carrying shifting loads increase risk of injuries and loss of stability, with consequent dangers of capsizing or losing people overboard. Fishermen are often obliged to perform multiple tasks for which they may have limited training. Certain gear types are inherently very dangerous, particularly when the weather is bad. Both vessel and gear require good maintenance, which is very often not provided, in spite of the fact that the fleet is becoming older. Statistics from Lloyd's show that the mean age of industrial vessels over 24m is 20 years.¹² No such data are available for small-scale fisheries, but there is no reason to believe that artisanal fishermen are in a position to renew their boats more often than the owners of larger vessels. The poor condition of artisanal vessels has indeed been documented in numerous field projects led by FAO and others.¹³

Fishermen depend on their vessels for their survival. If the vessel is lost, it is probable that some or all of the crew will lose their lives too. The most common causes of fishing vessel casualties include capsizing, foundering, fire/explosion and collision. From the fisherman's perspective, these causes have their roots in economic pressure, luck or fate, unexpected weather lack of knowledge about the equipment fatigue and stress. ¹⁴ The design, construction, maintenance and operation of the vessel all directly affect safety and health. Risks vary with each type of fishing, the fishing grounds and weather conditions, vessel size, equipment carried and the job of each fisherman. Bad weather and loss of engine power constitute a major risk to every vessel, perhaps greater to small boats, which are more easily damaged and flooded. On larger vessels, the fishing gear and other heavy equipment pose a considerable risk of death or injury to the crew. On small vessels, the risk of capsizing while pulling in a large catch, being flooded in heavy seas, run down by a larger vessel and even attacked by dangerous marine animals can be considerable. Where harbours and shelter are not available, crossing surf may be very dangerous. Thus, different safety problems are associated with each type of fisheries.

As mentioned above, the registration and classification of personal injuries varies between countries, making it difficult to compile and compare the data from different nations. However, it seems clear that the most common cause of fatality is the loss of the vessel, followed by man over board and being crushed by a heavy object. The danger of drowning in harbour is considerable too. Reported non-fatal injuries are most commonly fractures of arms or legs, injuries to the head and neck and amputations of fingers, hands, arms and legs. In addition there are a high number of injuries that are not reported, for a variety of reasons, one being that they do not lead to prolonged loss of work or form a basis for financial compensation. These injuries are obviously impossible to quantify or classify, but it is an accepted fact that they are very common and involve damages such as cuts and wounds, sprains and contusions. These health hazards seem to be accepted in fisheries, while most land-based professions would consider them as intolerable.

At the ILO Tripartite Meeting in Geneva in 1999, Dr. Kristinsson, Medical Officer to the Search and Rescue Helicopter Medical Group in Iceland reported on recent findings concerning injuries in the Icelandic fisheries, which can be generally regarded as highly mechanized and technically advanced. Considerable effort has been put into reducing the risk of injuries in recent years. While there is reason to believe that fatal accidents in Iceland are fewer now than ten years ago, the same is not the case with nonfatal injuries. Every year, 10% of fishermen in general, and 15% of fishermen on trawlers are subject to injuries. Accidents involving fishermen are more common the longer they have been on the job, and there is threefold risk of a fatal accident if the seaman has been more than ten years on the job.¹⁵ Possible explanations might be that the more experienced are likely to be entrusted with the dangerous tasks and may be more prone to taking risks. Also, younger crew members are more likely to have received safety training than the older ones. This gives reason to hope that concerted efforts in improving safety education and training of fishermen may result in reduced accident rates, along with improved vessel design, construction and working conditions on board.