Figure 3.1.3.1.
Total aquaculture production in Southeast Asia increased from 1.12 million mt in 1984 to 2.45 million mt in 1995. The increase has been steady since 1984 with a distinct increase in the average rate of production in 1987 which continued until 1994 at an APR of 8.4. Production by weight in the sub-region increased by only 1.5% in 1995 (Figure 3.1.3.1), mainly as a result of decreased production in Thailand that year of approximately 10% (Figure 3.1.3.2). The total value of aquaculture within this sub-region increased from US$1.06 thousand million in 1984 to US$6.47 thousand million in 1995, with an APR of 17.9.

Figure 3.1.3.2.
Southeast Asia’s contribution to global aquaculture production in 1995 was 8.8% by weight and 15.3% by value. It’s share of total fisheries production by weight increased from 12.6% in 1984 to 17.7% in 1995. Within this sub-region, the Philippines continues to dominate production and in 1995 contributed 33.2% of the total by weight (Figure 3.1.3.2). Indonesia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Malaysia and Myanmar contributed 29.4%, 18.9%, 9.0%, 5.4%, and 3.0% by weight, respectively. However, in terms of value, Thailand ranked first in 1995 with a share of 29.3%, while Indonesia and the Philippines accounted for 28.8% and 19.6%, respectively. To a large extent, the relative production of high-value species such as penaeid shrimp accounts for these differences in the countries mentioned. Between 1984 and 1994, Thailand witnessed the highest growth, with a 4.6- and 17.3-fold increase in production by weight and by value, respectively.

Aquaculture plays a significant role in local food fish production and animal protein consumption in most countries in this sub-region. The contribution of fish to total animal protein consumption in Indonesia and the Philippines was over 50% (53.5% and 51.5%, respectively) in 1993 (Laureti, 1996); in Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam, this contribution was more than 35%, and in others varied between 11.1% and 23.6% for the same year. The share of fish within animal protein consumption decreased in many countries in the sub-region from 1984 to 1993; for example, in Brunei Darussalam from 28.9% to 11.1%; Malaysia from 39.8% to 21.6%; Philippines from 61.3% to 51.5%; there were declines also in Cambodia and Laos. Only Thailand and Indonesia had a notable increase in per caput fish consumption in the sub-region during 1984 to 1993 (from 20.7 kg to 26.5 kg, and from 13.3 kg to 16.0 kg, respectively). All other countries demonstrated a gradual reduction in per caput fish consumption during the same period; e.g., Brunei Darussalam from 47.5 kg to 20.4 kg; Malaysia from 40.4 kg to 29.0 kg (Laureti, 1996).

Figure 3.1.3.3.
Although freshwater fish dominate Southeast Asian aquaculture production (29% by weight and 57% by value in 1995), the sub-region also produces considerable quantities of other important species groups, including crustaceans (24% by weight and 30% by value in 1995) and aquatic plants (24% by weight and 10% by value in 1995) (Figure 3.1.3.3). Diadromous fish and molluscs contributed 13% and 9% by weight, respectively.

Figure 3.1.3.4.

Figure 3.1.3.5.
Indonesia ranks first in Southeast Asia in terms of freshwater fish production (0.3 million mt in 1995). Viet Nam, Thailand, and the Philippines rank next in the list, producing 0.15, 0.1, and 0.09 million mt in 1995, respectively. However, Thailand’s freshwater fish production in 1995 decreased from 1994; 0.17 to 0.10 million mt, reflecting a general reduction in the production of all species, including carps, catfishes, snakeheads and tilapias. This may have been due to the heavy floods which occurred in Thailand in 1995. The Philippines also recorded a decline in freshwater fish production in 1995, including tilapias and cyprinids, perhaps owing to the reduced aquaculture activity in Laguna de Bay, a major site of aquaculture production.

Production of aquatic plants in this sub-region increased considerably from 1984 to 1995, from 0.2 to 0.6 million mt by weight and US$304.2 million to US$627.0 million by value. These figures reflect the expanding red seaweed production in Indonesia, Eucheuma spp. production in the Philippines, and Gracilaria spp. production in Viet Nam. By contrast, diadromous fish production (milkfish, in particular) in this sub-region has been in a state of gradual decline since 1992 (0.23 million mt in 1991 to 0.13 million mt in 1995 in the Philippines alone). Although marine fish contribute little to Southeast Asian aquaculture production, the culture of certain species such as groupers (Epinephelus spp.) increased significantly during 1994-95. Production of the diadromous species barramundi (Lates calcarifer) also increased during the same period.

Figure 3.1.3.6.
Crustacean production in Southeast Asia is dominated by penaeid shrimp, especially the giant tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon. In 1995, the sub-region produced 0.48 million mt of P. monodon, 96.4% share of the total world production. Other crustacean species cultured include P. merguiensis, P. indicus, Metapenaeus spp., Macrobrachium rosenbergii, and a few species of crabs. Total crustacean production in the sub-region increased (with some fluctuation) within all major producing countries from 1984 to 1994 (Figure 3.1.3.6); the highest APR for crustaceans was recorded by Thailand (33.0). In Indonesia, crustacean production has stagnated at around 140,000 mt since 1991 (with little fluctuation). The production of Thai crustaceans decreased by 2.1% during 1994-1995, owing to the recent shrimp viral disease outbreak, SEMBV, which significantly affected production in the entire Asian region (Flegel, 1996). The reduction in crustacean production in the Philippines can also be attributed to disease. It is doubtful that the epizootic viral disease SEMBV has reached the Philippines; the production losses are reported to be due mainly to luminous vibriosis caused by Vibrio harveyi (Lavilla-Pitogo, 1996). Although the sub-region has suffered from serious disease-related losses to the shrimp sector over the past four years, there has been a small increase in total production, possibly due to successful intensification of culture practices; nevertheless, this may reflect an increase of farming areas in certain countries.

The share of Southeast Asia in global crustacean production by weight in 1995 was 52.5%. Compared with 1984, this reflects an increase of about 10.5%. However, the contribution of crustaceans to the total value of aquaculture production in Southeast Asia decreased slightly from 27.3% in 1984 to 26.5% in 1995. Apart from shrimp, considerable production of crabs (Scylla serrata) has been reported from the Philippines. This production has been increasing steadily from 1984 (833 mt) to 1993 (6,000 mt), although it decreased to 3,000 mt in 1995. There is also a small quantity of crabs produced in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Viet Nam. The only country reporting lobster production (Panulirus spp.) is Singapore (51 mt in 1995). Production of giant freshwater prawns has declined in the sub-region; Thailand remains the biggest producer (5,000 mt in 1995).

Total mollusc production in Southeast Asia increased from 0.14 million mt in 1984 to 0.21 million mt in 1995. The highest producer in 1995 was Malaysia with 0.10 million mt. Mollusc production in Malaysia and Thailand increased gradually over the past decade (with slight fluctuations), while in the Philippines there was a reduction between 1993 and 1995. Production of molluscs in Singapore also has been on the increase (526 mt in 1984 vs. 2,500 mt in 1995), although its share of sub-regional production is small. The major species produced in these countries are blood cockle (Anadara granosa), brown mussel (Mytilus viridis), green mussel (M. smaragdinus), Philippine cupped oyster (Crassostrea iredalei), and other oysters (Crassostrea spp.).

Aquaculture in many Southeast Asian countries is dominated by finfish species feeding low in the food chain, such as milkfish, carps and tilapias, although some countries of the sub-region (Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand) culture increasing amounts of high-value carnivorous fish. Shrimp, P. monodon in particular, provide a significant contribution to the total value of aquaculture production in this sub-region. The production of aquatic plants and molluscs has also increased over the past decade. Although the rate of increase of freshwater fish culture has declined over the past few years, marine finfish culture and production of high-value species appear to have commenced in many countries.

Thailand became the world’s top producer of cultured shrimp in 1991 by adopting appropriate culture systems. This has also been due to its suitable climatic conditions, soil and water temperature, availability of wild broodstock, long experience in aquaculture, seafood processing and trade, good infrastructure and transport facilities, and locally produced farm equipment and feeds (Kongkeo, 1994).

However, shrimp culture in the sub-region, including Thailand, continues to face considerable problems from disease. Recent emergence of viral diseases, such as Monodon baculo virus disease (MBV), Yellow-head virus disease (YHV), and systemic ectodermal and mesodermal baculo virus (SEMBV), which have spread through the sub-region in epizootic levels, has caused severe economic damage to the sector (see Section 2.2, Fish Health and Quarantine). Unregulated and unplanned expansion, resulting in environmental problems such as self-pollution of water supplies, is said to have contributed to this calamity; introduction of exotic pathogens through unregulated transboundary movement of broodstock and post-larvae may also have contributed to the problem (Subasinghe et al., 1996).

As diseases are becoming a major constraint to penaeid shrimp production in the sub-region, control strategies are also emerging and significant research has been undertaken by both the state and the private sector. New and appropriate water management systems to minimize contact between cultured shrimp and exotic vectors and pathogens have been developed with considerable success (Flegel, 1996). In addition, new assays from genetic engineering using nucleic acid probes are evolving; the recent development of a polymerase chain reaction process for the detection of SEMBV (Wongteerasupaya et. al., 1996) can be considered as a major breakthrough in combating viral epizootics in penaeid shrimp culture. It is also important to note that investments from the private sector are now being made for research undertaken by reputed research establishments, which is an encouraging trend.

The environmental impact of shrimp culture remains a controversial area and trade concerns are being increasingly raised. This has led to further promotion by sub-regional countries of environmentally friendly farming techniques, with considerable attempts being made within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to harmonize farm management practices (Pawaputanon, 1997). However, it is likely that new strategies may be required to integrate shrimp farming into coastal management planning for balanced allocation of land resources. Fortunately, aquaculture development in Southeast Asia is receiving increasing attention within the context of coastal planning and management (Barg, 1992; Phillips, 1995; FAO/NACA, 1995) and environmental management of inland aquaculture has also been duly considered (Muir, 1992). Efforts have been made to develop approaches for planning for multiple resource-use objectives, while satisfying short-term financial and economic criteria as well as longer-term sustainability goals of the sub-region. Institutional support and policy may further evolve to include such issues, particularly in coastal areas receiving pressure from diverse developments in various sectors.

One of the critical constraints for overall, resource-based aquaculture development and environmental management in the sub-region has been the lack of policy frameworks to integrate the sectors concerned. The underlying need for such rational and uniform cross-sectoral approaches for aquaculture development in Southeast Asia has highlighted the importance of economic criteria in terms of conventional resource allocation decisions, and has raised questions concerning economic instruments for pollution control (and natural resource management), including licensing procedures, loading-related charges, and environmental recovery taxes (Barg, 1992; Van Houtte, 1994).

Another constraint to planning and sustainable development in aquaculture is inadequate knowledge concerning potential areas for development or expansion (Chua, 1992). The development of a system and procedures for regulating and monitoring provides an ideal opportunity to develop a strategic approach to managing the marine coastal environment, thus providing opportunities for sustainable expansion and development of coastal and marine aquaculture in the sub-region.

Recent shrimp culture problems have also led to an increasing interest in diversification of aquaculture in the sub-region, e.g. in marine and brackishwater fish species, particularly high-value species such as Epinephelus spp., L. calcarifer, and other coral reef associated species, mainly as export items to neighbouring areas such as China, SAR of Hong Kong. In fact, some sectors view aquaculture of such species as a means of taking pressure off threatened wild stocks (Johannes and Riepen, 1997). The major concern is the lack of consistently successful hatchery and nursery techniques for major species, and the possible decline of the resource base. However, several groups are now actively researching in this area and some countries are even looking into offshore cage culture of some of these high-value species (Dahle, 1995).

Maintaining the hygienic quality of products from aquaculture for international markets is becoming an important issue. Efforts are underway within the ASEAN region to include practices needed to improve food hygiene, including the adoption of the hazard analysis of critical control points (HACCP) concept from aquaculture production to processing (Surawanrangsi et. al., 1997).

Aquaculture will continue to play an increasingly important role in food security planning in many countries in the Southeast Asian region, with policies evolving in several countries to address the anticipated short-fall in fishery products from capture fisheries. In less-developed countries of the sub-region such as Viet Nam, Laos and Cambodia, greater emphasis is given to fish production for food security and rural development, as the governments promote aquaculture as a mean of poverty alleviation and food supply in many rural areas. This is clearly reflected in the continued increase in production of freshwater fish in these countries. Recent experiences in Viet Nam suggest that aquaculture in rural areas can promote rural development, food security, and women’s participation in development. Such efforts need to be further strengthened (FAO/NACA, in press). Increased use of fish for direct human consumption rather than conversion to fishmeal or direct feeding to carnivorous marine fish is also an issue which has gained interest in the sub-region.

Management practices for shrimp farming to deal with disease and environmental problems are likely to develop further. Considering the difficulties that the sub-region has faced over the past few years, slower expansion of shrimp culture is anticipated in most countries. Thailand, for example, has a policy for no expansion of farming into new areas. International trading concerns may also be an additional spur to enhance environmental management of shrimp culture. There may be foci on management policies, legislative frameworks, institutional support for better integration of aquaculture into coastal areas and reduction of environmental impacts. Resolution of such problems through improved farm management practices and better coastal management policies could lead to slower but continued, and probably more sustainable, growth in shrimp culture, and a better platform for growth in other aquaculture species (Subasinghe and Barg, in press).

Freshwater fish production will likely see continued growth in most countries in the sub-region. Aquaculture as a contribution to food security and rural development will become more important in some countries, especially less developed countries of the sub-region. Such efforts are likely to be supported by development agencies, and will possibly receive increased support in government policy planning and development as concerns and awareness over future fish supplies increase. More attention is likely to be given to the potentially important role of aquaculture as a contributor to rural development.

Diversification will continue to take place within marine finfish culture. The trend towards producing high-value species will increase, and even accelerate if hatchery problems can be overcome. This trend will lead to an increased focus on development of effective, yet economic feeds, in particular feeds with lower fishmeal content. This type of development trend may even require some new technologies such as offshore cages, although economic viability of such interventions will remain a question. Research efforts are likely to continue in these areas. Furthermore, mangrove crab culture may increase considerably if hatchery constraints can be overcome. Other species are also likely to be investigated. In freshwater, several new indigenous species may be bred, especially in the Mekong area, as countries are showing an interest in development of culture of indigenous freshwater species.

The demand for processed products will increase as consumers, especially those from more developed countries, become more affluent. The demand for certain processed products can be met partly by the conversion of raw fish protein material into products with similar characteristics. For example, the product from fish flesh extraction, known as surimi, is currently being used to make substitutes for crab meat. Such processing techniques will allow adjustments in demand and supply by converting low-priced species to high-priced products and hence reduce the importance of species characteristics (FAO, 1995).

Southeast Asian aquaculture will see continued growth and technological development, an increasing amount of which will be in the commercial sector. There is likely to be a substantial science and technology input; increased output will be associated with greater demand on resources and a far greater need to reconcile conflicting demands. While production of aquatic species for export markets is increasing, rural aquaculture for local markets will also be developed, although economic changes may reduce incentives for non-urban activities. Rice-fish culture and other forms of integrated aquaculture will become more important in less-developed countries, and local species will receive greater attention.

Institutional involvement will become increasingly specialized, e.g. scientific support, specialized training, monitoring and regulation, and in some cases may link with private-sector development to provide exportable services.

Since more than 13% of total production in the sub-region is used to produce fishmeal, oil and other non-food products, there may also be a possible shift from non-food to food uses. Although the technology for converting this raw material into products for human consumption is available, the cost effectiveness of such processes is questionable and does not seem to attract investments at present. Nevertheless, the demand for high quality fishmeal for aquaculture is increasing (Ahmad, 1995).

Overall, the future for aquaculture development in Southeast Asia is good and the sub-region will continue to produce all types of aquatic products, including plants. The sub-region will overcome its constraints for such development, especially the environmental concerns, by addressing common resource utilization concepts and probably acting as a group within the larger existing economic groupings.

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