From the establishment of RFD up to the present, collection of and trade in non-wood forest products have been considered as small-scale enterprises with great fluctuations in trade quantities. No concessions were granted for these products. Permits were issued on an annual or short-term basis for some commodities. Records on the harvest of these products were scarce and incomplete.
It is clear that the significance of non-wood forest products in the rural and national economies has been little appreciated. Yet non-wood forest products can play a key role in alleviating rural poverty; they offer the poor a means to increase both their food production and their incomes.
Utilization. In Thailand, only about 60-70 percent of the population use modern health services. The rest rely on traditional remedies using medicinal plants. More than 1,000 medicinal plant species are used, including trees, shrubs, climbers, fungi, and herbs. Hundreds have been found to have commercial value, and some species have been reported to have economic potential in drug production. Drugs are derived from various parts of the plant including fruits, flowers, leaves, stems, and roots.
The most important biologically active compounds are the alkaloids, followed by several other classes of compounds such as turpenoids and saponis. Specific chemicals regarded as being of commercial importance include colchicine and diosgenin. Some medicinal plants and spices of commercial importance and traditional use in medicine are Rauwolfia serpentina, Gloriosa superba, Cassia augustifolis, amomum hrevanh, Dioscorea spp., Derris elliptical, Hydrocarpus anthelmintica, Calophyllum inophyllum, and Stemona tuberosa.
With the establishment of the Medicinal Plants Information Centre at Mahidol University in 1997, the commercial utilization of medicinal plants has been encouraged and greatly improved. More than 1,000 species have been screened and studied. Some of the products extracted are diosgenin, reserpine, alkaloids of belladonna, glycosides of digitalis, lemon grass oil, and menthol. Also the Government Pharmaceutical Organization has in its product line several preparations which have some components extracted from indigenous medicinal plants. Hundreds of private companies with licenses for drug production and small non-licensed home workshops use different types of herbs in the preparation of traditional drugs. Utilization of medicinal plant products has been largely as crude drugs. The Ministry of Public Health has estimated that national consumption of this natural resource has so far surpassed the amount collected that about 50 percent has to be imported.
Resource base, production, and employment. The medicinal plants can be from natural sources or cultivated. The natural sources are the forests and in the remnants of forests in farms and orchards, as well as ponds, and other places. The forests are still the main source. Cultivation is usually for species which have other regular uses, for example as food ingredients.
After collection, the plant parts are chopped or sliced, sun-dried, put into plastic or gunny bags, and sold to traders, wholesalers, manufacturers, and processors. The collection, handling, marketing, and processing of medicinal plants is a labour intensive process. Employment in plant collection is estimated to be about 15,000-20,000 in full-time equivalent. Trading and processing further generate 30,000-40,000 full-time equivalent employment.
Marketing, exports, and imports. From wholesalers and processors, the products are supplied to retailers and specialists in traditional medicine, then to consumers. Some wholesalers are processors, exporters, and importers as well. The Bangkok Chakawat area is a major trading area for medicinal plants. A rapid appraisal of Bangkok wholesale stores showed that there are about 35 species each with an annual sale value of more than 100,000 baht.
In 1980, about 400 million baht worth of medicinal plants were consumed domestically. Of this about 126.6 million baht worth were imported, but Thailand also exported about 3.7 million baht worth of medicinal plants. But in 1980 to 1987, there were an appreciable changes in the import and exports of medicinal plant, but in 1988-1990 exports increased while imports decreased. Exports were worth 133.4 and 77.4 million baht, and imports, 81.6 and 77.8 million baht in 1989 and 1990, respectively.
Problems and recommendations. Traditional medicine is the concern of the medical sector, but problems concerning the supply of medicinal plants are shared among the medical, agricultural, and forestry sectors. The medical sector has problems in promoting traditional medicine because of its lack, incomplete compilation, or unorganized knowledge of the large number of medicinal plants in the Kingdom; inadequate research; heavy reliance on modern medicine and industrial products by medical practitioners; and shortage of supplies, especially those from the forest. Support from the forestry sector is needed in conserving the resource base for medicinal plants. This can be done by:
· The effective conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity, particularly in the Protected Area System.
· The promotion of biodiversity conservation by forest communities who will be assigned the sustainable management of the natural multipurpose forest.
· Collaborative effort among scientists in the medical, agricultural, and forestry sectors in such study areas as taxonomy, collection, and propagation of medicinal plants.
Utilization. More than 30,000 communities in Thailand, or about 60 percent of the rural population, continue to rely on getting some of their food from natural sources. About one million families of hill-tribe people and forest dwellers live under rudimentary conditions and insufficiency in food supply, Food hunted or collected from the forest and adjoining areas constitutes a significant component of their diet. For other people, natural food is not so important, but it dose have a role in providing variety to the diet and important vitamins.
Natural food comes in to major groups: natural vegetables and edible mushrooms. Several plant parts are used in daily consumption, such as root, tuber, shoot, stem, leaf, bark, flower, bud, fruit, seed, seed pod, and seeding. They are generally used as fresh or boiled vegetables.
Resource base, production and employment. More than 500 species of edible plants have been listed as being available in Thai markets. About 180 native species of edible plants and 50 species of edible mushrooms from the North and Northeast, natural food accounts for as much as half of the total food consumption of some villagers.
The forest and remnant vegetation in common lands, paddy fields, streambanks, and ponds represents important sources of these food groups. Food production in these areas is highest in the rainy season. In other seasons, production declines as the water disappears. Mushrooms have been cultivated during the last 30 years, and annual production is abut 70,000 t, valued at 1,100 million baht.
There are no estimates available on the amount of food collected from natural sources. TFSMP estimates are that at least one million families of forest dwellers spend about 180 person-days per family per year in collecting food and another three million families living near the forest spend about 60 person-days per family per year collecting food. A large segment of the rural Thai population therefore depend to a large extent on the forest and other natural sources for food. If the resource base is not protected, then up to 40 percent of the Thai population will be seriously affected, unless they can find new sources of income to buy food in the market.
Marketing, exports and imports. About 85 percent of major natural food products such as bamboo shoots, mushrooms and vegetables are consumed within the households. Excess quantities are sold in the local markets and to wholesalers.
Exports of natural vegetables have been insignificant, and have been directed mainly to emigrants from Southeast from Southeast Asia. Exports of mushroom have been less than 1 percent of domestic production, ranging from 4.1 to 17.7 million baht in 1980-1990, while mushroom imports ranged from 1.8 to 38.0 million baht during the same period.
Problems and recommendations. Most of the natural food that can be cultivated have been raised on farms, particularly the annual plants. Perennials take longer to produce food, but many are now also being cultivated. Technically and economically viable ways to cultivate and propagate other edible plants species can be found. In the meantime, the dwindling resource base must be protected or its biodiversity will be lost forever. There is therefore an urgent need to:
· Promote proper management and conservation by forest communities of the remaining natural base for edible plants, including the replenishment of depleted growing stocks by assisted natural regeneration.
· Promote multipurpose crops incorporating agroforestry techniques as an important part of the agroforestry and forest plantation development programme.
· Develop technology for the propagation of edible plants, and for reducing losses in their harvesting, processing, storage, and transport.
· Develop capability of institutions for effective delivery of support services such as research information dissemination and extension.
Utilization. Rattans are a spiny, climbing plants belonging to the subfamily Calmoideae of the palm family. It forms the raw material principally for furniture, although several other articles, such as baskets, are made from it. It is strong, durable and bends readily to allow formation of a wide variety of shapes. Although rattan is classified as a minor forest product, its commercial and social importance is second only to timber in some countries.
Resource base, production, and employment. In Thailand, there are six genera (Calamus, Daemonorops, Korthatsia, Ptectocomia, Ptectocomiopsis, and Myriatepis) and more than 50 species, most of which occur in the South. Only about a dozen species, all belonging to the genus Calamus, are used commercially.
In Thailand, all rattan canes are collected from the wild. As a result of deforestation and over-exploitation, Thailand has lost most of its rattan resources. Other countries have been cultivating a few rattan species for many years, but Thailand has attempted to cultivate only one, Calamus caesius. Private investment in rattan has not picked up because of lack of know-how, the long growing period for rattan, and the lack of systematic promotion.
The first rattan plantation was established in Narathiwat over the years 1968-1978; then other plantations followed in Ranong, Surat Thani, and Chumpon in 1979, and Narathiwat in 1980-1985. A total of 3,669 rai (587 ha) have been planted to rattan. The planting were mainly species trials. Results in Narathiwat show that rattan grows slowly in the first 5 years (0.6-1.0m/year), but grows faster at 10-15 years of age (2-3 m/year).
Rattan collection is a simple process. The selection of canes to cut depends on species and age, the mature canes being recognized by the leaf sheath having fallen. The stem is cut 30-200 cm above ground. The uppermost 3-4 m is usually soft and is cut off. The leaf sheaths are rubbed off manually, and the cane cut to length depending on species, size, convenience, and buyer requirements. In Thailand, there is no pre-factory treatment.
Data on rattan collection are scanty. The RFD figures represent only what is collected with permits. Licensed production fluctuated in the early to mid-1980s, and has been declining since 1987, when 5,960 tonnes, valued at 74.5 million baht, were collected. In 1990, the licensed production was 1,098 tonnes, valued at 15.2 million baht. While the licensed production is only a part of total production, the declining trend is clear and can be expected to continue into the future.
Rapid appraisal conducted by TFSMP with the Department of Industrial Works revealed that there are about 210 cottage rattan factories producing mainly for the domestic market. Bangkok has 190 of these, the North 11, and the South (including some prisons) 9. These enterprises employ 2-10 workers each. There are 6 large, export-oriented factories employing a total of 1,300 workers. Estimated rattan demand is 30,000 t/year, two-thirds of it for the small enterprises. These figures are far beyond present production, which is officially about 1000 t/year. In 1980, the rattan demand was only 12,180 tonnes.
Marketing, exports, and imports. Rattan collection is somewhat seasonal because workers go to the forest only during slack periods. The collected rattan goes to traders who sell it to the various industries. The large factories import rattan directly. In the 1980s, both export of canes and import of rattan furniture have been insignificant. Import of canes and export of rattan furniture increased steadily until 1988. In 1980, 10.2 million baht worth of canes were imported, and 160.6 million baht worth of rattan furniture were exported. In 1988, 244.4 million baht worth of canes were imported, and 1,244.9 million baht worth of rattan furniture were exported. Since then both cane imports and rattan furniture exports have declined, because of the cane export ban imposed by the major producing countries in 1989.
Problems and recommendations. The decline in the resource base has affected not only Thailand, but also other countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. In Thailand, the expansion of rubber plantations in the South and farms in forests nation-wide has left the Kingdom with a very small rattan resource base. The exact size of the remaining resource is unknown, yet rattan collection continues. The growing demand for rattan furniture in the world market has led to greater competition among rattan furniture exporting countries, and has fuelled the rapid depletion of the resource. To save the resource and the industry upon which it is based, there is an urgent need to:
· Step up research on the sustainable cane harvesting capacity of the natural resource base, covering both favoured and unexploited rattan species.
· Promote the establishment of rattan plantations by identifying suitable sites, conducting feasibility studies, research on the technology for raising rattan, securing investments, and designing management schemes.
· Providing support for proper management of the remaining resource and for plantation establishment by policy and institutional reform, promotion campaigns addressed to farmers and industries, and provision of incentives.
Utilization. Thailand has 12 genera and about 60 species of bamboo, the main ones being Thyrsostachy siamensis, Bambusa blumeana, B. polymorpha, B. mana, B. tulda, B. arundinacea, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. giganteus, and D. brandisi.
In Thailand, bamboo is used extensively as a substitute of timber in construction, scaffolding, ladders, bridges, and fences, and in pulp making. Numerous articles of daily use, such as baskets, furniture, tool handles, beds, sticks, poles, brushes, pipes, fans, umbrellas, toys, musical instruments, water containers, and fishing rods and traps, are made of bamboo of different species. These varied uses illustrate the versatility of bamboo as an economic commodity. About 80 percent of the bamboo production in the Kingdom goes to the various non-industrial uses, and about 20 percent to the pulp industry (mainly the pulp mill in Khon Kaen.)
Resource base, production, and employment. Bamboos constitute the natural undergrowth in deciduous forests. In forest areas disturbed by shifting cultivation or fire, bamboos can become the dominant vegetation. The latest survey of bamboo (1988) showed that bamboo covers a total area of about 5.06 million rai. On the basis of an average annual yield of 0.1 t/ha green weight, the Kingdom' s potential annual production of bamboo from natural sources is about half a million tonnes.
In addition to the natural sources, bamboos are also grown in small plots along fences and around homesteads for domestic use. A bamboo plantation can yield an average annual net revenue of 5,600 baht/rai. Because of this attractive yield, commercial bamboo plantations for edible shoot production using D. asper have expanded rapidly, particularly in Nakon Nayok and Prachin Buri where soil and climatic conditions are favourable for bamboo growing. About 107,000 rai of bamboo plantations have been established under the extension programme of DAE.
Average bamboo production from 1980 to 1990 was 49.2 million culms, or about 147,600 t. About 4,400 t were exported and 143,200 t were used locally. No trend can be discerned in the annual harvest, but a comparison between 1985 and 1990 shows a decrease in the use of bamboo in rural construction from 33 percent of total consumption in 1985 to 21 percent in 1990, while the use of bamboo as pulping material increased from 8 percent in 1985 to 20 percent in 1990. The pulp industry's demand for raw material has risen to about 400,000 t/year, which is about 2.5 times the current bamboo production. It is approaching the estimated potential yield of the whole country, although it is harvested as a relatively small area. With the impasse in the promotion of fast-growing tree species in reforestation, this increase in demand threatens the natural bamboo resources.
The importance of bamboo as a source of employment is largely unrecognized. No systematic investigations have been made, but on the basis of a harvesting rate of 50 culms per day and the average annul production of 49.2 million culms, harvesting alone generates almost one million person-days of employment per year. Including other activities from plantation work to marketing and processing, the employment generated could be about 3-4 million person-days per year.
Marketing, exports, and imports. Marketing of bamboo from the forest to the consumer involves many stages. The most direct line is from the collector to the local consumers, while the longest line involves local traders, district traders, shippers, wholesalers, retailers, and finally the urban consumer. The quantities involved in each line are not know.
During the last decade, bamboo exports were at their highest in the mid-1980s, reaching 9,667 t in 1985, but steadily declined since then. Only 659 t were exported in 1990. The average annual export earnings in 1980-1990 were about 18.5 million baht. Imports consisted mainly of edible dry bamboo shoots, averaging about 170/year with a value of about 13 million baht.
Problems and recommendations. In spite of the abundance of bamboo on a national scale, because of uneven distribution, inaccessibility, population pressure, and localized industrial demand, areas of scarcity and over-exploitation exist. Licenses are being issued without any resource assessment. Because of inaccessibility and lack of management, the over-all productivity of bamboo in Thailand is only about 8 percent that of Japan. Although for centuries the Kingdom has relied on bamboo for many items needed daily, there is surprisingly little known about many aspects of bamboo production. The following actions are therefore needed:
· Conduct of research over the entire spectrum of bamboo, propagation, management, and utilization.
· Nation-wide survey of bamboo supply and demand to determine where new plantings should be concentrated and to find out what type of promotion or extension measures are needed.
· Proper management of natural areas by the formulation and implementation of working plans and stopping of over-exploitation.
Utilization. Honey and other bee products were mostly collected from the wild until 1980 when bee-keeping expanded to a large scale in Thailand. At present, they come mainly form bee-keeping. Nevertheless, bee products can still be considered as forest products, since bee-keeping depends on the forest and other naturally vegetated areas as sources of nectar, honeydew, and pollen. There are six products obtained from bees. Their uses are:
· Honey - food or sweetener in many industrial food products.
· Wax -polishes, cosmetics, and candles.
· Pollen - dietary supplement and in herbal medicine
· Royal jelly - food component or supplement, and considered as an aphrodisiac and rejuvenator.
· Propolis - used on a small scale medically for its bactericidal properties.
· Bee venom - used medically for desensitizing people who are hyperallergic to bee stings, and as folk medicine to prevent arthritis.
There are four common species of honey bee in Thailand. Three of them, Apis dorsata, A. florea, and A. cerana are indigenous, while the fourth, A. mellifera, has been introduced for bee-keeping. Of the three indigenous species, only A. cerana has potential as breeding stock for bee-keeping.
Bee-keeping is a worthwhile activity for farmers. If widely accepted, it can also lead to conservation awareness because of its close link with nature. Bee-keeping has the following attractive features:
· It is easy to learn, does not require a special plot of land, and its scale is adaptable to the time and interest of the farmer. Bees find their own food and do not compete with livestock.
· It yields well and the quality of its products can be improved and controlled. A 100-hive project can yield an annual average net return after four years of more than 70,000 baht.
· It provides easily harvestable, transportable, and marketable products.
· It generates employment to the keepers and traders, and increases export earnings.
· It enhances pollination of crops and trees.
Resource base production and employment. Bee-keeping requires knowledge of bee plants and their blooming periods for effective management. The evergreen forests in Thailand are able to supply food all year round. Several forest and plantation tree species are promising as bee plants. Croton oblongifolius and Peltophorum dasyrachis are important bee fodder. Eucalyptus camaldulensis could become a particularly important bee plant, because it is used in reforestation schemes. Common wild herbaceous plants, such as Mimosa spp., are valuable sources of pollen all over the country. Many grass species are valuable pollen suppliers in the rainy season. Agricultural crops such as maize, coconuts, and kapok are major sources of pollen. Most fruit tree crops are good bee plants, but pesticide-tainted flowers, nectar, and pollen could kill the worker bees and other members of the colony and contaminate the honey. It has been estimated that in Thailand the vegetation should be able to support about 2 million hives, producing annually about 30,000 tonnes of honey.
Bee-keeping enterprises steadily increased in 1980-1990 Since bee-keeping does not require registration, the number of farms engaged in bee-keeping has not been recorded. Therefore accurate estimates of present production are not possible. In 1990, about 77,000 bee hives producing 2,950 t of honey were reported by DAE. Of these, 60,000 hives were in the North, 5,000 in the South, and 12,000 in the other regions. Based on an average of 60-80 hives operated by a farmer, bee-keeping currently employs at least 1000 people.
Marketing, export, and imports. According to DAE and customs Department data, of the 2,950 t of honey produced in 1990, 2,431 t were exported. Local consumption was 685 t, including 166 t of honey imported for special use. Customs Department data also show that export of honey has been increasing in the 1980s. From a negligible quantity in 1981, honey exports steadily climbed to 289 t in 1985. Honey exports in 1986-1989 varied from 702 to 1,750 t. Honey imports have not changed much, varying from 71 to 125 t in 1981-1989.
Problems and recommendations. The potential for bee-keeping is limited mainly by the availability of bee food. Forest vegetation, the main source of bee plants, is being destroyed. Misuse of pesticides in agricultural crops, another important source, has resulted in the killing not only of pest, but of pollinating insects, as well. The consequences include a reduction in cross-pollination and tree seed production, which in turn reduces the natural regeneration capacity of the forest. In spite of bee habitat and food base destruction, there is still room for promoting bee-keeping. Its benefits should be made known more widely to the general public and to those concerned with rural development. Research on all aspects of bee culture must be supported, such as on bee enemies, bee breeding, bee fodder, management, and marketing.
Utilization. Lac is the resinous secretion of several species of tiny plant lice the most common of which is Laccifer lacca. In Thailand, it is collected from the branches of numerous tree species of mixed and deciduous natural forests. The modern practice is to inoculate host trees, which may be either wild or cultivated. The crude product thus obtained is stick lac, which is known as seed lac once particulate matter has been removed, and as shellac once the resin has been extracted. Bleached shellac used in colourless polishes and lacquers can be obtained by bleaching shellac in hypochlorite solution. Lac has a wide variety of uses, ranging from high-quality lacquer to electrical insulation.
Resource base, production. and employment. Lac is produced on remnant trees and shrubs in farmlands and in natural forests. Forests have declined and are now of less importance, There are many tree and shrubs suitable as hosts. The most highly productive include Samanea saman, Zizyphus mauretiana, Albizia lucida, Combretum quadrangulare, Swietenia macrophylla, and Acacia decurrens. The most productive is Samanea, which under normal conditions can produce annually as much as 390 kg/rai. Swietenia macrophyulla, a shrub, yields only 40 kg/rai.
Thailand is the second largest lac producing country after India. Lac production is done only in the North and Northeast. The North accounts for about 80-90 percent of total production. The average stick lac production in the lest 10 years was 7,365 t, but it varied wide from 1,300 t in 1984-1984 to 15,500 t in 1985-1986. Production was highest in the mid-1980s, in response to the high prices prevalent during that period. In 1990-1991, 5,900 t were produced; 5,250 t in the North and 650 t in the Northeast.
There are more than 50,000 families involved in stick lac production, which provides an equivalent full-time employment for 330 people. There are 20 licensed lac processing plants in operation, 11 of them in the North, 2 in the Northeast, and 7 in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. Subsequent stages from marketing of stick lac to processing into shellac quadruples the value. On this basis, the lac industry is estimated to generate equivalent full-time employment for more than 13,000.
Marketing exports, and imports. Stick lac prices varied widely in the last 10 years from 28-80 baht/kg in 1984-1985 to 6.5-10 baht in 1989-1990 and 1982-1983. Prices in the last 5 years (1986-1990) have been lower than those in the preceding 5-year period. The unreliable prices make people reluctant to increase their investment in growing more host trees and expanding production.
Domestic consumption of lac products is about 800-1,200 t. About 80-90 percent of the lac produced, 96 percent of them in the form of seed lac. In the lest 10 year, an average of 6,478 t of lac products, valued at and average of 256.2 million baht, were exported. In 1990, 4,740 t valued at 116 million baht were exported. Import of processed lac has been small: 31 t valued at 1.4 million baht were imported in 1990.
Problems and recommendations. Stick lac production has been fluctuating widely in the last 10 years. Like any other seasonal crop, lac production is increased or decreased depending on the prevailing market prices. While lac production does not compete for land with staple food production, it does compete for the farmer's time and attention.
Farmers have the flexibility to raise or lower production in response to the market price, provided the host trees are protected, the processing factories are not as flexible. Several plants in the Bangkok area have closed down in recent years because of insufficient supply of stick lac. The farmer will lose their flexibility in lac production if they cut down the host trees, The logging ban has boosted wood prices, and wood from host trees such as Samanea saman is in good demand for wood carving and other uses.
There is a need for a comprehensive study of lac production, processing and marketing. Reasons for the widely fluctuating prices have to be known, so that production decisions can be made wisely. Once there is increasing certainty and stability in prices, planting of host trees and production of stick lac can be more effectively promoted. Then when production of stick lac is stabilized, processing plants can be encouraged to obtain greater value added by processing the seed lac further, before they are exported.
Profitability in lac production can be improved mainly by raising productivity and quality through better know-how in cultivation, care, and harvesting, and provision of good brood stock state agencies, all of them in MOAC, can greatly assist the farmers by providing the needed support in technology improvement and dissemination, training, and provision of both good brood stock and seedlings of host trees.
Utilization. Resin has been tapped from pine trees for centuries in Thailand It is used as raw material for domestic use and for the rosin and turpentine processing plants. Rosin and its derivatives are used in paper making, sizing boot polishes, adhesives, paints, printing, inks surface coating, varnishes, textiles, rubber making, tire industries, sporting goods, and many others. More than a hundred derivatives can be produced from pine resin, in such groups as rosin esters, modified phenolics, mateice, pure phenolics, amino resins, alkyds, and others.
Resource base, production, and employment. There are two native pine species in Thailand, kesiya pine (Pinus kesiya) and merkus pine (Pinus merkusii), from which oleoresin gums can be obtained, but only merkus pine is being tapped economically. A merkus pine tree yields about 2-5 kg/year, Kesiya pine yields less resin, about 1 kg per tree per year.
The total area of pine forests, allowing for mixed stands, is about 1.35 million rai (216,200 ha) located mainly in the North and Northeast. Considering only merkus pine and allowing for stand density, size structure, and accessibility, the growing stock is estimated to have about 11.4 million trees, of which about 3.4 million trees are tappable. The estimated potential annual production from these trees is about 12,700 tonnes.
Tapping can be done all year round, but summer is the most productive period. Commercial tapping requires RFD permission, but the local people are allowed to collect for household use as much as 10 kg/person while some of this is sold, the quantity is not very great. Commercial tapping and resin processing was started in 1943 by the private sector and FIO. Because tapping as practised was destructive, RFD did not renew the tapping permits and instead took over the tapping and processing operations under its Office for pine Forest Research Revolving Fund (OPFRRF). About 500 tappers are employed full-time, and 100 more are employed in processing and management of three processing plants under (OPFRRF). In the last ten years, on average 285 t of resin were produced annually, and from of these, 205 t of rosin and 52 t of turpentine were obtained.
Marketing. exports, and imports. The rosin produced by OPFRRF is sold mainly to the paper, paint, and glue industries, while the turpentine is sold mainly to the paint and drug industries. An almost negligible quantity is exported (in 1990 about 120 kg of oleoresin, 299 kg of resin derivatives, and 17.6 t of turpentine products, in total worth less than half a million baht ). On the other hand, in the last 5 years (1986-1990), Thailand imported annually on average about 131.5 t of oleoresin, 152.3 t of resin derivatives, and 266.2 t of turpentine products, in total worth about 10.3 million baht.
Problems and recommendations. The small pine resin industry was taken over by RFD because of destructive tapping methods, Subsequently, growth of the industry stopped, Import substitution requirements alone could absorb twice the current level of production. The potential production of the resource base is more than 40 times the current production, so there is a good export potential if the production costs can be kept competitive in the international market.
At present, the net value realized from rosin and turpentine is about 20 baht/kg. Processing and transport cost is about 7-9 baht, while 5.5 baht/kg there is apparently some room, to consider giving a higher income to collectors, more so if further downstream processing can be included, which would substantially increase the unit value of the end product.
The pine resin industry has the potential to create 25,000 jobs in the rural areas. However, this would require the training of collectors in non-destructive tapping techniques, the transfer of the industry back to the private sector by the organization of cooperatives, and monitoring of the resource base. More detailed, operational level studies would be needed to pursue this matter further.
Summary of issues and their resolution. The issues concerning the development of these seven selected non-wood forest products can be considered to be representative of those affecting all non-wood forest products. These can summarized as follows:
· Dwindling resource base. This is the most important of all the issues concerning the development of non-wood forest products. Not only is there a dwindling resource vase, but also knowledge about its various aspects is incomplete and unorganized. This applies to medicinal plants, edible plants, rattan, bee products, and pine resin, but not as much to bamboos, which are relatively abundant, or to lac, whose host plants have been established around the farms. Even trees around the farms, however, are at risk of being felled for their timber which commands an attractive price.
· Limited potential for domestication of the resource base. Attempts have been made to cultivate some of important plant species which have been growing in the wild, but with limited success. The main limitations are inadequate scientific knowledge and lack of expertise (this is discussed separately), and the socio-economic aspects. Wild plants that have been domesticated successfully are mostly annual crops, while those that take many years to grow, have not in general been successfully cultivated. Examples of the latter include rattan, and coupled with inadequate knowledge of their culture, makes them a risky crop and discourages investing in them.
· Inadequate knowledge and lack of expertise. The low unit value of the products is often due to primitive processing techniques. This applies to all non-wood forest products, but especially to rattan and even to bamboo, both of which have been used throughout the ages.
· Inadequate support services. The activities of state agencies in the sector are not fully focused on promoting non-wood forest products development.
To resolve these issues, the following actions are regarded as important:
· The remaining resource base must be conserved. The protected Area system, a vast storehouse of biodiversity, including the germplasm for non-wood forest products, must be conserved. Conservation must be practised in both, the natural multipurpose and the man-made forests, where properly regulated production can be promoted. Sustainable harvesting systems must be practised, such as the non-destructive tapping of pine for resin.
· Propagation must be promoted. Studies are needed to determine which plant species can be propagated economically, as well as where, on what scale, how, and with what support to improve the economic viability and reduce the risk of the endeavour. The results of these studies must be disseminated to potential investors, both the local people and the business sector.
· Knowledge of the resource must be expanded and technology for propagation and processing must be developed. This recommendation applies to all forest products. Some products have good potential for additional value to be added by further downstream processing.
· Support must be provided. In addition to the conduct of research and the development of cultivation and processing technologies, state agencies and other institutions must provide.
· Marketing information must be published regularly, so that the collectors and other primary producers can obtain fair prices for their products.
Due to increasing patronage of modern medicine, consumption of medicinal plants has been decreasing, as has the number of factories depending on these plants. The consumption, export trends of the 1980s are expected to continue, although the transition to cultivated plants enhanced by current programmes of MPH and MOAC is expected to result in production increases. Under the Master Plan, promotion of the use of medicinal plants would result in slowing down the decline in the use of medicinal plants. Likewise, a more vigorous programme to promote cultivation of medicinal plants would result in more production and exports.
Collection of edible plants from the wild is expected to decline in proportion to the decline of forest resources. Consumption of mushrooms will increase in proportion to population growth. Mushroom exports and imports are expected to continue current trends. Under the Master Plan, mushroom production is programmed to grow at the rate of 4 percent per annum, the same growth rate target as for the agriculture sector under the seventh NESDP. Mushroom export is expected to be about 2 percent of production, with local consumption accounting for the other 95 percent.
Table 18: Production, consumption, and trade scenarios for selected non-wood forest products
current trends |
Master Plan | ||||
Non-Wood forest products |
1992 |
2002 |
2017 |
2002 |
2017 |
Medicinal plants |
|||||
Production, million baht |
130 |
199 |
283 |
269 |
435 |
Consumption, million baht |
126 |
72 |
6 |
99 |
66 |
Exports, million baht |
92 |
166 |
277 |
203 |
370 |
Imports, million baht |
88 |
39 |
0 |
33 |
0 |
Edible plants-mushrooms |
|||||
production, '000 t |
70.0 |
80.1 |
88.9 |
103.6 |
186.6 |
Consumption,'000 t |
69.9 |
80.0 |
88.7 |
101.5 |
182.9 |
Exports, million baht |
13 |
114 |
27 |
360 |
649 |
Imports, million baht |
14 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Rattan |
|||||
Production,'000 t of cane |
1 |
1 |
1 |
10 |
78 |
Local furniture sales, million baht |
40 |
40 |
40 |
46 |
357 |
Furniture exports, million baht |
92 |
0 |
0 |
410 |
3215 |
Cane imports, million baht |
17 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Bamboo culms |
|||||
Sustainable production, '000 t |
136 |
113 |
83 |
164 |
194 |
Consumption,'000t |
147 |
159 |
170 |
159 |
170 |
overcut of resource base, '000 t |
11 |
46 |
87 |
0 |
0 |
Bee products (mainly honey) |
|||||
Production, t |
2,950 |
4,592 |
7,680 |
4,592 |
7,680 |
Consumption, t |
584 |
668 |
777 |
668 |
777 |
Exports, million baht |
33 |
53 |
93 |
53 |
93 |
Imports, million baht |
7 |
9 |
13 |
9 |
13 |
Lac products |
|||||
Stick lac production, t |
7,116 |
10,462 |
10,462 |
13,716 | |
Exports, mainly seedlac, million baht |
116 |
171 |
171 |
224 | |
Imports, mainly shellac, million baht |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 | |
Pine resin |
|||||
Resin production, t |
290 |
474 |
474 |
824 | |
Exports |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 | |
Rosin product imports, million baht |
3 |
4 |
4 |
7 | |
Turpentine product imports, million baht |
22 |
34 |
34 |
54 | |
Trade in rattan cane and rattan products will stop in the near future as the cane exporting countries cease their exports. Rattan furniture produced from locally collected cane will be for domestic consumption. Under the Master Plan, rattan plantations are to be established. Rattan furniture production increases in domestic consumption are also expected.
Demand for bamboo is greater than the accessible, sustainable supply. This is expected to result in the depletion of accessible bamboo forests. Under the Master Plan, bamboo production is to be promoted to take up the demand supply gap. Except for negligible amounts of bamboo handicrafts and other products, no international trade in bamboo is expected.
The farming sector is capable of taking care of expected growth in bee and lac products, provided that the usual technical and trading support is provided by the government. No further increases in production beyond current trends are programmed under the Master Plan.
Increases in pine resin production are indicated by the low production level in proportion to the potential productivity of the resource base. The country's exports of rosin and turpentine products are virtually non-existent; any increase in production would be aimed at import reduction. Imports can even be eliminated, but at the risk of increasing damage to the already ailing pine growing stock. Privatization of the pine resin industry primarily under village cooperatives should be supported after some time when non-destructive tapping techniques have been adopted and control of damage to the trees can be reasonably assured.
· Long-term credit, so that the collectors and other primary producers will not be at the mercy of traders, who often act as money lenders.
· Extension and training, so that the collectors and other primary producers can obtain the required know-how and develop the necessary skills.
· Favourable policy environment, so that obstacles are eliminated, and the outcomes of new ventures are more predictable, and less risky. Uncertain land tenure, undeveloped usufructuary right, and unnecessarily restrictive rules and regulations on product gathering and transport are some of the aspects that need to be reviewed and changed.
