3. Forestry Sector

3.1.1. Extent and Distribution of the Natural Forests

As stated in the introduction the forest resources in Eritrea are known to be rare, degraded and placed under an increasing human and livestock pressures for divers needs such as firewood, construction materials, grazing and agriculture. It is true that not much forest was left from what was reported to exist even only a century ago. But it is also true that Eritrea is still endowed in many of its parts of a sizeable forest cover that plays an important social and economic role in the nation. The forestry formations, which include the highland forests (Juniperus procera, and Olea africana) which cover about 0.8 %, mixed woodlands of Acacia spp. and associated species, grasslands and woodland, riverine forests and mangrove vegetation cover about 13.5 % of the total surface area of the country.

Because of the 30-Year-War-of –Liberation the invading Ethiopian Army has destroyed documents that it was hard to get basic information regarding the extent of forest areas, species composition, intensity of forest encroachments, etc. The data which are now available are those which are from 1991 onwards i.e. after independence. Having realised the precarious conditions of the environment, the Eritrean government has started enclosing hillsides with natural forests. According to available information there are about 191,657 hectares of forest and woodlands, which are under some form of permanent and temporary enclosures in the country as seen in Table 6. (LRCPD, MoA, 2000).

3.1.2. Management of Natural Forests

3.1.2.1. Forest/Woodland Closures

The term "Forest/ Woodland Closure" is used to identify areas put under full or partial protection by setting a number of measures intended to halt, or at least, to limit human and livestock pressures placed on the existing little resources.

People used to convert the forestlands to practice agriculture, extract firewood and construction materials for domestic and commercial purposes, and feed their livestock in the forest. These unplanned and non-organised practices have destroyed a great deal of forest cover and inflicted heavy damage to the ecosystems.

The "Forest /Woodland Closure System", in the highlands of Eritrea is an old tradition practised by the local communities, many decades before to overcome the shortage of grass and wood. It was applied for the purpose of sustaining the resources through a rational utilisation. The "Closure System" became a cultural behaviour of the rural communities in that part of the country and constituted a form of natural resource management, inherited from the previous generation and based on the rotation and temporary protection techniques. The system was found effective in sustaining the production capacity of natural vegetation and securing continuous supply of fodder resources and other products to the growing livestock and human population. It seems that actual government forest and woodland closure policy has been inspired from that popular approach for natural resources management. The role of the government policy will, therefore, be to consolidate and organise that approach on a scientific basis.

The Government of Eritrea has, since the struggle for independence, initiated its policy of forestry conservation and development by setting up a number of permanent forest closures in some parts of the highlands, and carry out various other forestry activities. The "Closure" policy is nowadays widely implemented throughout the country and the local people are increasingly aware of the necessity for the conservation of these renewable resources. Because of this system the natural vegetation in the closed areas is regenerating successfully and the attitude of the local people in general is encouraging. The concerned authorities are enthusiastic to proceed with this policy. Since this "Closure" policy took roots from the local community practices, it is believed that the chance of its success seems to be guaranteed.

Two categories of closures are found throughout the country the first is implemented for unlimited period of time and is called "Permanent Closure" and the other is called "Temporary Closure" and is carried out for a limited period of time, for a few months to a few years. The immediate objectives of the permanent forest and woodland closures are to create favourable conditions for a vegetation recovery through natural regeneration, develop pastoral reserves for the growing livestock and woody biomass for the local people, to protect the endangered tree and avi-fauna species from extinction; control of runoff and loss of arable land by erosion, and increase infiltration for water conservation and for more soil moisture. Some forest sites are being used as seed collection sites for the forestry programmes using indigenous tree species.

Enrichment planting with indigenous tree species is being practised in these closures. Because of these management practices the condition of the natural forest has improved significantly (LRCPD, MoA, 1999).

Because of the tangible advantages of the system of closure practised in the highlands, the system of temporary closure will be practised in the lowlands.

Economically, sufficient benefits can be derived by the local people /communities and by the whole nation, if properly developed. Thus considering the existing forestry potentialities in terms of extent and quality, favourable climatic and edaphic conditions and pressing market demand, the long term economic and social objectives should be considered in the context of a comprehensive forestry and wildlife sub-sector development.

The closures are now generally characterised by their very low economic values as regards to timber and timber products, due to past misuse of the resources and also to the lack of proper management.

Forest Management Guidelines have been formulated for the permanent closures and for the temporary closures. These have been framed to incorporate both protective and potential productive functions:

Productive forest, which should include all the highland forests; Protection forest, consisting of areas inaccessible for physical reasons, highly exposed to erosion or of high scientific and environmental values; and Social forest, including the majority of the vegetation cover with low economical potential and less scientific and environmental value (FAO, 1997).

Key areas in permanent forest closures, which include areas of important wildlife habitat, are proposed for protection. Those parts of the closures, which lie outside protection forest, should be considered production forest. Agricultural fields, which occur within the forest area, should be considered for conversion back to forest through afforestation.

Although the current condition of the permanent forest closures is partially degraded, a high potential for timber production is indicated as a realistic goal in the future. However, it should be emphasised that this is a long term objective. For the short to the medium term, rehabilitation of forest cover will take precedence over timber production. In the long term, the management guidelines propose a selective harvesting system, which is designed to ensure that forest protection and biological diversity are not undermined. Regeneration of the forest would be achieved, wherever possible, by natural regeneration. In understocked areas, a tree-planting programme would supplement this.

Harvesting of forest resources should only be effected in accordance within limits stipulated in a management plan. Subject to that prescription, people from surrounding communities should be allowed to collect dry wood for firewood and wood for house construction. In regard to grazing, this should be cut and carry in areas where the forest vegetation is vulnerable; but, where regeneration has been successfully established, direct grazing could be permitted in line with management plans. Local people in the vicinity of the forest closures should be seen as development factors rather than threats. They can supply manpower to the forest, participate in protection (especially against fire and grazing), and generate markets for forest products.

3.1.2.2. Temporary Woodland Closures

Temporary Woodland Closures (TWC) comprise mainly acacia woodland. Their function may be categorised as Social Forest. In the case of temporary closure, management objectives may incorporate aspects of production and protection working circles. The proposed guidelines acknowledge the need to meet the increasing demands of local communities for pastoral and woody resources. The main priority should be to conserve the productive base of the forest by ensuring and protecting regeneration. Then, management can be orientated to provide grazing, wood and other forest products for the benefit of the local population, whilst serving environment protection. Exploitation of forest resources in this type of woodland should be done under the selective harvesting systems, and on the basis of a periodic rotation.

Although the TWC are established to create more pastoral reserves to their livestock and firewood for their needs, attention should also be given to the protection of endangered species, soil and water conservation, biological diversity, medicinal plants, apiary and game farming. In general management of multiple use principles must be introduced.

3.2.1. Extent and Distribution

While government has established most plantations particularly as part of its hillside closure catchment planting campaign, there also exist some community, farm and homestead plantations. Of particular note is the municipal and roadside planting. In the case of Eritrea, there is a lack of historical data on plantations from before independence. Prior to independence, some afforestation programme was carried out mainly for soil and water conservation objectives on hillside catchment areas in the central and northern highlands. Throughout history this government afforestation programme has been promoted and subsidised by external food assistance. From 1979 to 1995 this was done under Food for Work (FFW). Then, from 1996, government decreed that all food aid should be monetised, as Cash for Work. Funds have been provided by the World Food Programme (WFP), and in later years, by the European Economic Community (EU).

The soil and water conservation plantations planted under FFW/CFW before independence have been described as disappointing failures because of limited survival of trees and the outputs as of little benefit to anyone. Some sites were planted without follow-ups, maintenance and protection. Nevertheless, many of the more visible tree plantations date from activities undertaken prior to independence. However, most of the older established eucalypt plantations (pre-dating the soil and water conservation programme) have been cleared and their roots ploughed out during the last 30 years or so leaving only the isolated group or belt of trees. However, there exist few records from that time. After independence most such plantations were assigned to local communities and there are few original records concerning locations, species and tree survival planted under the afforestation programme during those early years (FAO, 1997).

After independence in 1991, the GoE continued this planting programme. Extensive land works have accompanied the planting; usually, this has involved contour terracing and latterly, some micro-basin construction.

Since then, the government has endeavoured to maintain proper records of afforestation activities. Nowadays, the MoA operates an organised system of reporting of afforestation activities, from sub-Zoba to Zoba administrative levels and from Zoba to National level. Th reporting is comprehensive and timely. The extent of area planted by the MOA, Forestry and Wildlife Division, Forestry Unit from 1991-1999 as shown in Table 8 is about 21,000 hectares (F&WL Division, LRCPD, MoA, 2000).

Whereas the land works have been done under FFW/CFW, pit digging and tree planting have been undertaken since independence with the participation of high school students under a summer mobilisation campaign. Government efforts in afforestation have also been augmented by the role of NGOs.

During 1996, as it is seen in Table 9, it was apparent that, although most tree planting is reliant on government nurseries for the supply of seedlings, there is a large proportion (almost half) of planting now recorded as done by the people.

3.2.2. Management and Objectives of Plantation Forestry

Plantation development in Eritrea has been justified on the basis of multiple objectives; most of the various reasons which have been cited fall into one of five main categories:

Soil and water Conservation

To reduce soil erosion from surface water runoff, particularly on hillsides

To improve water infiltration in catchment areas, again particularly on hillsides

Environment Provision

To provide shade in urban areas and along roadsides.

Productive Functions

To grow poles and firewood in the short term

To grow timber in the long term

To supplement natural supplies of gum Arabic and incense

Social Welfare Benefit

Income generation at the household level through production activities

Transfer of or monetised food aid, mainly through protection activities

Farming System

Enhancement of crop productivity through agro-forestry

Enhancement of pasture productivity through mixed tree-grass planting; -Food security through diversification of farm activities.

3.2.2.1. Community Planting

The community also carries out plantation. Under pre existing land tenure systems in the highlands, common areas have been designated for permanent use by the community for grazing and/or afforestation. There are few, if any, examples of spontaneous afforestation by communities; rather, the MoA proposes " temporary closure". The community cedes the land to the Ministry for an undefined period, and participates in the ground works and tree planting under an incentive scheme, such as cash for work.

3.2.2.2. Farm Planting

Though not in a large extent, there is planting on or around cultivable land. However, this cannot be quantified. Planting on or around cultivable land was rare, however, development policy now emphasises food security as opposed to food self-sufficiency and there should no longer be a bar to any farmer wanting to produce tree products on his or her land although there is a strong held view point that tree planting should take place only on land unsuitable for food production. There are of course some examples of farm planting left over from the era prior to independence. Generally, these were established on better soils and demonstrate the growth potential of site and responsible maintenance.

3.2.2.3. Homestead Planting

Many families plant trees for their immediate needs, most often poles and shade around their homes on what is, in effect, their own property. There are also plantations around schools. These plantations are very successful probably with initial irrigation and with increased fertility from household waste, wood ash, etc. These trees provide a valuable and scarce source of building materials, with waste products used for fuel. While growing these trees provide shade, reduce wind speeds, settle dust and provide a source of nectar for honey.

3.2.2.4. Municipal and Roadside Planting

Tree planting for amenity by municipalities has obviously taken place in the past, to good effect, but due to the uncertainties prevailing over latter years on land ownership, existing trees have been damaged, or have died, and there have been little management or replacement.

Following liberation there are good sizes of a resurgence of interest in such amenity tree plantings, with young seedlings being re-established within roadside niches. Similarly street trees have been successfully established.

The objectives of both municipal and roadside plantings are well defined: shade and urban beautification in the former and national memorial and shade in the latter. Although costly, the intended outputs are achieved. On the other hand government catchment planting and community planting may not perceive expected benefits from forest products now that growth, survival rates and management practices are poor.

3.2.2.5. Fuelwood and Pole Planting

In response to a developing shortage of fuelwood and construction poles in the main urban centers, proposals have been put forward for the development of peri-urban plantations.

The switch of objectives to short term production benefits should help mitigate some of the technical problems (site selection, species choice, plant quality, etc.). The adoption of a farm forestry and community forestry basis should ensure better plant survival, protection and maintenance than is currently attained.

Experience with fuelwood and pole plantations in many countries have shown market pressures often lead to an emphasis on pole production that eclipses fuelwood. In view of the declared objectives of Macro-policy that Eritrea should become a modern, technologically advanced and internationally competitive economy over the next two decades, it may be assumed that the energy consumption will switch to non-wood substitutes faster than trees can be grown in Eritrean conditions. Consequently, the technical strategy of any plantation should be orientated to higher value (pole) production, rather than fuelwood.

3.2.2.6.Gum Arabic and Incense Plantations:

Both gum Arabic and frankicense are traditional non-wood products of Eritrea. Although world prices exhibit fluctuations, there exist a preference in final markets for the natural products rather than synthetic substitutes. As seen in Table 10 incense and gum Arabic produced in 1998 were 1,382 and 393.5 tones respectively while in 1999, 451.4 tones of incense and 101.1 tones of gum Arabic (crude measures) were produced under MOA license. However there is a speculation that more of these products must have been produced and sold illegally.

Marketing cooperatives exist for the licensing of tappers and exclusive processing and distribution of the products. Tappers are usually incomers, and local people derive relatively little income at present. Efforts are now being made to involve the local people in the harvesting work (FAO, 1997).

In principle, tapping should be a non-destructive harvest process. However, over the years, as the resource has apparently dwindled, the methods of extracting exudes have become more likely to injure the trees. There has been some limited replanting of both species i.e. Acacia senegal and Boswellia papyrifera. Efforts will be to plant these species in a large scale.

There will be a project based on the sustainable management of gum Arabic and incense for productive purposes. This project would need to consolidate research into the species, expand the resource through enrichment and /or plantations, and support the development of locally based cooperatives (FAO, 1997).

At present in addition to planting exotics like Acacia spp. and Eucalyptus spp., indigenous species like Acacia etbiaca, A. senegal, Balanites aegyptiaca, Juniperus procera, Olea africana and Zizyphus spina- Christ are being planted.

The most common choice of afforestation species among the exotics has been Eucalyptus cladocalyx. Other eucalypts species have included E. amygdalina, E. camaldulensis and E. globulus. Some years back, other genera and species have been introduced into the afforestation programme, such as Acacia decurrence, A. mollissima A. saligna and Schinus molle. However, as Table 11 shows, in 1996 plantation year the Eucalyptus genus dominates afforestation in the highland areas of the country (i.e. Zobas of Maekel, Debub, and parts of Anseba). Most other species are planted in almost negligible quantities.

Actual stocking on ministry planting sites is confirmed by a survival assessment. A first assessment is done immediately after the end of tree planting season and a second is done shortly before the commencement of the next season. In principle the survival assessment is based on systematic sampling of 20 % of planting rows. Given the sharp change in soil moisture when the rains cease in Eritrea, the second assessment reflects more realistic for the future prospects of newly planted areas. (The first assessment is useful, however, for monitoring work planting activities and forward planning of replanting requirements). Usually replanting is done two to three weeks after planting if the seedlings are found dead. The survival rate is about 30-40 % in the lowlands and 60-70 % in the highlands (MoA, 1998).

The main contribution of the Natural Forests and Plantations is for the conservation of natural resources, biological diversity and soil and water conservation. The contribution of wood from the plantation is very low due to poor rate of growth and survival of the species planted; however, the contribution from the natural forests is high.

As said earlier woodfuel is the major source of household energy in the country. Data for licensed fuelwood production and for other non-wood products are given in Table 10. The data show the recorded fuelwood has fallen progressively from 42,603.8 tones in 1992 to 13,156 tones in 1999. Most of this consumption is accounted for by the capital, Asmara, in the highlands, and is brought from natural woodlands mainly in the Western Lowlands and from the escarpments. The actual i.e. including unrecorded fuelwood consumption for the whole country may lie between one quarter of a million to half of a million tones annually. Significant non-wood products include gum Arabic, frankincense and dried doum palm leaves (Hyphanae thebaica). The production of fuelwood from the escarpments and Western Lowlands to supply the towns is an important economic activity. The royalty rate of Nakfa (Eritrean currency name) 4 per 100 kg of fuelwood would appear to bring the government annual revenue of about Nakfa 800,000. This together with royalties on frankincense, gum Arabic, and dried doum palm leaves, bring in total annual revenue of nearly Nakfa 2,284,678. If the production of gum Arabic and frankincense is expanded the revenue will tremendously be large.