· Develop policies focused on ensuring efficient utilisation of wood fuel resource. Revitalising promotional programs geared towards achieving fuel substitution for middle and high-income households and reduced cost of efficient end-use devices for all categories of households.

· Weight of sack of charcoal.· Current stock.
· Number of bags sold per day; during highest/lowest price.
· Purchase price from wholesaler.
· Source (location of origin), including district.
· Tree species from which charcoal is made.· Weight/price measurements (this was derived from charcoal purchased by survey enumerators in tins).

In addition, primary data from the ESMAP Retail Study was entered and tabulated. A revised questionnaire was developed for the next phase of the Bess Study and administered to 55 retailers in 11 stratified income divisions within Nairobi. This data were analysed and compared to charcoal marketing data obtained during the ESMAP Study, the Beijer work (1980-81), Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) pricing data (annual statistical abstracts) and other sources of information. Additionally, information was obtained from the Ministry of Energy Rural Energy Surveys of 1986-87. Several key individuals involved in designing and carrying out the UNDP/World Bank ESMAP (1985) and related studies were interviewed for the Bess Study. Original primary data from these surveys were reviewed and analysed to gauge both the methodology employed and reliability of data updates on charcoal prices in Nairobi were undertaken.

4. UNDP/World Bank ESMAP Peri-Urban Study

The most extensive and comprehensive work on wood and charcoal production was carried out in Kenya under the Kenya Peri-Urban Charcoal and Fuelwood Survey of 1985 and its subsequent revisions (UNDP/World Bank ESMAP, 1985; World Bank, 1986 and World Bank, 1988). Numerous studies were carried out in 1985 to support a proposed large-scale forestry development programme to supply Kenya's future urban wood fuel demand. These included reviews of FD forestry management systems, wood and wood fuel prices, institutional structures and cost and price structures for all forestry products. The underlying premise of the original studies centred on the perception that Kenya was in the midst of a major wood fuel crisis and that immediate action was necessary if major economic and ecological disruptions were to be avoided.

Wood fuel and charcoal production for major urban markets (Nairobi, Kisumu, Nakuru and Mombasa) were examined, and information was obtained on:

· Source of supplies.
· Principal actors in production and supplies.
· Transport costs and structures of supplies.
· Margins accruing at each and every stage of supply.
· Future trends and potential impacts on sources of supply, prices and the resource base.
· Areas for policy intervention along the production and supply chains.

It is worth noting that the first drafts of the ESMAP surveys have been revised and no longer perceive a major wood fuel crisis.

The charcoal transport component of the ESMAP survey interviewed transporters at police checks leading into Nairobi. The original ESMAP survey cites over 300 such interviews. This component of the surveys suffers from the following:

· Interviews were done during a one week period at a time of relative surplus of charcoal (September 1985).
· Interviewing at police checks had a strong effect on reliability of responses.
· No attempt at randomness of selection was made, thereby skewing results in ways that cannot be properly interpreted.

Nonetheless, the transport survey provide useful data on source and cost of supply, level of active participation of transporters in the charcoal business and destination of transporters that were compared with information generated during the Bess study (1989).

5. Ministry of Energy Rural Energy surveys

The MoE contracted with the CBS to undertake rural energy surveys in 25 districts in Kenya, covering almost 5,000 households. The surveys were carried out with the objective of determining energy consumption profiles (patterns and end-use consumption) and focused on both traditional and non-traditional fuels. Data were analysed on district-by-district basis. The survey questionnaire included questions on charcoal production both as a level of activity as well as a source of income. The questionnaire contained a minor intertemporal element of production, which was useful in indicating changes in production patterns over the past several years.

In addition, the MoE survey generated data on household consumption of charcoal. Unfortunately, the survey did not include repeat visits or intertemporal monitoring. This leads to bias, which makes it difficult to extrapolate household consumption on an annual basis. The survey shows that charcoal consumption is higher than previously estimated which is thought to be unlikely by Bess (1989). The data supports the assumption that rural charcoal consumption increases as rural households move increasingly into monetary economy and as other sources of fuel, namely wood, become less accessible.

The survey by MoE used both human and non-human resources. In terms of human resources, an analyst, support officers and other staff were required. Data in the field was collected by CBS enumerators using a questionnaire while analysis was done with a computer, using Dbase.

6. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Nakuru Survey

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF), in conjunction with the Bellerive Foundation, conducted a series of short charcoal surveys in Nakuru district in 1989. The purpose of the surveys was to determine the impact of charcoal production, and other wood fuel production, on the catchment area for Lake Nakuru and the Nakuru National Park. Interviews were carried out with charcoal dealers in and around Nakuru town concerning prices per unit measured and perceived sources of supply. The survey methodology and questionnaire were reviewed and provided several key insights which support observed patterns elsewhere.

7. Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC)/Rural Afforestation and Extension Scheme (RAES) micro-surveys

The Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC) funded a series of micro-level (sub-location) studies in 6 districts (Nakuru, Machakos, Nyeri, Kisii, Kakamega and Kwale) to determine the scope for intensifying forestry extension (WOODEC, 1987) for Rural Afforestation and Extension scheme (RAES) of Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MENR). These extensive surveys contain complete inventories of on-farm, trust, reserves and other forestry resources within the sub-locations studied. They contain relevant information for charcoal production but their extreme micro-perspective, and their tangential references to charcoal, make them useful for verification purposes only.

8. GTZ/Special Energy Programme (SEP) Improved Charcoal Production

The German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) Special Energy Programme (SEP) have undertaken limited charcoal production and pricing data collection during the course of their work in Lamu and Machakos districts (IPC, 1986; GTZ/SEP, Undated). Additionally, they have examined the potential for charcoal production as a by-product of land-clearing in two areas of the country.

Their pricing and source of production data are spotty but they have obtained useful information on:

· Transport costs (tonne/km).
· Load factors for transporters (tonnes and tonne/km).
· Actual wood and producers in specific areas (price per m³).
· Retail prices in urban areas (prices per tonne).

This information was used to compare with the MoE Rural surveys, the ESMAP and The World Bank/Forestry Department charcoal data, CBS pricing data and the earlier Beijer work.

9. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS)

The CBS, in conjunction with the National Council for Science and Technology (NCST), carried out a household energy consumption survey in 1978. It focused on consumption of all fuels for domestic purposes. It was intended to obtain an accurate picture of domestic energy consumption at national level. The NCST designed the survey to be implemented through the Integrated Rural Survey (IRS) network of the CBS. The survey was administered in 1978 and published two years later (CBS, 1980).

The questionnaire was designed to get information on quantity of fuel used for a given reference period. Fuelwood was identified on a daily basis, charcoal, paraffin and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) on a weekly or monthly basis while electricity consumption was copied from the latest billing. The survey did not derive relevant demographic or economic information. It was hoped that the energy survey results could be linked to the results from other household surveys but no such computer linkage was devised.

The sampling procedure was based on the national frame established by the CBS for the national integrated sample survey programme (IRS). This method employs cluster sampling based on 1 percent sample of the rural population and a 2 percent sample of the urban population. Primary sampling units (PSUs) were selected for rural areas on the basis of agro-ecological crop zones within each province. North Eastern province and four other districts are not included in the sampling frame. The PSUs were each broken down into three or four clusters of approximately 200 households. Two clusters were selected at random from each PSU and finally the total sample included 31 000 households (23 000 rural and 8 000 urban). For the energy survey, 10 percent of the full national sample was used, which means 3 647 rural and 1 877 urban households (total of 5 647) were surveyed (0.25% of all households in Kenya).

The survey was administered by the same enumerators that had been used for the different rounds of the IRS. They were all familiar with the areas being surveyed, both through aerial photomosaics and previous survey experience. A training session and a pre-survey test were held for each province. The survey was conducted in October-November 1978 with 350 enumerators supervised by respective district statisticians. The results were analysed manually first and later with a computer.

Results showed that the total wood requirement was estimated at 11.4 million tonnes or 16.0 million m³.

The CBS survey was well carried out but the results are inconclusive (Hosier, 1985). This can be attributed to weaknesses in the questionnaire design and presentation and analysis. The questionnaire ignored relevant data (income, demographic and price). There was little or no attempt to explain the results. The write up presents patterns of energy use but no discussion for their consistency or accuracy is done. The presentation of data by provinces, rather than agro-ecological zones, does not tell much in terms of the relationship between use and availability.

Currently, CBS carry out periodic (usually quarterly) spot market surveys of the retail price of charcoal. Prices are obtained in Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu and Nakuru on a basis of interviews with retailers. No weight measurements are taken and no verification of actual purchase prices is done. However, the data provides important guidance on charcoal price trends.

10. KENGO household users survey

The Kenya Energy and Environment Non-Governmental Organizations (KENGO) have conducted at least 2 limited surveys on household charcoal consumption. One survey was funded by the Dutch-supported Fuelwood Development Programme (FWD) and covered charcoal consumption in several areas in Nairobi. Retail charcoal prices and actual household expenditures on charcoal were obtained. Also collected were data on rates of adoption of improved charcoal stoves and inter-fuel substitution. However, sample methodology was non-random and non-scientific. Thus, results are biased and data can only be used for indicative purposes.

The main importance of the KENGO material lies with level of user acceptance and market penetration of improved charcoal stoves. This information has been compared with work carried out by Bess (1989) between 1984 and 1989, USAID work carried out under the Kenya Renewable Energy Development Project and that carried out through various agencies (ATI, CARE-International, USAID Office of Energy and Bellerive Foundation) to examine:

· Average efficiencies of improved stoves relative to traditional stoves.
· Growth rate of stove production.
· Expected market penetration (absolute terms and percentage of total charcoal stoves sold and utilized)
· Expected utilization rates.

This information has been compared with urban (and monetized rural) population growth rates in an attempt to estimate and project the charcoal conservation potential of new stoves.

11. Kenya Energy Fuelwood Project (Beijer Institute and MoE)

The Beijer Institute (Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences) and the Ministry of Energy (MoE) undertook numerous surveys both as part of government's fuelwood cycle survey and the Kenya Wood fuel Development Project (KWDP) in the early 1980s (Hosier, 1985, 1984). Several studies were commissioned under the Beijer Project, including a biomass resource assessment (O'Keefe et al., 1984). The project estimated spatial patterns of supply based upon their household and market surveys. However, their estimates of sources of charcoal supply suffer from lack of intertemporal surveying. Additionally, the study does not contain any interviews with producers or transporters.

The survey questionnaire was administered to 572 households (out of the sampling frame of 600) in high potential, medium potential and savannah regions of Kenya. The survey contains useful baseline data on charcoal consumption and prices, but virtually none on charcoal production.

The team also drew upon select works carried out in the 1970s and commissioned for the Project to produce projections on urban and rural household energy consumption (Barnes et al., 1984). The Beijer work formed the basis for the USAID-funded Kenya Renewable Energy Development Project (KREDP), the Dutch-funded Kenya Wood fuel Development Project (KWDP) and much of the biomass work carried out by the Ministry of Energy.

The Beijer work represents the most comprehensive attempt to estimate wood fuel use and production in Kenya. While its major strength lies with its demand/end use estimates, its greatest weakness lies with its supply estimates. The work overestimates the rate of forestry offtake, underestimates the rate of wood fuel conservation and does not place enough emphasis on the potential for inter-fuel substitution (Bess, 1989).

Subsequent work carried out by the Beijer Institute under KWDP shows that the original work did not realize the potential response of farmers to wood (not necessarily wood fuel) shortages. Hence, KWDP and other observers found that, in fact, woody biomass cover increases in certain areas (particularly high potential areas) with population growth. These observations, when compared with the original Beijer work, the ESMAP/World Bank and SDC/RAES micro-surveys and the MoE Rural Energy Survey, provide good benchmarks to estimate changes in woody biomass in select agro-ecological and economic zones. This has provided good coefficients on how much charcoal (as compared to other forestry by-products) can be expected to be produced in specific zones.

The original Beijer data provide useful indications of order of magnitude. They also provide important indicators of estimates of household energy demand which have been compared with other contemporary data and estimates. The data has also been entered into the LEAP (LDC Energy Alternative Planning) Model which has been reviewed extensively by Spence (1986). The LEAP model has drawbacks that limit its use for developing a baseline database and for making projections. These are:

· Lack of proper representation of dynamic processes that may tend to modify projected supply-demand imbalances.
· Prices are not presented as variables, leading to a wood gap.

This inherent bias towards a wood fuel gap stems from basic assumptions utilized in designing the LEAP model. The dynamic processes, further defined by the same worker (Spence, 1988) regard key factors which Bess (1989) addressed carefully and include:

a) Changing relative prices of wood products (KSh/m³ and KSh/tonne).
b) Changing patterns of tree planting and production (m³/ha), particularly on-farm, agroforestry and other price-induced responses to price changes.
c) Growth in rural demand for charcoal and other more convenient fuels induced by economic factors (e.g. increased monetization of rural areas) and wood availability.
d) Urban inter-fuel substitution effects (e.g. wood to charcoal, charcoal to kerosene or electricity) induced by scarcity, price and other factors.
e) Urban and rural charcoal conservation pattern induced by price changes, availability of more efficient devices and changes in attitudes.

12. Kenya Wood-fuel Development Project (Beijer Institute and MENR)

The Kenya Wood fuel Development Project (KWDP) is a project that was funded by the Dutch government and implemented by Beijer Institute (1984-1988) as a follow up of Kenya Fuelwood Project. The major focus of the project was agroforestry development. Several district surveys covering Kisii, Kakamega and Murang'a were carried out during the project (Ngugi and Bradley, 1986; Chavangi, 1984 and Kuyper and Bradley, 1985). Forestry inventory, production and household energy consumption data were generated during the course of the project which are of use in determining charcoal production and consumption in those areas. The major points of comparison regard:

· Changing patterns of rural charcoal utilization.
· Charcoal production as an on- and off-farm activity.
· 333Changes in woody biomass cover in high potential areas.
· Uses of wood (e.g. building poles vs. fuelwood vs. charcoal, etc.) from trees grown on-farm.
· Real prices of wood produced in high potential area.
· Projections for planting rates, tree cover and prices based on changes on the farm.
· Observed and anticipated environmental effects in high potential areas induced by increased tree planting.

13. Brokensha and Riley: Mbeere Wood-fuel Studies

One of the earliest systematic wood fuel production and consumption surveys carried out in the 1970s and early 1980s.

The findings from the survey are:

· An average household must make between one and four fuelwood collection trips weekly, each of which takes about 2.5 hours (2.5-10 hours every week).
· Due to time taken and difficult of collecting fuelwood, men are increasingly becoming involved in this activity.
· Whereas only certain tree species have traditionally been used for firewood, increasing scarcity has meant that all species were used for firewood.
· Charcoal production has become an important source of off-farm income generation, even though those doing it know the dangers of deforestation.
· Many households are purchasing fuelwood in an area where, until recently, it was only bought by school-teachers and businessmen.
· Fuelwood shortage is becoming a serious social problem.

This work and other work by Castro (undated) in Kirinyaga district, Mung'ala (1979) and Mung'ala and Openshaw (1984) in Machakos district point to trends in inter-fuel substitution, particularly from fuelwood to charcoal, in rural areas. A common major observation by Brokensha and Riley (1978) and Castro (undated) is that land adjudication and privatization tends to be a necessary component for on-farm tree planting. Their observation that tree cover increases with increased population densities in high potential areas predate and support the latter KWDP observations in Murang'a (Ngugi and Bradley, 1986), Kisii (Kuyper and Bradley, 1985) and Kakamega (Chavangi, 1984). The studies also revealed reduced charcoal production, which implies that returns accruing to other tree products are higher than those of charcoal are.

14. Forestry Department wood-fuel survey

The survey was carried out in 1980 to determine wood fuel consumption, demand and supply. It was based on the assumption that an energy crisis was in existence and hence the need to review the national energy strategy. Data was collected from 15 districts which were sampled from 4 agro-ecological zones (high forest, savannah, arid and Nairobi). Four different questionnaires, based on categories of consumers (domestic, commercial, institutional and industrial) were used to collect data. Random sampling was used to draw interviewees from the four categories of consumers. The total number of trading premises, institutions and industries in each district where sampling took place was compiled and used to estimate the gross national consumption. The 1979 provisional population census data were used to estimate domestic consumption.

The sample data were tabulated and analysed, making adjustments where necessary. Individual district per capita consumption was calculated and the mean of all districts taken as the national per capita consumption. In calculating the quantity of wood fuel consumed by trading, institutional and commercial sectors, the sample mean of the districts in the agro-ecological zones was calculated and then multiplied by total number of the districts in the zone. The total of the 4 zones was taken as the national consumption. On the other hand, industrial consumption was calculated by assessing all wood fuel-consuming industries in the country. The grand total of the domestic, commercial, institutional and industrial consumption was taken as the country's wood fuel consumption.

Data collection was done by 17 foresters and was indicated to have been inefficient due to logistical problems, time conflicts and use of insufficiently trained enumerators (Akinga, 1980).

Parameters collected for domestic consumption were:

· Quantities of fuelwood, charcoal and paraffin used.
· Prices of each fuel type.
· Time spent gathering fuelwood.
· Number of construction poles.
· Price of poles.

The other questionnaires placed more emphasis on quantities consumed and purchase prices, with no attention paid to collection time.

The survey's findings

· The tobacco industry in Kenya (in 1980) had an average requirement of 0.15 million m³ of fuelwood per year most of which is availed from farmlands where the crop is grown.

· The tea industry's requirement then was estimated at 0.30 million m³ annually.
· The national total wood-fuel consumption per year is 30.6 million m³ of which 22.7 m³ is fuelwood and 7.9 million m³ is charcoal (roundwood equivalent).
· The domestic national wood-fuel consumption was estimated at 6.4 million m³ of charcoal while the commercial and institutional consumers take up 1.5 million m³. The remaining 0.01 million m³ is consumed by the industrial sector.
· On per capita basis, fuelwood consumption is 0.928 m³ while the figure for charcoal is 111 kg, per year.

The figures given by this study are thought to be unrealistic due to the high conversion efficiency of wood to charcoal at 25 percent. This is too high given the nature of earth-kilns commonly used. Most estimates for earth-kiln efficiency place the figure close to 11 percent (Openshaw, 1978). Hosier (1985) has adjusted the figures based on 11 percent conversion efficiency (9 t of wood give 1 t of charcoal).

The study also came up with average wood fuel prices, availability indexes, average costs of production by ecological zones and sale price and profit margins (for FD production and sales).

It revealed that about 80 percent of all the wood fuel consumed comes from private farms, woodlands or trust lands while only 13 percent come from government-controlled forests. Forests under the county council supply 7 percent. It was further calculated that the 4 million m³ supplied by the forest estate was commonly consumed by the commercial, institutional and industrial sectors. About 8 million m³ of wood is converted to charcoal which is mainly used by urban households, hotels, butcheries, etc. The study concludes that use of charcoal in rural areas seems to be a luxury.

The survey's presentation circumvents the construction of any plausible explanation of observations (e.g. high per capita consumption of wood fuel for Nairobi and the arid zones, failure to explain figures for time spent gathering firewood in Nairobi, failure to explain magnitudes of arid zone figures for use of paraffin, etc.). The questionnaire did not elicit sufficient information relating to alternative fuel sources, response to shortage and income in order to paint a thorough assessment of the trends (Hosier, 1985). Also, there was no end-use information gathered and no information is given on the number of households actually making use of each fuel.

While the sample was nominally stratified by ecological zones, the stratification process and household selection processes are not clarified. The best standard way would have been that suggested by Warwick and Leininger (1975) which chooses the number of households in each stratum so that they are proportional to the total population of each stratum. In absence of this, it can only be assumed that the sample was either a haphazard sample or, worse still, an opportunity sample selected for the sake of convenience.

In terms of survey administration, the choice of foresters as enumerators could have been poor as they can be expected to induce a kind of "ingratiational bias" whereby respondents give the answer expected of them (Warwick and Leininger, 1975). A questionnaire about wood fuel consumption administered by foresters might be expected to yield unreliable data, particularly if the households were explained the relevance of the survey.

Analysis and presentation of the results is cursory and fails to make maximum use of all available data. Hosier (1985) intimates that the survey-derived estimates of per capita wood fuel consumption are high by international standards.

15. Kenya Forestry Master Plan (KFMP) wood-fuel assessment

Kenya Forestry Master Plan (KFMP, 1995) did significant work on wood fuel demand and supply estimates based on information presented by Bess (1989). Starting from Bess's base figures for the per capita charcoal and fuelwood consumption for 1990, the urban per capita consumption was projected to decrease so that from a range of 68-120 kg (average 90 kg) per capita in 1990, charcoal consumption in 2020 would range from 64 to 68 (average 67 kg) per capita. On the other hand, rural per capita charcoal consumption in 1990 was small (8-36 kg, or an average of 13 kg), and it was projected that it would remain constant through 1990 to 2020. Per capita firewood consumption was projected to decrease so that from a range of 324-402 kg or 0.45-0.56 m³ (excluding Nairobi which has a much lower consumption), or an average of 372 kg (0.52 m³) per capita in 1990, firewood consumption in 2020 would range from 287 (0.40 m³) to 350 kg (0.49 m³), or an average of 322 kg (0.45 m³), per capita [using a conversion factor of 1 m³ = 714 kg, air-dry weight (Openshaw, 1978)].

The total annual consumption of charcoal and firewood was projected by combining the population and the per capita annual consumption. The KFMP estimated that wood-charcoal conversion efficiency would improve gradually from 7.6:1 (13%) in 1990 to 5.95:1 (17%) in 2020.

KFMP (1995) projected that demand for wood fuel would rise steadily from 20.1 million m³ in 1995 to 40.1 million m³ as the country's population rises from 26.5 million people in 1995 to 57.9 million in 2020. During the same period, accessible wood fuel supplies were estimated to increase from about 18.3 million m³ in 1995 to 26.4 million m³ in 2020.

Based on the above projections, which are themselves based on the 1995 trends, the KFMP (1995) estimated that in the short term, the country would be able to meet its wood fuel requirements, although part of the supplies would be coming from non-sustainable sources (e.g. clearing of forests and woodlands) and wood fuel substitutes (e.g. agricultural residues, recycled wood from worn-out posts, construction props and forms, demolished houses, discarded furnishings, etc.). However, beyond year 2000, the increase in total wood supplies will not be able to meet increases in wood demand. Even when non-sustainable supplies and wood fuel substitutes are included, the total wood deficit is projected to increase to 6.8 million m³ in 2020, mainly manifested as wood fuel deficit.

This situation can, however, be avoided if a number of policy interventions, implemented by a set of programmes for the conservation, development and management of the forest and tree resources are put in place. This will translate into increased accessible wood supplies from indigenous forests, woodlands, bushlands, farmlands and settlement areas and forest plantations which will increase to almost double the 1995 levels. This will enable the country meet the growing demand for wood (mainly wood fuel).

16. Other studies and surveys

Many other surveys and studies have been conducted in Kenya that bear more on charcoal consumption and demand than on dynamics of production and distribution. These include work on energy-efficient stoves, renewable energy supply and utilization and institutional demand (Hyman and ATI, 1985; Jones, 1989 and Hankins, 1987). These works were used to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the factors of demand. A demand system model has been built upon this information.

The key variables of the model address:

· Household and institutional charcoal energy conservation prospects including number of improved stoves, growth in demand and improved efficiencies, among others.
· Potential for inter-fuel substitution and its effects on charcoal demand (real fuel prices, demand elasticity's, substitution of kerosene/paraffin and electricity for charcoal and product adoption rates).
· Other factors affecting demand (transport costs, licences, taxes and other enforcement costs).

Annex 1-(i): Suitable Woody Species for Wood fuel in Kenya (Agatsiva, 1997)

References

Agatsiva JL. 1997. Fuelwood as indicators in land degradation: Contribution to the National Land Degradation Assessment and Mapping in Kenya. Government of the Republic of Kenya, Royal Netherlands Government and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

Agatsiva JL. 1987. Timber Volume Assessment for Management of a Tropical Forest: The Role of Remote Sensing. MSc Thesis, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.

Akinga WW. 1980. Woodfuel Survey in Kenya. Forestry Department, Ministry of Natural Resources. Nairobi, Kenya (Unpublished).

Barnes C, Ensminger J and O'Keefe P. 1984. Wood, Energy and Households: Perspectives on Rural Kenya. Stockholm: The Beijer Institute and Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Bess M. 1989. Kenya Charcoal Survey. Final Report and Annexes. Prepared for the Long Range Planning Unit, Ministry of Planning and National Development and Carleton University by Bess Associates Ltd. (Development Assistance Consultants). Nairobi, Kenya.

Brokensha D and Riley B. 1978. Forestry, Foraging, Fences and Fuel in a Marginal Area of Kenya. USAID, Washington DC, 1978.

CBS. 1975. The National Integrated Sample Survey Programme, Phase I: October, 1974-August, 1979. Nairobi, Kenya: NISSP Series, Working Paper No. 1.

CBS. 1980. Results of Rural/Urban Survey 1978/79: Energy and Power Module. Ministry of Finance and Planning, Central Bureau of Statistics. Nairobi, Kenya.

Chavangi NA. 1984. Cultural Aspects of Fuelwood Procurement in Kakamega District. Working Paper No. 4, Kenya Woodfuel Development Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.

Grunblatt J, Ottichilo WK and Sinange RK. 1989. A hierarchical approach to vegetation classification in Kenya. African Journal of Ecology. 27: 45-51.

GTZ/SEP. Undated. Charcoal production and research activities within the Special Energy Programme, Kenya and woodfuel plantation in Kenya.

Hankins M. 1987. Renewable Energy in Kenya.

Hosier R. 1981b. Something to Buy Paraffin With: An Analysis of Domestic Energy Consumption Patterns in Rural Kenya. PhD Thesis, Clark University.

Hosier R. 1984. Domestic Energy Consumption in Rural Kenya. Results of a Nationwide Survey. In: Wood, Energy and Households: Perspectives on Rural Kenya. Barnes C, Ensminger J and O'Keefe P. (eds.). Stockholm: The Beijer Institute and Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Hosier R. 1985. Energy Use in Rural Kenya. Household Demand and Rural Transformation Stockholm. Stockholm: The Beijer Institute and the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Hyman E and ATI. 1985. The Experience with Improved Charcoal and Wood Stoves for Households and Institutions in Kenya. Bellerive Foundation and Institutional Energy Efficient Stoves Programme, various project documents.

IPC. 1986. Interdisziplinarés Project Consult (IPC). Options for commercial charcoal production in the coastal region of Kenya, second draft. Frankfurt, A/M.

Jones HM. 1989. Energy Efficient Stoves in East Africa. USAID, Washington DC.

KFMP. 1995. Kenya Forestry Master Plan. Development Programmes. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Forestry department. Nairobi, Kenya.

KFMP. 1992. Kenya Forestry Master Plan. Annex VI, Bio-energy. First Incomplete Draft (FID). June, 1992. MENR and FINNIDA.

Kuyper JBH and Bradley PN. 1985. Woodfuel and Agroforestry in Kisii District. Working Paper No. 7, Kenya Woodfuel Development Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.

Mung'ala PM and Openshaw K. 1984. Estimation of Present and Likely Future Demand for Fuelwood and Charcoal in Machakos District, Kenya In: Wood, Energy and Households: Perspectives on Rural Kenya. Barnes C, Ensminger J and O'Keefe P. (eds.). Stockholm: The Beijer Institute and Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Mung'ala PM. 1979. Estimation of Present and Likely Future Demand for Fuelwood and Charcoal in Machakos District, Kenya. Masters Thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Ngugi A and Bradley P. 1986. Agroforestry, Soil Conservation and Woodfuel in Murang'a District, Parts I and II, Kenya Woodfuel Development Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.

Openshaw K. 1978. Woodfuel .... A Time for Reassessment. Natural Resources Forum. 3:35-51.

O'Keefe P, Raskin P and Bernow S. 1984. Energy and Development in Kenya. Opportunities and Constraints. Stockholm: The Beijer Institute and the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Republic of Kenya. 1988. National Energy Policy and Investment Plan. Nairobi. Ministry of Energy and Regional Development.

Spence RW. 1986. A National Model of Kenya's Wood and Charcoal Sectors: Structure, Projection and Alternative Simulations. Technical Paper No. 86-11, Ministry of Planning and National Development.

Spence RW. 1988. Kenya Woodfuels Model: Revised Base Case and Further Analysis of Major Policy Alternatives. Technical Paper No. 88-03, Ministry of Planning and National Development, Long Range Planning Unit.

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Warwick DP and Leininger CA. 1975. The Sample Survey: Theory and Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

WOODEC. 1987. Baseline Surveys for Intensified Forestry Extension and Future Impact Evaluation. (Nakuru, Machakos, Nyeri, Kisii, Kakamega and Kwale districts). Prepared for the Rural Afforestation and Extension Schemes (RAES) of Forestry Department, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MENR) and Swedish Development Cooperation (SDC).

World Bank. 1988. Kenya Forestry Sector Review. Main Report and Annexes I-VI.

World Bank. 1986. Kenya Urban Woodfuel development Programme, various working documents.

Lesotho

Background Report: "An Update of the Lesotho Wood-fuel Database" by Mrs N. L. Masilo, Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, P. O. Box 774, Maseru 100. Lesotho This is a report of 5 pages, produced under TCDC arrangements, which describes the wood energy sector in Lesotho and the state of the art concerning wood-fuel information. The full report is not reproduced here but may be requested to the author or to M.A. Trossero, FAO FOPW, Rome. A short description of this paper is given under "Synthesis of the workshop - workshop activities - presentation of country reports - Lesotho".

by

Mrs N. L. Masilo,
Forestry Division,
Ministry of Agriculture,

Background

Lesotho is a small landlocked highland country of approximately 30 350Km² situated in the Eastern part of the Republic of South Africa. Its population of 1,8 million at a growing rate of 2.6% p.a. Population density is on average 67 per Km but reaches up to 200 per Km² in the lowlands (1 500m-1 800m above sea level).

The country's agricultural development is hampered by adverse climatic conditions 600 to 900mm of rainfall occurring erratically mainly in summer. About 70% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. Communal grazing land is overstocked and what is left as cropland is of low productivity. One of the most pressing problems of the country is soil erosion whereby it has been estimated that in only a decade the area of arable land has decreased from 13% to 9%. Furthermore agriculture contributes to only 10 - 15% GNP.

In land use, Forestry plays a small but significant role. The importance of afforestation was realized in the country and around 1855 initiatives started. It is from that period up to present that pure afforestation programs and projects with a tree-planting component are still on going. In the last three decades two approaches were/are pursued;

· State Forestry approach (1973): to meet the energy demands, the Lesotho Government originally decided to produce fuel wood and timber (i.e. a joint venture with GOL owning 80% and communities 20% of the resource. This was under the Overseas Development Agency (ODA) and Anglo American De Beers Company and the project was called the Lesotho Woodlot Project. This project managed to successfully plant 12 000ha, approximately 300 woodlots country wide, of mainly Pinus and Eucalptus species.

·  Social Forestry approach (1993) - as a reaction to limited success of the state woodlot approach, an alternative approach was adopted within the Forestry Division namely the social Forestry approach. Implementation of the Division's objectives is achieved through the Social Forestry and Conservation Project (K_W/GTZ support). The data which will be presented in this paper refers mainly to collection of data on fuel wood supply however projections are still based on mainly the information provided by the Lesotho Energy Master Plan 1986.