2. Regional synthesis

The Near East region

The Near East region, as defined for the prupose of this study, includes sixteen countries, namely Afghanistan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.²

In drylands and other areas of the Near East, NWFP support the livelihoods of millions of people. Traditionally, the most important roles played by NWFP are health care, food security and nutrition (fruits, leaves, seeds and nuts, mushrooms, honey and animals are all important sources of food and food additives in the Near East), support to agricultural and livestock production, construction materials, household items and cultural values. NWFP vary greatly in local availability and preferences. They range from products used for local consumption to products which are traded on the international markets and which have represented major commodities for a long time. However, in the Near East, the majority of NWFP are used for subsistence and in support of small-scale, household-based enterprises, which provide income and employment for rural people, especially women.

The largest forest area is found in Iran (11.4 million ha), followed by Turkey (8.9 million ha), and Afghanistan (1.4 million ha). The forest and woodland areas in the remaining countries are each less than one million hectares. Countries like Bahrain, Oman and Qatar have less than 1 000 ha of forests. Kuwait and United Arab Emirates have only man-made plantations. The land area, population numbers, GNP/person and forest area of the countries in the region are shown in Table 2.

Nineteen "centers of diversity" were recognized in the Middle East and South West Asia (Heller, 1991). They include the Levantine Uplands of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan, which form part of the "Fertile Crescent", of major importance for agriculture. The region also contains Vavilov's Near Eastern Center of Origin of Crop Plants and the Near Eastern Complex recognized by Harlan (1992) where a wide variety of cultivated plants were domesticated for the first time. 

Table 2. Basic data and forest cover in the Near East region

Source: FAO (1997); FAO (2000)

Key:
C: Estimated to be low income (US$725 or less)
E: Estimated to be upper middle income (US$2 896 to US$8 955)
G: Estimated to be lower middle income (US$726 to US$2 895)
n.a.: No figures available.

n.s.: Not significant

Main NWFP

NWFP include medicinal and aromatic plants, herbs and spices, gums, resins, tannins, fibres, mushrooms, honey, fruits and nuts for nutrition, fodder for animals and wildlife products.

There are also very important services provided by the forests in the region. Protection of soil and water resources are primary functions of forests and wood plantations. Forests play a vital role in combating desertification and preventing soil erosion in fragile regions (e.g. Yemen), as well as protecting watersheds in mountainous areas (e.g. Yemen and Cyprus). Shelterbelts and windbreaks protect fields, cities and infrastructure, ensure environmental stability and increase soil productivity by mitigating the effects of climatic fluctuations in many countries of the region (e.g Iraq, Syria and Turkey).

Amenity and recreation are also among the important functions of forest areas. In line with the rapid urbanization in many countries of the region, demand for recreation activities have shown rapid increase. For example, in Turkey, 428 recreation sites covering 15 946 hectares have been established, and 32 national parks covering an area of 649 486 hectares. Forests play a significant role in the preservation of biodiversity and the gene reserves in the region. They provide work opportunities and additional income to rural populations living in and around forests.

Table 3. Main NWFP in Near East

The flora of the Near East region is diverse and comprises some 23 000 vascular plant species of which 6 700 are endemic to the region (Boulos, 1994). The flora of the Middle East was estimated at 15 000 species by Heller (1991).

The use of medicinal, culinary and aromatic plants, herbs and spices in the region dates back thousands of years and forms an important part of various cultures. Although many of the species concerned have fallen into disuse, traditional medicines still play a major role in health care systems. A list of the most important medicinal and essential oil and perfume plants is given in Table 4. The most important plant families are: Boraginaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Compositae, Cruciferae, Gramineae, Labiatae, Leguminosae, Liliaceae, Rosaceae.

In Turkey, more than 500 medicinal and aromatic plants are being used. Whole or parts of plants of about 250 species are exported (Koyuncu, 1995) Turkey is also rich in aromatic plants and Baser (1993) estimates that a third of the flora of Turkey consists of aromatic plants used for fragrance, flavouring or containing essential oil. Amongst the 1 500 or so plants used in Iraq, a large number serve medicinal and aromatic purposes (e.g. Achillea santolina, Capparis spinosa and glycorrhiza sp.). Some of them are cultivated (Chakravarty, 1976).

In the Arabian Peninsula oleo-gum-resins are found in Boswellia and Commiphora of the family Burseraceae. These are produced in resin ducts in the bark. Boswellia sacra, one that played a key role in its economy until recent times, was widely used as a medicinal plant for a whole range of ailments by physicians. Three species of Commiphora are used medicinally in preparations made from their resinous wood or from the resins: C. oliacea (or C. copobasamum), the famous Balm of Gilead (Meccamyrrh), C. foliacea, whose wood is widely used, and C. habessinica whose resin is very valuable as a medicine.

Table 4. Major indigenous medicinal and aromatic plants of the Near East

Source: Boulos (1994)

The introduction of more extensive farming of medicinal plants should be considered. This requires more information about which species grow in the wild, their conservation status, how intensively wild species are harvested, how extensively they are cultivated and what are the existing and potential markets (local, national and international). This also requires the participation of the local community and its local knowledge, and proper analysis of the socio-economic, cultural, agricultural, technical, scientific and conservation factors involved.

The Near East forests provide a wide range of food. Edible fruits are particularly important as they provide essential nutrients to the diet of local people. Examples of the main fruit and nut trees are: Pistacia spp., Pinus pinea and Ceratonia siliqua (carob) in Syria, Iran and Turkey; Julgaris regia (walnut), Morus spp. (mulberry), Tamarindus indica (tamarind), Mangifera indica (mango) and Zizyphus sp. in Pakistan. In countries that have no natural forests, fruits of Ficus sycomorus, Eugenia jambolana and Morus sp. are consumed.

Many trees, shrubs and Savannah grassland in the Near East countries are used as forage for cattle, sheep, goats and wildlife (animals, birds and insects). Acacias are the most valuable forage trees in the region.

In Pakistan gum and tannin are obtained from A. arabica. Several other species, such as Sapindus mukorossi, Pinus roxburghii and Juglans regia are sources of gums and resins. In Turkey, gums and resins are extracted from Abies sp., Pinus brutia and Astragalus sp.

In some Near East countries (e.g. Turkey), bulbous plants are used for ornaments as well as in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. They have traditionally been used in the floristic trade locally and are now also being sold abroad. The export of flowers earned US$2 374 000 in 1995. Some of the most important bulbous plants are: Eranthis hyemalis, Anemone blande, Leucozum aestivum and Cyclamen hederifolium.

Some of the Near East countries are important producers of natural honey from Acacia and Eucalyptus species. Turkey is one of the major producers (annual production of 7 500 tonnes).

The lower plants in the forests including mushrooms, morels, truffles and other fungi supply a number of minor foods. Pakistan and Afghanistan are the main contributors to the world trade in morels. The activities of the FAO "Forestry and Food Security Project in the Mediterranean and Near East Region (Turkey, Syria and Jordan)" include cultivation of mushroom. The most commonly cultivated and exported mushroom in the project is Agaricus bisporas.

Ecological aspects

The climate of most of the Near East region can be characterized as arid. Ecologically, these zones are fragile and difficult to develop and use. Except in limited areas, the vegetation of arid areas is sparse and usually highly specialized morphologically and physiologically. Cutting trees and clearing of forests in these fragile ecosystems usually causes irreversible damages. The imports of wood products in the last few years, when compared to exports, illustrate the pressure on these forest ecosystems in all Near Eastern countries (Table 5). No Near Eastern country exports more wood products than it imports, and most have no exports at all. In terms of percentages, countries import thousands of times more wood products than they export. Since all Near Eastern countries are in a wood-deficit situation, sustainable forest growth becomes more difficult, in turn making a sustainable production of NWFP less likely. Obviously, the need to develop the production and use of NWFP has to be assessed in light of the continuously diminishing forest resources.

Table 5. Imports of wood and derived forest products into Near Eastern countries

Source: FAO (1996)

¹Based on comparisons of imports and exports in 1996.

One way of conserving forest trees and developing the use of NWFP is to demonstrate the value of such products. The idea that wood products are more valuable than NWFP is not always correct and needs further examination under specific country conditions. Taking into consideration the many indirect or hidden forest products, the values of NWFP may indeed be much higher than previously estimated.

Due to the prevailing harsh climatic conditions of the region, forestland is mostly comprised of savannah areas, open woodlands, and land with scattered trees and xerophytic shrubs. However, in highlands of Cyprus, Pakistan, Turkey, temperate forests and humid zones are found.

In countries lacking natural forests, fast growing and multipurpose tree species (i.e., Eucalyptus, Casuarina, Poplars and Acacias) are planted in the form of windbreaks or shelterbelts around farms, highways, public facilities and in agroforestry systems. These help to meet the local needs for wood and to protect the agricultural crops against wind as well as providing amenity and amelioration of the environment. In countries that have natural forests, such plantations provide significant amounts of wood (e.g. 4 million m³/annum of wood are made in Turkey mainly from poplar plantations) and even greater amounts than the natural forest production (e.g. Iraq, Iran, Lebanon and Syria) (Heywood, 1997).

In general, the forestlands in the Near East countries are state owned, although there are some variations among the countries regarding ownership and the rights of forest dwellers and local populations. Many countries in the region have enacted laws and legislation to regulate the use of forests by local populations and protect them against damaging interventions.

According to FAO statistics (Table 6), the forest area of the region decreased during the period 1990-1995. The main causes for degradation are: over exploitation of wood for fuel by rural populations, overgrazing and the increase in need for wood and non-wood forest products and forest services by the growing population in the region.

Table 6. Changes in forest cover in the region (1990 - 2000)

Source: FAO (2000)

Over exploitation of NWFP is a major problem in the Near East countries. As a part of its policy to protect the natural resources, the Lebanese government issued decisions to protect aromatic and medicinal plants and to control their exploitation. Moreover, the Lebanese Ministry of Agriculture is encouraging pine nut production through banning the importation of pine nuts, thus protecting the growers and producers from unnecessary competition. This move has allowed the stabilization of the pine nuts market while giving the whole production and exploitation cycle a great push forward.

In Pakistan, collectors also endanger many species through indiscriminate exploitation. For quite a few of these valuable plants, either the quality has deteriorated or they have become extinct. Development of propagation and regeneration technologies of medicinal plants in their natural habitat are essential for the conservation of this natural resource. Because of indiscriminate and continuing overexploitation, mazri forests are disappearing in many places. The supply base is gradually shrinking and the incomes of families are threatened. Rehabilitation of mazri forests is, therefore, essential in order to maintain the supply base.

The great majority of aromatic culinary and medicinal plants are still collected from the wild in the Mediterranean countries and often subject to overharvesting. In Jordan, medicinal plants are massively used by Bedouins and local people in folk medicine as hot or cold drinks or chewed raw materials as fresh or dry. Many plants are under collection pressure and used often for many medicinal purposes, such as Artemisia, Achillea, Salvia, Paronychia, Ecballium, Ephedra, Ajuga, Marrubum, Alcea, Thymus, Sarcopoteruim, Hyoscyamus, Ricinus communis and many others.

In Syria, medicinal and aromatic plants are threatened by degradation of forest by fires, overgrazing, removal of trees for fuel and the lack of management plants; urban expansion in forest areas; scarcity of water and unsustainable harvesting of wild medicinal plants.

Negative environmental impacts of NWFP utilization in Turkey are caused by the increasing demand for medicinal and aromatic plant production. This high demand lead to overexploitation and to the use of incompatible production techniques. Thus the destruction of species is increasing rapidly and some important endemic species are consequently in danger of extinction. As a result, some regulations have been introduced related to production techniques and effective protection and control of excessive production, including certificates for collection and export.

Wild progenitors of ornamental species such as Tulipa spp., Narcissus spp., Anemone spp., Cyclamen spp., Orchis spp., Ophrys spp., Fritillaria spp., etc. exist among the wild vegetation of Cyprus. Unfortunately, their numbers are rapidly decreasing owing to continuous developmental activities, use of herbicides and inconsiderate exploitation.

Socio-economic aspects

In the Near East, the goods and services provided by forests and trees are much more important than timber production. Sylvopastoralism for livestock production (often based on nomadic systems) is the main production system in many of these countries: forest grazing and forest fodder, therefore, represent certainly one of the major contribution to local and national economies of Near East countries. Collection, grading and processing of aromatic and culinary plants (bay leaves, rosemary, thyme, sage and others) is a major income generating activity.

While wood production remains an important activity and constitutes in many cases the principal source of revenue from Mediterranean forests, the socio-economic importance of NWFP of this area has been increasingly recognized. NWFP have in particular long played significant roles in the subsistence and culture of mountain communities, where the income generated from collecting fruits, nuts, resins, fibres, etc. has helped upland areas build a base of economic growth that capitalises on available forest resources and encourages their management for sustained productivity.

Several NWFP are unique to the region. The contribution of NWFP to the revenue of countries and their value in terms of earnings and employment is considerable, especially in the developing countries of the region.

Morels, or black mushrooms of the genus Morchella, are widely gathered by an army of men, women and children in the temperate forests of Pakistan, India, China and Afghanistan, and traded internationally in large quantities. Urban entrepreneurs buy them from local collectors and transport them in dried form to overseas markets, especially to Europe, where demand for them as gourmet or speciality foods consistently exceeds local or regional supplies, and prices are uniformly high. Pakistan produces about 50 tonnes of dry morels annually (equivalent to 500 tonnes of fresh morels); all of which are exported.

France, Switzerland and Germany are the main importers of dried morels from Pakistan and India. According to unpublished records of the International Trade Center (ITC), the imports, from the above mentioned countries, of dried morels to European Economic Community (EEC) countries and Switzerland range between 100 to 120 tonnes per annum (Iqbal, 1995).

Kernels of Chalghoza pine (Pinus gerardiana) constitute a popular dry fruit in Pakistan, Afghanistan and many Middle Eastern countries. According to the National Progress Reports on Forestry, Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (15^th Session, Colombo, Sri Lanka) world production estimates for the years 1990, 1991 and 1992 were reported to be 868 tonnes, 715 tonnes and 435 tonnes, respectively. The bulk of the production comes from Pakistan and Afghanistan. Small quantities are also produced in India. Pakistan exports about 120 tonnes of pine nuts annually to a number of Middle Eastern countries. The average wholesale price within Pakistan ranges from Rest. 40 000 to 50 000 (US$1 330 to US$1 670) per tonne, whereas the export price ranges from US$3 600 to 4 300 per tonne.

Walnuts are an important NWFP in Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan, where the walnut tree (Juglans regia) is an important broad-leaved associate of temperate coniferous forests. The tree is also widely cultivated. Nearly one fourth of all walnuts traded come from the Asia-Pacific region: China (16.6 percent), India (6.8 percent), Iran (0.03 percent), Afghanistan (0.03 percent) and Pakistan (0.02 percent). Outside the Asia-Pacific region, USA, Turkey, Chile, Hungary and Argentina are the main suppliers of walnuts.

Gum tragacanth is an important commercial gum produced by several shrubby plants of the genus Astragalus, which grow from Pakistan to Greece, particularly in Iran and Turkey. Iran and Turkey are the main producing countries, with about 70 percent of the supplies originating from Iran alone. Iran's average annual production potential has been estimated at 400 tonnes. The gum is also known to be produced in Afghanistan and Syria, but export consignments are very rare. According to Agricultural Products, November 1991, Iran's average annual production potential has been estimated at 400 tonnes.

Annual collection of honey from forest areas in Pakistan has been estimated to be 55 to 60 tonnes. Beekeepers in Pakistan shift their bees to the mountains each summer to forage. According to FAO statistics, world production of natural honey was estimated to be 1.19 million tonnes in 1991. Turkey is the major producing country in the region, which contributed 4 percent to total world production in 1991.

It is estimated that more than 100 species of medicinal value occur in Pakistan. In 1992, the total value of international trade in liquorice was US$0.94 million, of which 23.7 percent originated from Pakistan and 7.3 percent from Afghanistan. Syria and Turkey are also major producers. During 1992, total world trade in medicinal plants was about US$171.234 million, of which 0.5 percent originated from Pakistan.

WWF (undated) identified four main constraints which hinder the sustainable use of NWFP in general, and that of medicinal and aromatic plants, in particular:

· Low prices paid to gatherers;

· Insufficient legislation regarding plant harvesting and trade;

· Lack of awareness, among end users, of the detrimental effects arising from the demand; and

· Reluctance among traders to provide information related to their practices.

Taking into account the current production of NWFP in the Mediterranean region (the annual total production of NWFP is estimated to exceed 12 million tonnes), WWF concludes that the production could be tripled in the future.

Conclusions

Policy - makers and urban and rural populations in the region have started to show an increasing interest in the protection and multiple uses of forest resources. However, this awareness is yet to be expressed in institutional and financial support for forestry and adoption of sustainable forest management.

Interest and contributions of rural communities and grassroots participation for the conservation and development of forests and forestry should be extended and improved. Competing interests and needs of a growing population with a dwindling natural resource base, have developed serious conflicts among owners and users of the resources as well as among the latter's.

It is evident from the above considerations that there is a need for cooperation between research institutions of the Near East to promote the forest products and services of this area. Therefore, according to many sources (e.g. Kizmaz, 1997; FAO, 1996) it is recommended to:

1. Encourage companies dealing with the trade of medicinal, culinary and aromatic plants to set up a fund which should be used to support research and developments covering the rehabilitation of Near Eastern ecosystems.

2. Implement production plans, which introduce proper production techniques for plants including NWFP inventories.

3. Revise the production plans at the end of the rotation period by comparing new plans with previous ones.

4. Enforce export quotas in order to prevent over production resulting from high demand and market competition.

5. Draw up legal and organizational regulations in order to prevent destructive and illegal collection.

6. Encourage the cultivation of native plant species by forest dwellers by providing forest villagers with training, technical and financial assistance.

7. Determine the market value of potential NWFP.

8. Identify and formulate a regional projects/programmes to promote the sustainable development of NWFP in the Near East.

9. Prepare project flyers for submission to interested donors in close collaboration with relevant regional organizations and with agencies from the countries concerned (such as the Arab Center for the Study of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD) or the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD).

10. Involve each country in a national and regional process of promotion of NWFP through the forest departments of each country.

11. Review national forest policies and regulations in the region as to identify critical gaps which could impede the conservation of forest biodiversity and at the same time the sustainable development of the NWFP sector.

12. Develop processing activities, using innovative techniques and quality standards, to bring products up to international market levels.

13. Develop the medicinal, culinary and aromatic plants industry by providing required establishment and support.

14. Strengthen international cooperation and obtain external financial resources to support innovative cultivation techniques.

15. Improve preservation and storage methods to maintain a high quality of the products.

16. Take account of the conservation of gene resources and the sustainability of bio-diversity in production, conservation and breeding plans.

17. Study of potential marketing problems, including statistics, on production and trade.

REFERENCES

Baser, H.C. 1993. Essential oils of Anatolian Labiatae: Aprofile. Acta Horticultureae 333:: 217-238.
Boulos, L. 1995. Flora of Egypt Checklist. Al Hadara Publishing, Cairo.
Chakravarty, H.L. 1976. Plant Wealth of Iraq. A dictionary of Economic plants. Vol.1.
FAO. 1996. FAO yearbook. Forest Products. Rome.
FAO. 1997. State of the World's Forests. Rome. Italy.
FAO. 1999. Towards a harmonized definition of non-wood forest products. Unasylva No. 198, vol. 50.
FAO. 2000. State of the World's Forests. Rome. Italy. Internet: http://www.fao.org/forestry/fo/country/nav_world.jsp, viewed in July 2001.
FAO. 2001. Non wood forest products in Africa: A regional and national overview - Les produits forestiers non lingneux en Afrique: Un aperçu régional et national, by S. Walter. Working Paper FOPW/01/1. Rome.
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Heywood, V. 1997. Plant resources and their diversity in the Near East. Proceedings of the international expert meeting on medicinal, culinary and aromatic plants in the Near East. Cairo, Egypt, 19-21 May 1997.
Iqbal, M. 1995. International trade in non-wood forest products in the Asia Pacific Region. Beyond Timber: Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions on Non-Wood Forest Products in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of a Regional Expert Consultation, 28 November-2 December 1994, RAPA, Bangkok, Thailand.
Kizmaz, M. 1997. Medicinal, culinary and aromatic plants production in Turkey. Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Medicinal,Culinary and Aromatic plants in the Near East. Cairo, Egypt, 19-21 May 1997.
Koyuncu, M. 1995. Medicinal and aromatic plants in Turkey. Ankara University. Ankara.
Miller, A.G. & Cope, T.A. 1996. Flora of the Arabian Peninsula and Socotra.
WWF. undated. Forest Harvest: An overview of non-timber forest products in the Mediterranean region. by Y. Moussouris & P. Regato, WWF Mediterranean Programme. Rome (Internet: http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5593e/x5593e00.htm, viewed in July 2001).

2 Information on NWFP for African countries also belonging to the Near East region (i.e. Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia) can be found in FAO (2001).