INTRODUCTION
Main Non-Wood Forest Products
The main non-wood forest products (NWFP) of Lebanon are edible fruits (e.g. pine nuts), medicinal (e.g. Myrtus communis) and aromatic plants ( e.g. sage and oregano).
Other NWFP include fodder and honey.
General information
Lebanon was known for its dense and rich forests in the ancient times. It is now witnessing a severe depletion of its natural resources. Land degradation and deforestation are not problems of the last decades only; they started more than a century ago and kept going on. The total lack of control and appropriate legislation in the last few years, the increasing needs of the population and the ignorance of the negative impacts of improper natural resources management resulted in the actual alarming situation.
The different forest ecosystems in the country are mainly threatened by deforestation, over-grazing, urban development, road development, bad agricultural techniques, excessive use of chemical products, hunting and industrial development.
PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS
Food
The nut production of the stone pine (Pinus pinea) is highly important in Lebanon. The stone pine forests are the most abundant coniferous forest in Mount Lebanon (18 percent of total forest cover and 36 percent of the coniferous forest cover) where they extend over ca. 14 000 hectares (Baltaxe, 1966).
These forests are very important for nearby local communities. Besides for its highly valued nut production, the forests are also used for recreation, tourism, and as a source of fuel wood. Moreover, it plays a very important role in soil erosion control, especially on sandy slopes. As a production system, it remains very feasible and attractive to many landowners. Several villages in the middle mountain zone depend on the pine nuts production for their main source of income.
The Ministry of Agriculture is encouraging nut production through banning the importation of pine nuts, thus protecting the growers and producers from unnecessary competition. This move has allowed the stabilization of the pine nuts market while giving the whole production and exploitation cycle a great push forward.
In Lebanon, the shelled nut production is estimated at 200 kg/ha (Abi Saleh et al., 1996). The pine area used for nuts production is 6 277 hectares. Eighty percent of the total Lebanese pine nut production is located in Mount Lebanon area, 18 percent in South Lebanon, 1 percent in North Lebanon and 1 percent in Nabatiya.
Total nut production is 20 000 tonnes or 3.2tonnes/ha (1/3 of total nuts) amounting to US$9 200 or US$1.46/ha (1/5 of total nuts) compared to US$3.72/ha of almonds and US$21/ha of walnut. Pine nuts have a significant contribution to the trade balance (Abi Saleh et al., 1996). The price was reported to be US$15/kg in 1990 (National report,1990).
The latest statistical data on edible nuts in Lebanon is listed in tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Production and area of edible nuts in Lebanon
Edible nuts |
1998 |
1999 | ||
Production (1 000 tonnes) |
Area (1 000 ha) |
Production (1 000 tonnes) |
Area (1 000 ha) | |
Almond |
28.6 |
6.5 |
3.2 |
6.8 |
Walnut |
2.9 |
0.7 |
3.9 |
0.8 |
Pine nut |
16.5 |
6.1 |
14.9 |
6.0 |
Source: MoA & FAO (2000)
Table 2. Total export values of edible nuts in Lebanon
Edible nuts |
Total export (tonnes) | ||
1997 |
1998 |
1999 | |
Almond |
97 |
96 |
70 |
Walnut |
2 |
1 |
30 |
Pine nut |
- |
- |
0.2 |
Source: MoA &FAO (2000)
The carob production (Ceratonia siliqua) was encouraged by the government by allowing forestland owners to clean their forests and to graft their carob trees with better producing varieties. This allows a higher yield of juicier carob pods, thus improving the carob molasses industry. These molasses are used as a dessert and as a sweetener in some traditional pastries. Other uses for these molasses could be developed as well. In the same time, the carob seeds are exported and used in several industries, while the leftovers could be used as soil organic matters. Carob molasses are thought to have several beneficial effects, ranging from the regulation of the gastro-intestinal tract to the improvement of the over-all health condition. Ground carob seeds are mixed with milk in babies feeding bottles to prevent vomiting. The annual production was estimated to be 50kg/tree (MoA, 2001).
Fodder
The forests, especially oak forests, are used as rangeland by herders originating from Bekaa, North Lebanon and the Mountain Highlands (e.g. Kfarselwan, Baskinta) as a source of grazing for about 350 000 goats and 150 000 sheep (Tellawi, 1993).
In the early seventies and before, grazing was more organized. Herders used to pay the owners (by money or manure) and pass only the winter period in the lowlands. Nowadays, some herders do not pay any fees and exploit pine forests the whole year (e.g. Haret Hamzeh). These cases are also consequences of the political divisions during the war. On the other hand, urbanization, changes in income sources and use of pesticides are decreasing grazing activities
Medicines
There are 236 species of wild and cultivated medicinal plants in Lebanon. 16 species are localized in certain regions and 29 are endangered. Several local species (Linum toxicum, Erica manipuliflora, Viola libanotica, etc) are considered as variants of recognized European species.
The emergence of the so-called "Chirch el Zallouh" or the Zallouh root has added to the threats on the high mountain flora. This plant (Zallouh root), the Ferrula hermonis, grows on the Mount Kekmel, in the sub-alpine zone and is thought to improve the sexual potentials while improving the over-all health conditions. This has lead to the over-uprooting of the plant, as the active ingredients are only found in its root system. The Ministry has reacted by issuing a degree prohibiting the uprooting and exploitation of this commercially important plant. Some researchers and scientists are working on the identification of the active ingredients of this plant, while some plant extracts are sold as herb teas in pharmacies.
As a part of its policy to protect the natural resources, the Lebanese government issued decisions to protect aromatic and medicinal plants and to control their exploitation. Decree 1/29, issued in February 1996, prohibits the export of aromatic and medicinal plants like Saliva, Origanum, Myrtus, Chamomilla, and Calluma. This decision followed decision 1/38, issued in April 1982, which prohibiting the export of all forest products.
Whereas decision 1/340, dated August 1996, aims at organizing the exploitation of sage and origano. The wild sage (Salvia triloba and Salvia fruticosa) and the local Origanum species suffered from uncontrolled exploitation and uprooting. The latest decision allows a better control of the exploitation. Picking Origanum is only permitted between August 1st and December, while exporting dried material is permitted all year round. Picking and exporting the sage is permitted between August 1st and December 31st , with a prior permit from the Rural Development and Natural Resources Directorate. Uprooting both sage and Origanum is completely forbidden. The annual production of sage was estimated to be 50 tonnes (MoA, 2001).
Table 3 lists the primary trees found in Lebanon with reported or expected medicinal properties.
Table 3. Some medicinal trees found in Lebanon and their common uses
Species |
Habitat |
Medicinal uses |
Other uses |
Alianthis altissima |
West mountains of Mount Lebanon, between 0-2 000m; in Bekaa, south Riyyak and in the south of Lebanon |
Powdered bark used to treat intestinal tapeworms and for dysentery and other stomach trouble |
Insecticidal properties |
Ceratonia siliqua |
Coastal areas, and on the inferior slopes of coastal mountains 0-1 000m |
The pulp has anti-diarrhea properties, the gum serves as a suspending agent, absorbent demulcent, lubricant |
Food |
Clematis vitalba |
Localized in the northern part of the country between 0-1 000m |
External usage against varicose ulcers |
|
Cupressus sempervirens |
West and east mountains of Mount Lebanon between 300-2 000m |
Mostly used to treat blood circulation disorders |
|
Ficus carica |
Spontaneous |
Laxative |
Food |
Fraxinus ornus |
Between 0-2 000m |
The extracted mannitol is used as an osmotic diuretic and as excipient |
Aromatics |
Juglans regia |
West mountains of Mount Lebanon between 300-2 000m; in the Bekaa, south of Zahleh and towards Baalbek; and in Hermon |
Leaves are astringent, eupeptic with a hypoglycemia action. The extracted juglone is an antiseptic and keratinizing |
Food |
Juniperus |
Between 1 000 and 2 800m |
Diuretic and eupeptic |
Soil improvement and protection |
Laurus nobilis |
Coastal areas, between 0-2 000m and in the south |
External usage, stimulant |
Aromatics |
Melia azedarach |
Coastal areas and mountains, up to 1 000m |
Anti-helminthic, remedy for intestinal worms and parasitic skin diseases |
Insecticidal properties |
Myrtus communis |
West mountains of Mount Lebanon between 0-1 400m |
Mostly antiseptic, for pectoral (respiratory) infections |
|
Quercus infectoria |
Up to 1 600m on western slopes |
Astringent for external and internal usage |
|
Rhamnus cathartica |
West mountains of Mount Lebanon between 1 400-2 000m |
Laxative and purgative. |
|
Rhus coriaria |
West mountains of Mount Lebanon between 0-2 000m |
Food | |
Ulmis minor |
Sub-spontaneous |
Tonic, astringent |
Source: Baalbaki (1997)
The estimated market value of medicinal and aromatic plants produced by forests in Lebanon is US$18 600 000, based on 1994 figures (Biological Diversity of Lebanon, 1996).
The most common medicinal plants in Lebanon are:
· Anethum grveolens
· Artmesia arborescens
· Ecballium elaterium
· Inula viscisa
· Nigella sativa
· Plantago psyllium
· Punicia granatum
· Rhus coriara
· Rosa canina
· Taraxacum officinale
· Trigonella foenum-graecum
· Tussilago farfara
· Vinca libanotica
· Ziziphus vulgatris
Perfumes and cosmetics
The diversity of the Lebanese ecosystems contributes to the occurrence of a very wide vegetation range. This is translated by a wide variety of plants from different species and genera.
Some aromatic plants are used in the daily food of most Lebanese people, especially Origanum sp.. Mixed with the grinded sumac flower, sesame seeds and olive oil, it will result in the highly appreciated "zaatar wzayt". Laurel leaves are used in several recipes; it was used in the past to perfume the laundry. Several wild leafy vegetables are used for salads and for cooking, while the wild apple fruits Malus trilobata are used as pickles.
Several teas are prepared and hundreds of recipes could be given to all sorts of illnesses and diseases. One remarkable example is that of hepatitis cured by the wild cucumber juice (Echbalium elaterium) (FAO, 1998c).
Exudates
Pinus pinea is rich in resin. In Lebanon, the resin (Katroun) had been used as an insecticide applied to goats (FAO, 1991).
Others
Research on biological resources, or biodiversity research, funded by pharmaceutical firms or research agencies, is proceeding in a number of countries. Forest biological resources have been the subject of several agreements between Lebanese institutes and international organizations. Several studies have been supported by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute for surveys, collection and characterization of plant genetic resources of Lebanon. Specific studies include a survey on local genetic resources of pistachio, characterization and evaluation of the diversity of Pinus pinea forests, and a survey and characterization of Lebanese almond germplasm.
Insecticides of plant origin which are readily biodegradable are perceived to be environmentally safe and ecologically acceptable. Several studies have been conducted at the Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences of the American University of Beirut on the biopesticidal properties of Melia azedarach. This tree species contains several liminoids that act as feeding deterrents and growth regulators of insects. Leaf and fruit extracts were found to repel white fly adults. Aqueous extracts of leaves and fruits were found to be comparable in their efficacy to certain tested commercial biorational and synthetic pesticides against the pea leaf minor.
ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS
Honey and beeswax
Honey production is an important activity at the level of small farmers. Beekeeping is based on fodder from the forests.
A survey on honey production showed that the number of beehives in Lebanon is 100 000, of which 92 percent are based on new techniques and 8 percent are traditional ones. 36 percent of these hives are located in the mountainous area, while 33 percent are in the North. Total export of honey was recorded to be worth Lebanese Pounds (LL)75 million5 (US$49 500) in 1997 (Tellawi, 1993).
Table 5 shows the honey production with the corresponding number of beehives in Lebanon in 1997 (MoA, 2000).
Table 5. Honey production in Lebanon (1997)
Type |
Number of beehives |
Production (tonnes) |
Production (kg/beehive) |
Production value (million LL) |
Price/kg (LL) |
Traditional |
8 063 |
38 |
5 |
884 |
22 150 |
New |
91 973 |
990 |
11 |
19 447 |
18 700 |
Total |
100 036 |
1 028 |
10 |
20 291 |
19 120 |
Source: MoA (2000)
REFERENCES
Abi Saleh, B., Nasser, N., Rami, H., Safi, N., Safi, S., and H. Tohme. 1996. Biological Diversity of Lebanon: La Flore Terrestre. Lebanese Ministry of Agriculture and UNEP.
Baalbaki, R. 1997. NWFP : Resouces and Potential. Expert meeting on developing and coordinating the activities for non-wood forest products, FAO. Beirut, 1999.
Baltaxe, R. 1966. Carte Forestiere du Liban, 1:200.000. FAO and Lebanese Government.
FAO. 1991. Non-wood forest products: the way ahead. FAO Forestry Paper 97. Rome
FAO. 1993. Forestry policies in the Near East region: analysis and synthesis. FAO Forestry Paper 111. Rome
FAO. 1995. Forest resources assessment 1990-Global synthesis-FAO Forestry Paper, 124.
FAO. 1998a. Forest products 1992-1996. FAO Yearbook 1996. Rome.
FAO. 1998b. Production, vol. 51 FAO Yearbook 1997.
FAO. 1998c. Forest products 1992-1996. FAO Forestry Paper 125. Rome
Ministry of Agriculture and FAO. 2000. Agriculture statistics project in Lebanon.
Ministry of Agriculture. 2001. Forestry department.
National report of Lebanon. 1990. World forestry congress X.
Peters, C.M., Alwyn , H.G. and Mendelshon, R.O. 1989. Valuation of an Amazonian forest. Nature, 339:655-56
Republic of Lebanon, Ministry of Agriculture and UNEP.1996. Biological diversity of Lebanon. Publication #7, agricultural and livestock habitats and nature reserves; publication #8, national capacity and current economic evaluation. Commercial Business sarl, Beirut, Lebanon.
Report of the FAO project `Development of forest resources for environmental protection and food security in arid and semi-arid areas of the Near East and North Africa'.
Silva, E. and Appanah, S. 1993. Forests management for sustainable development. An EDI policy seminar report, number 32. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
Tellawi, A.M. 1993. Role of forestry in food security and environmental protection.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report has been realized in support to the FAO Forest Resource Assessment 2000. The content is mainly based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome and on information collected by Ms Sabra, American University of Beirut, Lebanon. Additional information was provided by Dr. Riad Baalbaki, Dr. Salma Talhouk, American University of Beirut and Mr. Fadi Asmar, Ministry of Agriculture, Beirut.
Additional information on NWFP in Lebanon would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.
QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF LEBANON
Product |
Resource |
Economic value |
||||||||
Category |
Impor-tance |
Trade name Generic term |
Species |
Part used |
Habitat |
Source |
Desti-nation |
Quantity, value |
Remarks |
References |
1, 2, 3 |
F, P, O |
W, C |
N, I |
|||||||
Plants and plant products | ||||||||||
Food |
1 |
Pine nut |
Pinus pinea |
nu |
F, P |
W |
N,I |
- Total production of 16 500t and export of 0.2t in 1999- Wholesale price worth LL22 000 |
FAO, 2000 | |
2 |
Almond |
Prunus dulcis |
nu |
F,P |
W,C |
N |
Total production of 28 600t and exportof 70t in 1999 |
FAO, 2000 | ||
2 |
Walnut |
Castanea sp. |
nu |
F,P |
W,C |
N |
Total production of 2 900t and export of 30t in 1999 |
FAO, 2000 | ||
2 |
Carob |
Ceratonia siliqua |
fr |
F,O |
W |
N |
Annual production of 50kg/tree |
MoA, 2001 | ||
Perfumes, cosmetics |
1 |
Sage |
Salvia sp. |
le |
F |
W |
N,I |
Annual production of 50 t |
MoA, 2001 | |
Animals and animal products | ||||||||||
Honey, beeswax |
1 |
Honey |
ho |
F,O |
W,C |
N,I |
- Total export worth LL52 milion in 1999- 200-500 t/year |
Tellawari, 1993 |
Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey; la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - Others: Trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international