INTRODUCTION
Main Non-Wood Forest Products
The most important non-wood forest products (NWFP) of Turkey are edible products such as mushrooms (e.g. oyster mushroom, desert truffle, black truffle) and fruits (e.g. pine nuts), medicinal plants (e.g. Betula pendula, Quercus infectoria Mill., Quercus thaburencis Decne.) and aromatic plants (e.g. Laurel, Oregano, Sage).
Other NWFP include ornamental plants (Galanthus and tulip), resins (e.g. pine resins, storax), honey and fodder.
General information
Statistical data is available on the production, export and import of NWFP in Turkey.
Information on the production of NWFP in Turkey is poorly monitored and vague, since available figures (see table 1) are derived from tax collection on products for which resource access and gathering permits have been issued to villagers. Because of widespread tax evasion and illegal harvesting, NWFP are considerably undercounted. For example, the production of bay leaves (Laurel) is estimated to reach 852 tonnes in 1990, whereas exporters contend that the real figure was in the order of 2 500 tonnes (GDF, 1989).
Table 1. Production of NWFP in Turkey
PRODUCT |
UNIT |
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
Resin |
Ton |
390 |
320 |
290 |
330 |
355 |
240 |
113 |
Storax |
Kg |
1 000 |
1 000 |
1 000 |
700 |
2 000 |
3 000 |
1 000 |
Leaves of Laurus nobilis L. |
Ton |
2 108 |
2 049 |
2 890 |
3 498 |
4 325 |
3 890 |
6 763 |
Resinous wood |
Ton |
5 200 |
2 200 |
2 200 |
1 200 |
1 200 |
1 200 |
5 550 |
Incense |
Kg |
800 |
800 |
1 600 |
1 050 |
800 |
- |
800 |
Leaves of Salvia sp. |
Ton |
575 |
760 |
807 |
842 |
802 |
975 |
450 |
|
Leaves of Thymus sp. |
Ton |
4 796 |
5 552 |
7 354 |
7 444 |
11 149 |
8 328 |
2 235 |
|
Seeds of Pinus pinea |
Ton |
519 |
1 046 |
717 |
421 |
529 |
629 |
412 |
|
Mushrooms |
Ton |
825 |
1 384 |
740 |
433 |
127 |
165 |
61 |
|
Leaves of Rhus L. |
Ton |
99 |
113 |
13 |
51 |
45 |
25 |
19 |
|
Leaves of Rosmarinus officinalis |
Ton |
81 |
195 |
270 |
197 |
434 |
398 |
450 |
|
Leaves of Larocerasus officinalis |
Ton |
124 |
47 |
59 |
41 |
10 |
67 |
73 |
|
Flowers of Tiatal L. |
Ton |
391 |
310 |
135 |
78 |
352 |
458 |
28 |
|
Fruits of Castanea sativa Mill |
Ton |
35 |
83 |
171 |
174 |
259 |
160 |
350 |
|
Corms of Galanthus L. |
Ton |
24 |
11 |
29 |
15 |
56 |
4 |
3 |
Source: Kizmaz (1997)
Foreign trade of NWFP in Turkey is summarized in Figure 1. It shows that the trading balance of NWFP, as against some wood products, was positive in the last ten years. The export value oscillated between US$59 million in 1990 and US$81 million in 1998. The import values increased during the same period from US$2.8 million to US$8.2 million in 1999. The export-import ratio decreased from 20:1 in 1990 to 8:1 in 1999 (Koc et al., 2000).
Foreign trade of NWFP has an important share in the overall foreign trade of forest products. Between 1990 - 1999 period, 36 percent of the total US$1.8 billion of export of forest products and 1.5 percent of the total US$3.2 billion of forest products import were achieved with the NWFP (Koc et al, 2000).
Source: Koc et al. (2000)
Exports of NWFP from Turkey maintained a reported average of US$34.7 million from 1983-88 (May, 1991) and US$68.3 million from 1990-1999 (Koc et al., 2000; see table 3 in the annex).
Koc (2000, see table 3) lists 23 NWFP being exported from Turkey. The most important exported NWFP over the last ten years were Thymus (aromatic plant), followed by Capparis (edible fruit), edible mushrooms (oyster mushroom, desert truffle, black truffle), pine nuts (Pinus pinea), Laurus leaves (laurel), Castanea (chestnut) and Ceratonia siliqua (carob). Less important NWFP are
· with an export value between 1.4 percent and 2.3 percent of all NWFP: Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza sp.), bulbous plants (ornamentals), Foeniculum (wild fennel), juniperus cones (medicines), Cerasus mahalep (edible fruits) and Saluia (sage); and
· with an export value below 1 percent of all NWFP: Tilia flowers (Tilia tomenosa), nut-gall (Quercus sp.), sweet gum (Liqudambar orientalis), tragacanth gum (Astragallus sp.), resin, Rhus (medicinal plant, textile dye), bark mushrooms, Orchis, camatina, bushes and Myrtus (medicinal plants).
Turkey exported NWFP to 113 countries. Main destinations were USA (21 percent of exports from 1990 to 1999), Germany (14 percent), Italy (12 percent), France (9 percent) and Spain (5 percent). Some 60 percent of the Turkish exports are sold to these countries, 40 percent is exported to other countries such as (e.g. Saudi Arabia) (Koc et al., 2000, see table 4).
Source: Koc et al. (2000)
22 NWFP are imported to Turkey. The most important imported NWFP over the last ten years were edible and bark mushrooms, ornamentals (bulbous plants), bushes and Ceratonia siliqua (carob) and Thymus (aromatic plant). Less important imported NWFP are
· with an import value between 3.3 percent and 1.1 percent of all NWFP: Resin (Pinus brutia), liquorice (Glycyrrhiza sp.), Foeniculum (wild fennel), juniperus cones (medicinal plant), Saluia (sage), Pinus pinea (pine nuts), nut-gall (Quercus sp.) and Capparis (edible fruits); and
· with an import value below 1 percent of all NWFP: Castanea (chestnut), sweet gum (Liqudambar orientalis), Tilia flowers (Tilia tomenosa), Laurus leaf (laurel), tragacanth (Glycyrrhiza sp.), Myrtus (medicinal plant), Rhus (medicinal plant, textile dye), Cerasus mahalep (edible fruits) and Silene (Koc et al., 2000; see annex, table 5).
The import of Foeniculum, juniperus cones, Saluia, pine nut, Tilia flowers, Laurus leaf, tragacanth, Myrtus, Rhus and Cerasus mahalep has begun in the recent years.
Importation links have been established with 64 countries in the last decade. Most important importers in this period were the Netherlands (16 percent), Italy (12 percent), China (11 percent), France (11 percent) and Germany (10 percent). The share of the other countries was 40 percent (see table 6).
Source: Koc et al. (2000)
Negative environmental impacts of NWFP utilization in Turkey are caused by the increasing demand for medicinal and aromatic plant production. This high demand lead to overexploitation and to the use of incompatible production techniques. Thus the destruction of species is increasing rapidly and some important endemic species are consequently in danger of extinction. As a result, some regulations have been introduced related to production techniques and effective protection and control of excessive production, including certificates for collection and export (Kizmaz, 1997).
Another problem regarding the use of NWFP in Turkey is the low level of industrial processing of medicinal and aromatic plants. These plants are exported as raw material whereas most of the finished products are reimported as industrial goods. As a result, the followings problems arise:
· The selling price of the raw products is low, while the cost of the imported finished products is high;
· Labor-intensive payment is low;
· The companies involved in import/export and processing of the raw materials gain more benefit than the producers;
· Imported products are more expensive due to the fact that they are processed abroad (Kizmaz, 97).
Regarding the market chain, GDF (1989) reports that Turkish villagers are in general quite well organized through existing cooperatives. However, due to lack of broad-based cooperative organization focused on NWFP, forest villagers tend to be at the mercy of the middleman in marketing such products. In most cases, the marketing chain is not seriously convoluted: gatherers usually sell to a local buyer who then trucks the good to processor/exporter. Nevertheless, the proportion of final product value that accrues to the producer may be minimal. Cooperatives should therefore be created to help producers increase the value of the products they are selling. For example, in the bay leaves sector, a large proportion of the raw material received by the processors consist of stems, stones, and other impurities that must be removed before shipment. Cooperatives of producers could thus be set to carry out improvements in collection, cleaning and selection of bay leaves.
PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS
Food
The use of mushrooms such as Boletus, Morchella, Lactarius and Cantharellus cibarius is well documented in Turkey (Pacioni, 1991).
Morchella sp. is the most popular mushroom in Turkey. More than 47 tonnes were traded in 1989 in the domestic and foreign markets. Almost all the production (46 tonnes) is concentrated in south-western Anatolia.
About 22 tonnes of Boletus and 10.5 tonnes of Cantharellus were exported in 1989. These figures increased respectively to 730 tonnes and 160 tonnes in 1990. The main production areas are located in the Marmara and Black Sea regions (Kastamonu, Bursa, Bolu, Istanbul, Amasya, Giresun, Sinop, Balikesir, Zonguldag, Ordu, Artvin, Erzurum), but small quantities are also produced in South-West Anatolia (Mugla, Denizli, Antalya, Izmir, Isparta). The fresh natural production of Boletus and Cantharellus cibarius is mainly exported to Italy, Germany and other European countries. During 1989, in the regions of Istanbul, Giresun, Amasya, Erzurum, Zonguldak, Balikesir, Bursa and Bolu, a production of almost 22 tonnes Boletus sp. was recorded for exportation (Pacioni, 1991).
Some wild mushrooms, notably the desert truffles Terfezia boudieri, are frequently found and collected from the forest areas. Most of the wild mushrooms collected are consumed in the village households and the surplus is sold at the market both in fresh and dried form.
The cultivation of Terfezia boudieri represents a valuable resource for the inhabitants of villages in the Anatolian plateaux. From spring to summer, the desert truffles are harvested and a significant amount are sold to the local traders. Successful cultivation has also been reported for black (Tuber aestivum) and white (Tuberborchii) truffles, due to avourable soil and climatic factors of western Anatolia.
Rhizopogon and Lactarius sp. are mycorrhizal guests of coniferous trees such as Pinus, Picea, Abies, Cedrus and are very appreciated as food in Turkey.
Originally avoided by villagers and town dwellers due to the fear of being poisoned, the domestic market of the oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) is now steadily expanding. The know-how on cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus is also increasing as shown by successful experiments carried out in the Laboratory of Mycology at the Institute of Poplar and Exotic Fast Growing Trees in Izmit.
Important fruit trees include almond (Prunus amygdalus) and pistachio (Pistacia terebinthus). Almond is one of the most important multipurpose trees growing in the region. Fruits of the tree are collected by the villagers while still green or after maturing and are sold on the market. The pistachio is another multi-purpose tree, which provides fruits (as a raw material for the production of pistachio oil) and gum, which can be obtained from its stem. It is also used as medicine (see below) (Yazici, 1997).
Capparis spinosa can grow in dry and bare soils where agriculture crop growing is not profitable. The plant gives fruit in the first year. Villagers collect the green buds of the plant before blooming. They keep them in 20-23% salty water for preservation. (Kizmaz, 1997).
Fodder
Because of existing limited and degraded range areas, young shoots and leaves of trees such as Quercus sp. and Pinus nigra are used by the villagers for winter feeding when the other feeding resources run out. It can be said that roughly 70% of the goat feeding and 30% of the sheep feeding needs are supplied from the forest areas. Around 2.3 million of fodder is annually obtained from forest pastures and rangelands which amounts to 508 million ha (FSR Draft Report, 1998).
Medicines
Important medicinal and aromatic herbs include Rhus cariaia, Thymus seryllum, Salvia officinalis, Nepeta cataria and Cistus aurifolius. These plants are mostly used for traditional health treatment, making tea and flavoring dishes. Among these, Rhus cariaia and Pistacia terebinthus seeds are collected in large amounts and have a market value.
Liquorice is obtained from the dried roots and rhizomes of several Glycyrrhiza sp. in particular G. glabra. The main active ingredients in the plant are saponin-like glycosides, of which glycyrrhizin is the most important. In crude extract form liquorice is used as expectorant and anti-inflammatory, and it is common in cough syrups, sweets and pastilles. Many non-medicinal foods and drinks are flavored with liquorice, as well as tobacco, toothpaste and breath fresheners.
Sumac (Rhus cotinus) is resistant to poor soil and grows on hillsides to prevent soil erosion. The leaves and fruits are very rich in myrisetin, oil and organic acids. After collection, the leaves are dried and sold on the market. In industry, it is mainly used for processing of hides. Local people also use its leaves and fruits as medicine and spices.
Sideritis species (Labiatae) are used as herbal (mountain) tea in Turkey. Entire crop is obtained by wild crafting. They are sold and also exported mainly to Germany. As dried inflorescences they are used to make tea, plants are collected while flowering.
(Yazici, 1997)
Perfumes and cosmetics
Aromatic plants are considered as one of the most important categories of NWFP in Turkey. Thymus products for example are the most valuable exported NWFP in Turkey, worth US$17 million, which corresponds to one fourth of the value of all exported NWFP (Koc et al., 2000, see table 5).
Kekik (Oregano) is another important export commodity of Turkey. Annually, Turkey exports 5 000-7 500 tonnes of dried oregano for return of US$13-15 million. Commercial oregano species are collected mainly in the Aegean and Mediterranean regions of Turkey. Turkish oregano (Origanum onites) tops the list of commercial oreganos. The biggest threat to wild growing oregano is early harvest. Some collectors are known to start harvesting of very young oregano plants in February in contrast to its more usual harvesting period of July-September. Due to low content of carvacrol in essential oil of these early harvests, such consignments are rejected by the buyers (Baer, 2000).
Laurel (Laurus nobilis) (Lauraceae) is a bush, which grows along the entire coastline of Turkey. Laurel leaves are harvested for export or essential oil production in most parts of Turkey. In 1996, some 7 000 t of leaves were collected. (Kizmaz, 1997). However, in Cel and Hatay provinces, fruits are harvested and an aromatic fixed oil (Laurel berry oil) is obtained by boiling the crushed berried in water followed by scooping out the floating oil. This oil has excellent frothing properties used in locally made soaps, and exported mainly to Arab countries and Germany (Baer, 2000).
Ornamentals
Bulbous plants are collected from the wild or cultivated in situ for export. In addition, they are used by the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry. The export of flowers earned US$2.4 million in 1995 (Kizmaz, 1997) and US$1.5million in 1999 (Koc et al., 2000). Some of the most important bulbous plants are: Eranthis hyemalis, Anemone blande, Leucozum aestivum and Cyclamen hederifolium (Kizmaz, 1997).
Exudates
Tragacanth gum is the dried exudates produced by tapping the tap root and branches of certain shrubby species of Astragalus. Turkey and Iran have been the only significant producers of tragacanth for some years.
The gum is exported in ribbon or flake form, and has a rather horny texture. Unlike many other gums, solutions of tragacanth have a very long shelf life without loss of viscosity. The most important applications of tragacanth are now in foods and pharmaceuticals (FAO, 1992).
ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS
Honey and beeswax
Honey production is very important for domestic consumption and export. "Anzer honey", for example is very valuable and made by the bees from Thymus sp. around Artvin and Erzurum regions. Also "pine honey" or honeydew is obtained by worker bees at the end of the Marchallina hellenica Genn secretion. This locally produced honey called as " Basyra" in Turkey. Pine Honey production is about 7 500 (3 500-12 000) tonnes at fethiye and Marmris (Muola region) (Kizmaz, 1997).
REFERENCES
Agaoglu. 1993. A preliminary inventory of non-wood forest products in certain villages of Vezirkporu, Duragan and Uzndere districts. GCP/TUR/SWI Consultancy Report. Turkey.
Baer, K.H.C. 2000. Sustainable wild harvesting of medicinal and aromatic plants: an educational approach. Seminar on "Harvesting of non-wood forest products", Menemen/Izmir (Turkey), 2-8 October 2000.
Chang, S. T. 1978. Volvariella Volvacea. The biology and cultivation of edible mushrooms. Academic Press. N Y.
FAO. 1983. Growing mushrooms: Oyster Jew's Ear and Straw Mushroom Regular Program. RAPA, No. 75. Bangkok.
FAO 1992. Tragacanth gum [published in FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 34, 1986]. pp 225-227. In Compendium of Food Additive Specifications. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 5 (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Combined Specifications from 1st through the 37th Meetings, 1956-1990). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
General Directorate of Forestry. 1989. The Turkish forestry in the 150th year of its establishment. Publication n. 673. Serial n. 30. Ankara, Turkey.
Guler, M.1994. The status of past and current, edible mushroom cultivation in Konya: Its problems and recommendations. FAO project, GCP/INT/539/ITA, Consultancy Report for Turkey.
Government of Turkey. 1998. National forestry report of Turkey. Near East Forestry Commission. Thirteenth Session. Damascus, Syria (6-9 December, 1998).
Kizmaz, M. 1997. Medicinal, culinary and aromatic plants production in Turkey. Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Medicinal,Culinary and Aromatic plants in the Near East. Cairo, Egypt, 19-21 May 1997.
Kizmaz, M. 2000. Policies to promote sustainable forest operations and utilization of non-wood forest products. Seminar on " harvesting of non-wood forest products", Menemen/Izmir (Turkey), 2-8 October 2000.
Koc, H., Aksu, B. and Kurtoglu, A. 2000.Turkey's foreign trade of the non-wood forest product. . Seminar on " harvesting of non-wood forest products", Menemen/Izmir (Turkey).
May, P. 1991. Mission report of Turkey. FAO.
Muthoo, M.K. 1997. Forests and forestry in Turkey. FAO.
Pacioni, P. 1991. Consultancy report on truffles. FAO project TCP/TUR/8852(T)
Turker, F., PAK, M. and Ozturk, A. 1999. The Review of non-wood forest products management in Turkey as from the five year development plans and forestry main plan. Karadenis technical University, Faculty of forestry, Department of Forest Engineering.
Yazici, E. 1997. NWFP production in the project villages in Turkey (Beykavagi, Dulgerler, Kupluce). Forestry and Food Security in the Mediterranean and Near East Region. Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Medicinal, Culinary and Aromatic plants in the Near East. Cairo, Egypt.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report has been realized in support to the FAO Forest Resource Assessment 2000. The content is mainly based on available information at FAO Headquarters in Rome and on information collected by Ms Sabra, American University of Beirut, Lebanon. Additional information was provided by Dr. Baki Aksu, University of Istambul and Dr. Onder Barli, Karadenis Technical University.
Additional information on NWFP in Turkey would be appreciated and duly acknowledged.
QUANTITATIVE DATA ON NWFP OF TURKEY
|
Product |
Resource |
Economic value |
||||||||
|
Category |
Impor-tance |
Trade name Generic term |
Species |
Part used |
Habitat |
Source |
Desti-nation |
Quantity, value |
Remarks |
References |
|
1, 2, 3 |
F, P, O |
W, C |
N, I |
|||||||
|
Plants and plant products | ||||||||||
|
Food |
1 |
Pine nuts |
Pinus pinea |
nu |
F |
W |
I |
Export worth US$6.09 million in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | |
|
Edible mushrooms |
e.g. Terfezia boudieri, Boletus sp., Morchella sp., Cantharellus cibarius |
pl |
F |
W, ( C ) |
I |
Export worth US$9.5 milion in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | |||
|
Boletus |
pl |
F |
I |
Export of 730t in 1990 |
Pacioni, 1991 | |||||
|
Cantharellus |
pl |
F |
I |
Export of 160t in 1990 |
Pacioni, 1991 | |||||
|
Ceratonia siliqua |
fr |
F,O |
W |
I |
Export worth US$1.06 milion in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | ||||
|
Castanea sativa |
fr |
F |
W |
I |
Export worth US$8 milion in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | ||||
|
Cerasus mahalep |
fr |
F |
W |
Export worth US$562 000 in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | |||||
|
Capparis |
fr |
F |
W,C |
N,I |
Export worth US$8.5 million in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | ||||
|
Fodder |
2 |
F |
W |
N |
Production of 2.3 million t |
Kzmaz 2000 | ||||
|
Medicines |
1 |
Myrtus |
le |
F, P |
W, P |
N, I |
Export worth US$52 000 in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | ||
|
Juniperus Communis L. |
oi |
F |
W |
N,I |
Export worth US$1.8 milion in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | ||||
|
Liquorice |
Glycyrrhiza glabra |
ro |
F |
W |
N,I |
Export worth US$7 611 000 in 1999 |
FAO, 1997 | |||
|
Linden blossom |
Tilia tomentosa |
fl |
N,I |
Export worth US$588 000 in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | |||||
|
Bark mushrooms |
pl |
F |
W |
N,I |
Export worth US$47 000 in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | ||||
|
Camatina |
F |
W |
N,I |
Export worth US$27 000 in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | |||||
|
Perfumes, cosmetics |
1 |
Pinus brutia |
re |
Export worth US$57 000 in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | |||||
|
1 |
Laurel |
Laurus nobilis |
le, fr |
W,C |
N, I |
Production of 7 000 t in 1996 (Kizmaz, 1997) and export worth US$7.7 million in 1999 (Koc et al., 2000) |
Kizmaz, 1997; Koc et al., 2000 | |||
|
2 |
Rosemary leaves |
Rosmarinus officinalis |
le, fl |
W, C |
N |
Production of 450t in 1996 |
Kizmaz, 1997 | |||
|
2 |
Kekik |
Origanum sp. |
le |
F |
W |
N,I |
Export of 5 000-7 500t worth US$13-15 million |
Baer, 2000 | ||
|
1 |
Thymus sp. |
le |
F |
W |
N |
Export worth US$17.3 milion in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | |||
|
1 |
sage |
Salvia sp. |
le |
F |
W |
N,I |
Export worth US$2.3milion in 1999 |
Koc et al, 2000 | ||
|
2 |
Incense |
Liqudambar orientalis |
oi |
F |
W |
N |
Production worth 800kg in 1996 |
Kizmaz, 1997 | ||
|
Dying, Tanning |
2 |
Rhus L. |
fr,le |
N, I |
Export worth US$86 000 in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | ||||
|
Ornamentals |
1 |
Bulbous plants |
fl |
F, P |
W,C |
N,I |
Export worth US$1.5milion in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | ||
|
Exudates |
1 |
Gum tragacant |
Astragalus sp. |
ro |
F,O |
W |
N,I |
Export worth US$101 000 in 1999 |
Turkey and Iran are the biggest world exporter |
Koc et al., 2000 |
|
1 |
Sweet gum |
Liqudambar orientalis |
oi |
F |
W |
N,I |
Export worth US$25 000 in 1999 |
Koc et al., 2000 | ||
|
storax |
re |
F |
W |
N |
Production worth 1 000kg in 1996 |
Kizmaz, 1997 | ||||
|
Animals and animal products | ||||||||||
|
Honey, beeswax |
1 |
Basyra |
Marchallina hellenica |
ho, bw |
O |
N |
Annual production of 7 500 t |
Kizmaz, 2000 | ||
Importance: 1- high importance on the national level; 2 - high importance on the local/regional level; 3 - low importance
Part used: an - entire animal; ba - bark; bw - beeswax; le - leaves; nu - nuts; fi - fibres; fl - flowers; fr - fruits; gu - gums; ho - honey;
la - latex; oi - oil; pl - entire plant; re - resins; ro - roots; sa - sap; se - seeds; st - stem; ta - tannins
Habitat: F - natural forest or other wooded lands; P - plantation; O - Others: Trees outside forests (e.g. agroforestry, homegardens)
Source: W - wild, C - cultivated
Destination: N - national; I - international
ANNEX
Table 2. Main NWFP of Turkey
|
PLANT NAME |
PRODUCT |
USES | |
|
1. |
Pinus brutia Ten |
resin |
paint, polishing paper, chewing gum |
|
2. |
Liquidambar orientalis
|
styrox |
Medicine, perfume |
|
Liquidambar orientalis
|
incense |
used in mosques | |
|
3. |
Laurus nobilis L. |
leaves |
foods, perfume, leather and alcohol |
|
4. |
Pinus pinea L. |
fruit |
foods |
|
5. |
Quercus infectoria
Oliv. |
gall |
Paint, textile dyes, medicine, leather, ink |
|
6. |
Quercus thaburensis Decne |
fruit |
medicine, leather, textile dyes |
|
7. |
Juniperus Communis
L. |
fruit |
medicine, alcohol |
|
8. |
Tilia tomentosa
moench |
flower barks |
foods, medicine, cosmetic, rush mat |
|
9. |
Betula pendula Roth |
leaves, barks, twigs |
medicine |
|
10. |
Eucaluptus sp. |
leaves, barks |
medicine, foods (liquor) |
|
11. |
Ceratonia siliqua L. |
fruit |
foods, medicine, textile dye, cosmetics, alcoholic drinks, paper |
|
12. |
Castanea sativa Mill |
fruit, |
Foods, medicine |
|
13. |
Rhamnus petiolaris Boiss |
fruits |
foods, paints, medicine, textile dye |
|
14. |
Cerasus mahaleb L. |
fruits, |
foods, cosmetic, medicine, textile dye |
|
15. |
Pistacia terebinthus L. |
gum turpentine, wood, |
medicine, textile dye, alcoholic drinks |
|
16. |
Pistacia lentiscus L. |
gum |
foods, medicine, perfume, alcoholic drink, paints, polish, chewing-gum |
|
17. |
Rhus L. |
leaves |
medicine, textile dye, leather, foods, |
|
18. |
Erica arborea L. |
twig with flowers, roots, |
medicine, tobacco pipe |
|
19. |
Astragalus spp. L. |
gum |
Pharmaceutics, medicine, textile, glue |
|
20. |
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. |
roots, rhizomes |
medicine, beer, foods |
|
21. |
Salvia officinalis L. |
leaves |
medicine, cosmetics |
|
22. |
Centiana lutea L. |
roots of 4 - 5 years old plant |
medicine |
|
23. |
Dryopteris-flix-mas (L) |
rhizomes |
medicine |
|
24. |
Viburnum opulus L |
breaks, leaves,fruits |
alcoholic drinks, medicine |
|
25. |
Atropa belladonna L. |
leaves |
medicine, chemistry |
|
26. |
Althea officinalis L. |
flowers |
medicine |
|
27- |
Ricinus communis L. |
seeds |
medicine, plane engine oil |
|
28- |
Vitex agnus-castus L. |
flowers with twig |
medicine, textile dye |
|
29- |
Simmondsia chinensis |
seeds |
foods, cosmetic, shoe polish oil, car polish oil |
|
30- |
Galanthus L. |
corn |
medicine |
|
31- |
Rhamnus frangula L. |
barks |
medicine |
|
32- |
Capparis ovata, C. spinosa L. |
buds |
foods, medicine, alcoholic drinks |
|
33- |
Laurocerasus
officinalis |
fresh leaves |
foods, medicine, |
|
34- |
Foeniculum vulgare
Mill |
seeds |
foods, medicine, perfumes, alcoholic drinks |
|
35- |
Origanum heracleoticum L. |
branch |
medicine |
|
36- |
Matricaria chamomilla L. |
flowers |
medicine, cosmetic |
|
37- |
Rosmarinus officinalis L. |
leaves flowers |
medicine, cosmetic |
|
38- |
Lavandula officinalis L. |
flowers |
medicine, cosmetic |
|
39- |
Valeriana officinalis L. |
rhizomes, roots |
medicine |
|
40- |
Gypsophilla L. |
roots |
foods, medicine, cleaning material |
|
41- |
Thymus sp. |
flowers, |
medicine, chemistry, perfume, cosmetic, foods |
|
42- |
Digitalis grandiflora L. |
leaves |
medicine |
Source: Kizmaz (1997)
Table 3. Shares of products in the export of NWFP in Turkey
|
Num |
YEARS |
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 |
1998 |
1999 |
TOTAL | |
|
1 |
Thymus |
000$ % |
6 290 10.6 |
8 078 12.6 |
10 786 16.8 |
13 065 24.0 |
16 108 26.1 |
13 697 20.3 |
15 532 19.3 |
14 538 18.1 |
16 196 20.0 |
17 293 25.7 |
132 124 19.4 |
|
2 |
Capparis |
000 $ % |
11 064 18.7 |
10 232 15.9 |
10 046 15.6 |
11 626 20.5 |
12 093 19.6 |
12 069 17.9 |
13 298 16.5 |
14 108 17.6 |
10 741 13.3 |
8 502 12.6 |
113 778 16.7 |
|
3 |
Edible mushrooms |
000 $ % |
10 717 18.1 |
14 363 22.3 |
11 749 18.3 |
6 986 12.3 |
9 035 14.7 |
12 777 19.0 |
14 143 17.6 |
12 036 15.0 |
11 063 13.6 |
9 541 14.2 |
112 411 16.5 |
|
4 |
Pine nut |
000 $ % |
6 568 11.1 |
10 333 16.1 |
8 400 13.1 |
4 699 8.3 |
2 558 4.2 |
1 717 2.5 |
5 649 7.0 |
11 586 14.4 |
16 408 20.2 |
6 094 9.0 |
74 014 10.8 |
|
5 |
Laurus leaf |
000 $ % |
4 196 7.1 |
7 461 11.6 |
8 438 13.1 |
6 282 11.1 |
6 548 10.6 |
6 563 9.7 |
7 375 9.2 |
8 475 10.6 |
7 696 9.5 |
7 747 11.5 |
70 781 10.4 |
|
6 |
Castanea |
000 $ % |
5 651 9.5 |
3 571 5.6 |
4 010 6.2 |
4 714 8.3 |
5 250 8.5 |
8 966 13.3 |
10 033 12.5 |
8 602 10.7 |
7 729 9.5 |
7 963 11.8 |
66 490 9.7 |
|
7 |
Ceratonia sillgua |
000 $ % |
4 250 7.2 |
2 708 4.2 |
4 338 6.8 |
4 181 7.4 |
2 905 4.7 |
3 475 5.2 |
4 935 6.1 |
3 215 4.0 |
2 098 2.6 |
1 055 1.6 |
33 160 4.9 |
|
8 |
Licorice |
000 $ % |
4 472 7.6 |
2 273 3.5 |
1 347 2.1 |
999 1.8 |
854 1.4 |
1 123 1.7 |
1 269 1.6 |
1 607 2.0 |
933 1.2 |
761 1.1 |
15 638 2.3 |
|
9 |
Bulbous plants |
000 $ % |
1 591 2.7 |
1 843 2.9 |
1 950 3.0 |
1 538 2.7 |
1 498 2.4 |
2 153 3.2 |
228 0.3 |
390 0.5 |
1 587 2.0 |
1 573 2.3 |
14 349 2.1 |
|
10 |
Foeniculum, Juniperus cones |
000 $ % |
611 1.0 |
712 1.1 |
688 1.1 |
623 1.1 |
577 0.9 |
852 1.3 |
2 307 2.9 |
1 896 2.4 |
1 156 1.4 |
1 809 2.7 |
11 232 1.6 |
|
11 |
Cerasus mahalep |
000 $ % |
782 1.3 |
1 303 2.0 |
1 130 1.8 |
774 1.4 |
861 1.4 |
548 0.8 |
1 563 1.9 |
1 178 1.5 |
1 275 1.6 |
562 0.8 |
9 975 1.5 |
|
12 |
Saluia |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
838 1.4 |
1 121 1.7 |
1 477 1.8 |
1 604 2.0 |
2 104 2.6 |
2 358 3.5 |
9 501 1.4 |
|
13 |
Tilia flowers |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
1 633 2.7 |
1 737 2.6 |
1 529 1.9 |
- - |
797 1.0 |
588 0.9 |
6 285 0.9 |
|
14 |
Nut-gall |
000 $ % |
1 032 1.7 |
424 0.7 |
503 0.8 |
440 0.8 |
259 0.4 |
87 0.1 |
676 0.8 |
456 0.6 |
457 0.6 |
622 0.9 |
4 957 0.7 |
|
15 |
Sweetgum |
000 $ % |
357 0.6 |
330 0.5 |
521 0.8 |
- - |
456 0.7 |
329 0.5 |
50 0.1 |
67 0.1 |
14 0.0 |
25 0.0 |
2 150 0.3 |
|
16 |
Tragacanth |
000 $ % |
706 1.2 |
249 0.4 |
254 0.4 |
62 0.1 |
58 0.1 |
69 0.1 |
110 0.1 |
69 0.1 |
3 0.0 |
101 0.1 |
1 681 0.2 |
|
17 |
Resin |
000 $ % |
22 0.0 |
189 0.0 |
1 0.0 |
10 0.0 |
17 0.0 |
13 0.0 |
113 0.1 |
301 0.4 |
415 0.5 |
579 0.9 |
1 449 0.2 |
|
18 |
Rhus |
000 $ % |
618 1.0 |
308 0.5 |
4 0.0 |
20 0.0 |
8 0.0 |
30 0.0 |
50 0.1 |
7.4 0.1 |
77 0.1 |
86 0.1 |
1 275 0.2 |
|
19 |
Bark mushrooms |
000 $ % |
119 0.2 |
14 0.0 |
11 0.0 |
76 0.1 |
17 0.0 |
52 0.1 |
58 0.1 |
28 0.0 |
281 0.3 |
47 0.1 |
705 0.1 |
|
20 |
Orchis |
000 $ % |
105 0.2 |
94 0.1 |
55 0.1 |
84 0.1 |
28 0.0 |
35 0.1 |
33 0.0 |
9 0.0 |
2 0.0 |
4 0.0 |
450 0.1 |
|
21 |
Camatina |
000 $ % |
19 0.0 |
27 0.0 |
24 0.0 |
21 0.0 |
17 0.0 |
1 0.0 |
19 0.0 |
42 0.1 |
26 0.0 |
27 0.0 |
223 0.0 |
|
22 |
Bushes |
000 $ % |
50 0.1 |
2 0.0 |
1 0.0 |
- - |
3 0.0 |
125 0.0 |
9 0.0 |
18 0.0 |
0.390 0.0 |
8 0.0 |
93 0.0 |
|
23 |
Myrtus |
000 $ % |
272 0.0 |
135 0.0 |
218 0.0 |
10 0.0 |
- - |
- - |
5 0.0 |
- - |
4 0.0 |
52 0.1 |
71 0.0 |
|
TOTAL |
000 $ % |
59 198 100.0 |
64 326 100.0 |
64 256 100.0 |
56 750 100.0 |
61 621 100.0 |
67 414 100.0 |
80 463 100.0 |
80 300 100.0 |
81 063 100.0 |
67 398 100.0 |
682 789 100.0 | |
Source: Koc et al. (2000)
Table 4 . Privileged countries in the export of NWFP in Turkey
|
YEARS |
1 % |
2 % |
3 % |
4 % |
5 % |
Other % |
Total 000 $ |
|
1990 |
Germany 17.9 |
Italy 17.0 |
USA 14.9 |
France 6.2 |
S.Arabia 5.1 |
38.8 |
59 198 |
|
1991 |
USA 20.8 |
Germany 17.0 |
Italy 13.7 |
France 9.9 |
Netherlands 9.0 |
29.6 |
64 326 |
|
1992 |
Germany 20.3 |
USA 18.1 |
Italy 13.3 |
France 6.8 |
Switzerland 3.9 |
37.6 |
64 256 |
|
1993 |
USA 22.5 |
Germany 15.9 |
Italy 9.0 |
Spain 6.9 |
France 5.9 |
39.7 |
56 750 |
|
1994 |
USA 25.3 |
Germany 13.9 |
Italy 10.0 |
France 8.1 |
Spain 4.8 |
37.9 |
61 621 |
|
1995 |
USA 19.0 |
France 13.8 |
Germany 12.9 |
Italy 10.5 |
Spain 7.2 |
36.5 |
67 414 |
|
1996 |
USA 20.5 |
Germany 13.5 |
Italy 12.8 |
France 9.6 |
Spain 6.3 |
37.3 |
80 463 |
|
1997 |
USA 21.6 |
Germany 12.0 |
Italy 10.7 |
France 8.2 |
Spain 7.4 |
40.0 |
80 300 |
|
1998 |
USA 20.0 |
Italy 16.1 |
Germany 10.3 |
France 8.4 |
Spain 6.0 |
39.2 |
81 063 |
|
1999 |
USA 24.1 |
Germany 11.6 |
Italy 9.5 |
France 7.3 |
Netherlands 5.3 |
42.2 |
67 398 |
|
Total |
USA 20.7 |
Germany 14.3 |
Italy 12.3 |
France 8.5 |
Spain 5.4 |
38.8 |
682 789 |
Source: Koc et al. (2000)
Table 5. Shares of products in the import of NWFP in Turkey
|
Num |
YEARS |
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 |
1998 |
1999 |
TOTAL | |
|
1 |
Edible mushrooms |
000 $ % |
216 7.6 |
193 11.1 |
588 21.4 |
529 12.9 |
629 15.8 |
1 402 22.3 |
1 715 27.1 |
2 290 35.3 |
1 849 30.2 |
1 690 20.5 |
11 100 22.7 |
|
2 |
Bark mushrooms |
000 $ % |
578 20.2 |
367 21.1 |
422 15.4 |
694 16.9 |
344 8.6 |
734 11.7 |
1 953 30.8 |
1 806 27.8 |
- - |
1 785 21.6 |
8 684 17.8 |
|
3 |
Bulbous plants |
000 $ % |
1 322 46.3 |
575 33.1 |
444 16.2 |
506 12.3 |
250 6.3 |
542 8.6 |
389 6.1 |
890 13.7 |
1 028 16.8 |
921 11.2 |
6 867 14.0 |
|
4 |
Bushes |
000 $ % |
308 10.8 |
139 8.0 |
203 7.4 |
1 045 25.5 |
612 15.4 |
1 664 26.5 |
95 1.5 |
51 0.8 |
472 7.7 |
813 9.9 |
5 400 11.0 |
|
5 |
Ceratonia sillgua |
000 $ % |
268 9.4 |
328 18.9 |
606 22.1 |
670 16.3 |
1 078 27.0 |
1 099 17.5 |
34 0.5 |
114 1.8 |
93 1.5 |
- - |
4 290 8.8 |
|
6 |
Thymus |
000 $ % |
1 0.0 |
1 0.1 |
225 8.2 |
376 9.2 |
676 17.0 |
280 4.5 |
1 123 17.7 |
199 3.1 |
618 10.1 |
438 5.3 |
3 937 8.1 |
|
7 |
Resin |
000 $ % |
156 5.5 |
134 7.7 |
171 6.2 |
184 4.5 |
137 3.4 |
106 1.7 |
268 4.2 |
218 3.4 |
97 1.6 |
140 1.7 |
1 612 3.3 |
|
8 |
Licorice |
000 $ % |
395 0.0 |
- - |
59 2.2 |
71 1.7 |
53 1.3 |
72 1.1 |
110 1.7 |
227 3.5 |
410 6.7 |
454 5.5 |
1 457 3.0 |
|
9 |
Foeniculum, Juniperus cones |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
1 0.0 |
1 0.0 |
4 0.1 |
11 0.2 |
72 1.1 |
430 7.0 |
747 9.1 |
1 266 2.6 |
|
10 |
Saluia |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
111 1.8 |
278 4.3 |
402 6.6 |
299 3.6 |
1 090 2.2 |
|
11 |
Pine nut |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
20 0.7 |
1 0.0 |
135 3.4 |
218 3.5 |
80 1.3 |
20 0.3 |
29 0.5 |
453 5.5 |
957 2.0 |
|
12 |
Nut-gall |
000 $ % |
3 0.1 |
- - |
- - |
5 0.1 |
- - |
95 1.5 |
115 1.8 |
34 0.5 |
216 3.5 |
163 2.0 |
631 1.3 |
|
13 |
Capparis |
000 $ % |
1 0.0 |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
2 0.0 |
65 1.0 |
148 2.3 |
249 4.1 |
84 1.0 |
549 1.1 |
|
14 |
Castanea |
000 $ % |
238 0.0 |
- - |
3 0.1 |
13 0.3 |
4 0.1 |
8 0.1 |
84 1.3 |
36 0.6 |
88 1.4 |
46 0.6 |
282 0.6 |
|
15 |
Sweetgum |
000 $ % |
4 0.0 |
2 0.1 |
3 0.1 |
5 0.1 |
17 0.4 |
6 0.1 |
51 0.8 |
41 0.6 |
54 0.9 |
81 1.0 |
264 0.5 |
|
16 |
Tilia flowers |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
30 0.8 |
19 0.3 |
36 0.6 |
- - |
43 0.7 |
81 1.0 |
209 0.4 |
|
17 |
Laurus leaf |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
63 1.0 |
1 0.0 |
28 0.5 |
39 0.5 |
130 0.3 |
|
18 |
Tragacanth |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
14 0.2 |
18 0.3 |
15 0.2 |
3 0.0 |
15 0.2 |
85 0.2 |
|
19 |
Myrtus |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
5 0.1 |
39 0.6 |
- - |
- - |
44 0.1 |
|
20 |
Rhus |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
2 0.0 |
7 0.1 |
15 0.2 |
- - |
23 0.0 |
|
21 |
Cerasus mahalep |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
11 0.2 |
3 0.0 |
3 0.0 |
- - |
17 0.0 |
|
22 |
Silene |
000 $ % |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
- - |
4 0.1 |
- - |
4 0.1 |
- - |
- - |
8 0.0 |
|
TOTAL |
000 $ % |
2 856 100.0 |
1 740 100.0 |
2 745 100.0 |
4 101 100.0 |
3 986 100.0 |
6 269 100 |
6 339 100.0 |
6 492 100.0 |
6 127 100.0 |
8 249 100.0 |
48 903 100.0 | |
Source: Koc et al. (2000)
Table 6. Privileged countries in the import of NWFP in Turkey
|
YEARS |
1 % |
2 % |
3 % |
4 % |
5 % |
Other % |
Total 000 $ |
|
1990 |
Netherlands 52.6 |
Italy 9.9 |
Portugal 7.7 |
Germany 6.8 |
Chine 5.1 |
17.9 |
2 856 |
|
1991 |
Netherlands 34.8 |
Italy 11.2 |
Switzerland 10.1 |
Germany 9.4 |
Chine 8.4 |
26.0 |
1 740 |
|
1992 |
Germany 19.9 |
Netherlands 18.9 |
Chine 9.7 |
Switzerland 9.7 |
Italy 8.7 |
35.5 |
2 745 |
|
1993 |
Italy 27.9 |
Netherlands 16.0 |
Germany 8.2 |
China 7.9 |
France 5.8 |
34.2 |
4 101 |
|
1994 |
Albania 14.1 |
Netherlands 12.6 |
Italy 10.9 |
Spain 10.4 |
China 9.7 |
42.3 |
3 986 |
|
1995 |
Italy 23.4 |
China 14.9 |
Netherlands 14.1 |
Germany 14.0 |
France 5.6 |
28.0 |
6 269 |
|
1996 |
Germany 14.4 |
Portugal 12.6 |
France 12.4 |
China 9.5 |
Albania 8.6 |
42.5 |
6 339 |
|
1997 |
Netherlands 14.7 |
China 14.5 |
Portugal 13.2 |
Italy 12.6 |
France 8.5 |
36.5 |
6 492 |
|
1998 |
Netherlands 17.6 |
France 17.2 |
China 11.6 |
Italy 8.7 |
Germany 6.9 |
38.0 |
6 127 |
|
1999 |
France 21.5 |
China 13.0 |
Portugal 9.4 |
Netherlands 9.3 |
Italy 7.5 |
39.2 |
8 249 |
|
Total |
Netherlands 16.1 |
Italy 12.4 |
Chine 12.2 |
France 10.8 |
Germany 9.8 |
39.5 |
48 903 |
Source: Koc et al. (2000)
