3. DECIDUOUS FRUIT PRODUCTION IN AUSTRALIA

Alan P. George*

* Principal Horticulturist, Queensland Horticulture Institute, Maroochy Research Center, Nambour, Queensland, Australia.

Apples and peaches were first introduced into Australia by both European and Chinese settlers at the end of the 1890s. Fruit quality and productivity of temperate fruits grown have been gradually improved through introduction and selection of better quality varieties, mainly from the USA. Over a period of time, the most suitable regions to grow these fruits have been selected. About 90% of Australia’s production is consumed domestically. Australia was a major exporter of apple to the UK in the 1970s. However, with the UK entering the European community our exports to this market collapsed. Since then, a major restructuring of most temperate fruit industries has occurred and now Australia has repositioned its exports to Japan and South-east Asia.

2. PRESENT SITUATION OF DECIDUOUS FRUIT CROP CULTIVATION

Australia grows a wide range of deciduous fruits including apple, pear, grape, nashi, peach, nectarine, plum, apricot, cherry and to a lesser extent persimmon, kiwifruit and blueberries. About 70% of the current production occurs in temperate regions. However, temperate fruit production in subtropical regions of Australia has increased rapidly during the past 10 years due to the ready availability of high-quality stonefruit germplasm from the University of Florida breeding programs (Sherman, et al., 1978; Sherman et al., 1984; Sherman, 1987) and the introduction of high quality non-astringent persimmon cultivars from Japan. Suitable agro-climatological conditions exist within many regions of Australia to grow these temperate fruits, and new industries are being developed in regions where none previously existed. Production statistics for different temperate fruits are presented in Table 1. Major production areas, varieties and rootstocks used are presented in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 1. Production Statistics for Temperate Fruits in Australia

Deciduous Fruit Crop	Production (tons)	Area (hectares)	Estimated % Grown in Subtropical Regions
Peach	20,182	3,200	30
Nectarine	16,552	1,720	25
Apricot	18,134	1,200	0
Plums/prunes	10,714		5
Cherries	5,043	1,400	0
Apple	327,877	9,200	2
Pear	161,354	5,378	0
Nashi	7,450	950	0
Dried Vine fruits	46,162	1,500	0
Table grapes	50,000	3,000	15
Kiwifruit	5,000	250	60
Persimmon	800	285	80
Blueberry	1,200	356	60

Table 2. Major Deciduous Fruit Production Regions and Cultivars Grown

Deciduous Fruit Crop	Temperate Region	Major Cultivars	Subtropical Regions	Major Cultivars
Peach	Stanthorpe, Batlow, Orange, Huon Valley, Tamar Valley, Tatura, Shepparton, Goulburn Valley, Perth Hills	Cal Red, Rich Lady, Elegant lady, Crown Princess, O’Henry	Atherton Tablelands, Nambour, Gatton, Kumbia, Northern NSW, Hills District, Sydney, Perth, Gin Gin	Flordaprince, Flordagold, Tropic Beauty
Nectarine	Stanthorpe, Batlow, Huon Valley, Tamar Valley, Goulburn Valley, Perth Hills	Fantasia, Fairlane, Maygrand, SpringRed, Red Diamond, Rose Diamond, August Red	Nambour, Gatton, Kumbia, Northern NSW, Hills District, Sydney, Perth, Gin Gin	Sunwright, Sunripe, Sundowner, Sunracyer
Apricot	Stanthorpe, Batlow, Huon Valley, Tamar Valley, Goulburn Valley, Perth Hills	Early Divinity, Castlelin, Castlebrite, Glengarry,
Plums/Prunes	Stanthorpe, Batlow, Huon Valley, Tamar Valley, Goulburn Valley, Perth Hills	Red Ace, Black Amber, President, Red Beaut, Autumn Giant, Friar, Amber Jewel, Radiance	Nambour, Gatton, Kumbia, Northern NSW, Hills District, Sydney, Perth, Gin Gin	Gulf Ruby, Fla 87-7, Fla 85-1, Fla 8-1, Gulfgold
Cherries	Young, Orange, Batlow	Burgsdorf, Early Burlat, Royal Eagle, Bing, Van, Stella, Lambert, Black Douglas	none grown in low-chill regions
Apple	Stanthorpe, Batlow, Huon Valley, Tamar Valley, Goulburn Valley, Perth Hills,	Granny Smith, Red Delicious, Lady Williams, Fuji, Pink Lady, Sundowner, Royal Gala	Gin Gin	Anna, Sundowner, Fla 65-39
Pear	Stanthorpe, Batlow, Huon Valley, Tamar Valley, Goulburn Valley, Perth Hills	Williams, Packam’s Triumph, Beurre Bosc, Winter Cole	Gin Gin	Sunshine, Princessa, Centenaria, Flordahome, Hood
Nashi	Goulburn Valley, Perth, Adelaide Hills	Nijisseiki, Hosui, Kosui	mid North Coast NSW	Nijisseiki
Dried Vine Fruits	Sunraysia, Riverlands
Table grapes	Stanthorpe, MIA, Sunraysia, Riverlands, Perth,	Flame Seedless, Red Globe, Menindee Seedless, Sultana	Emerald, Mundubbera, Carnarvon	Red Globe, Menindee Seedless
Kiwifruit	Goulburn Valley, Adelaide Hills	Bruno, Monty, Abbott, Hayward, Tomuri, Matua	Mt Tamborine, far North Coast NSW, Mid North Coast NSW,	Dexter, Abbott, Bruno, Tomuri*, Matua*
Persimmon	Sunraysia, Riverlands	Fuyu, Izu, Jiro, Suruga, Gailey*	far North Coast NSW, Mid North Coast NSW, Kumbia, Nambour	Fuyu, Izu, Jiro, Suruga, Gailey*
Blueberry	Melbourne, Gosford	Brigitta Blue, Blue Rose, Dnise Rose, Bluecrop, Earliblue, Premier, Tifblue	North Coast NSW	Misty, Sharpeblue

* pollinator

Table 3. Rootstocks Used for Different Deciduous Fruits Species in Australia

Deciduous Fruit Species	Rootstock
	Temperate Regions	Subtropical Regions
Peach	Nemaguard, Fort Valley, Elberta, Golden Queen	Okinawa, Flordaguard, Coastal, Nemasun
Nectarine	Nemaguard, Fort Valley, Elberta, Golden Queen	Okinawa, Flordaguard, Coastal, Nemasun
Apricot	Nemaguard, Fort Valley, Elberta, Golden Queen	Okinawa, Flordaguard, Coastal, Nemasun
Plums/Prunes	Myrobolan, Marianna, Nemaguard, Fort Valley, Citation	Okinawa, Flordaguard, Coastal, Nemasun
Cherries	Mazzard, Mahaleb
Apple	MM106, Northern Spy, MM102, Merton 778, 779, M9, M26	MM106
Pear	Pyrus calleryana D6< Quince A with Beurre Hardy interstock	Pyrus calleryana D6, Sunshine<
Nashi	Pyrus calleryana D6< Quince A	Pyrus calleryana D6, Pyrus betulaefolia
Dried Vine Fruits	Ramsey, Teleki, Dog Ridge, 101-14	Ramsey, Rugeri 140
Table Grapes	Ramsey, Teleki, Dog Ridge, 101-14	Ramsey, Rugeri 140
Kiwifruit	Seedling	Seedling
Persimmon	Diospyrus kaki (various selections)	Diospyrus kaki

Major Harvest Periods

	Peaches	:	available from mid September to April
	Nectarines	:	available from late September to March
	Apricots	:	available from Late October to January
	Plums	:	available from October to April
	Cherries	:	available from October to January
	Apple	:	available all year

3. PRODUCTION OF PLANTING MATERIAL

The production of grafted or budded planting material is undertaken by a number of large private nurseries. Only selected cultivars of known performance are propagated commercially and all have been through a process of virus testing before release. The main methods of grafting are the approach grafting and cleft grafting. Propagated trees are normally containerised. A small number of high density orchards of stonefruit are using trees propagated from either softwood or hardwood cuttings. Seedlings are not used due to their genetic variability. Grafted trees are no longer produced by Government State Departments. A number of private organisations are now buying the rights for overseas varieties and collect royalties on the sale of trees (usually between $1-2 per tree). Breeding of new varieties is being conducted by State Government Research Centers and Universities. New varieties released by these agencies are normally patented.

4. ESTABLISHMENT OF ORCHARDS

Land Preparation

Planning the orchard is a complex procedure. A brief overview of land preparation procedures is presented. A map of the intended orchard site with existing features (roadways, standing timber, gullies, slope direction etc) is made. Slopes of up to 15% are preferred as these are less susceptible to soil erosion, allow flexibility with row layout, and enable tractors and machinery to be operated safely across the slope. Slopes greater than 15% are avoided, but if used, require specialised design advice for terracing. Windbreaks and drains are normally installed before planting. Rows are run in a North-South direction where possible, and are normally deep-ripped prior to planting to improve drainage. Where possible, green manure crops are grown before planting. The main species used are hybrid forage sorghum for spring or summer plantings, and oats in autumn or winter.

Planting Season

In general, container grown trees can be planted at any time of the year, provided frost is not a problem, and adequate water is available and tree guards are used.

Spacing

Tree training system, row and tree spacing also need to be determined before planting. A soil analysis is done prior to planting to determine nutrient problems. Suggested row and tree spacing for temperate fruits are contained in Table 4.

Table 4. Spacing Options for Most Temperate Fruits

Training System	Spacing	Trees/ha
Open vase	5.0 - 6.0 m between rows 4.5 - 5.0 m between trees	333 - 445
Palmette	4.0 m between rows 2.5 - 3.0 m between trees	833 - 1,000

Planting Procedure

Thorough pre-plant preparation is necessary to obtain good tree establishment and so that trees rapidly fill their allotted space. If soil amendments such as lime or dolomite or phosphorus are required, these are applied before planting because lime takes several years to move through the profile from surface applications. The surface soil is dug where the tree is to be planted with holes of about 1 m in diameter. About 300 g of lime if soil pH is low (<4.5), 300 g of superphosphate or rock phosphate, and 1 bucket of poultry manure (dried for 3 months) are incorporated into the top 20 cm of soil. Trees should be mulched after planting. No fertiliser will generally be necessary for the first few months or until trees start to put on new growth. Small amounts (about 80 kg of a 13:6:12 N:P:K mixed fertiliser per hectare) are applied every six to eight weeks during the first year. This may be stopped during the winter months.

5. CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF ORCHARDS

Tree Training

In Australia, due to increasing labour costs for thinning, pruning and harvesting, alternative methods of management and training of excessively vigorous temperate fruits are being developed. Currently orchardists have a choice of using a wide range of management systems. However, only 3 systems are currently used commercially; standard vase, palmette, and Tatura. Of these systems the palmette is the most widely used because of its ease of management and low labour costs compared with other systems. With stonefruit, excessive tree growth is controlled with several very low dosages of paclobutrazol applied 12-18 months after planting (George et al., 1993; George et al., 1996, unpublished data). The aim in the early stages of tree development is to prevent excessive shading and loss of fruiting wood.

Application of Manures and Fertilisers

Nitrogen appears to be the key element affecting fruit size of temperate fruits. Excessive N application increases vegetative growth and shading and results in a reduction in fruit size and quality. However, when paclobutrazol and N are applied together, fruit size may be increased by as much as 39% (George and Nissen, 1992). The improvement in fruit size may be attributed to 3 factors; increased photosynthetic capacity of leaves higher in nitrogen, delayed leaf abscission, and control of excessive vegetative growth (George et al., 1992). Potassium is the other major element affecting fruit quality. Potash may increase fruit size by as much as 8% (George et al., 1988a). In high rainfall regions, deficiencies of minor nutrients like B, Cu and Zn are common. These can be corrected through either foliar applications during the flowering and early fruit set period or through soil application. Late summer applications of minor elements may also be important to ensure availability within the tree for the next season’s flowering and early fruit development. The most commonly used fertilisers are straight inorganics. Very few organic fertilisers are used except for young trees at planting. Fertiliser rates are normally based on crop removal rates and an allowance is made for leaching and fixation losses.

Pruning

Most temperate fruits are normally winter dormant pruned. Time of dormant pruning varies with cultivar. With low-chill cultivars, earlier pruning often gives earlier flowering; however, the reverse is true for high-chill cultivars. Summer pruning of stonefruit several times during the fruit development period has also been shown to increase fruit size by about 20%.

Weeding

Newly planted trees find it difficult to compete with weeds for water and nutrients. Therefore, weed control in the immediate vicinity of the young trees is vital. This is achieved by mulching and spot spraying under and around the trees. Where weeds grow through the mulch they are either hand-weeded or spot-sprayed with herbicides. With young trees the most commonly used herbicide is paraquat. With older trees glyphosate is commonly used during the summer months in combination with paraquat.

Mulching

The most commonly used mulches are coarse hay or straw such as sorghum stubble. The grassed inter-row area is also a valuable source of on-site mulch. Mulches are normally applied in spring. The mulched/sprayed area extends to just beyond the dripline of the trees, making it roughly two metres wide. Besides reducing weeds, mulching increases soil organic matter, improves soil structure and reduces root temperature fluctuations. It also increases water retention and may reduce irrigation requirements.

Irrigation

In Australia, all temperate fruits are irrigated. The preferred system is mini-sprinklers. Irrigation is scheduled according to either soil moisture content or tension as measured by tensiometers or gypsum blocks, respectively. More sophisticated methods of monitoring e.g. Environscan are being used in larger orchards. With high-chill stonefruit regulated deficit irrigation is used to control growth (up to 75%) without loss of yield or fruit size (Chalmers et al., 1981, 1984, 1985).

Control of Pests and Diseases

The most serious pests for the major temperate fruit species are: Queensland and Mediterranean fruit fly, fruit spotting bug, white peach scale, and oriental fruit moth, for stonefruits; codling moth, light brown apple moth, San Jose scale, two spotted mite, mealybug, Monolepta and dried fruit beetles for pomefruits; and bunch mite for grape. The most serious diseases for the major temperate fruit species are: shot-hole, rust, bacterial spot, leaf curl, brown rot, and transit rot for stonefruits; apple scab and Phytophthora for pomefruits; downy mildew, powdery mildew, anthracnose, and botrytis rot for grape. IPM programs are being implemented for most pests, the most being used to control scales, mealybugs and mites. Regular spraying for diseases during the active growth season of spring, summer and autumn is essential. A wide range of fungicides are used.

6. INTERCROPPING

Intercropping is not practised in commercial temperate fruit orchards in Australia.

7. HARVESTING OF FRUITS AND YIELDS

The highest yields for temperate fruits have been recorded for apples on Tatura trellis (high-chill cultivars 40 - 60 MT/ha - Chalmers and van den Ende, 1975a, Van den Ende and Chalmers, 1982; McDermott et al., 1987, George et al., 1992a). High-chill stonefruits tend to be less productive with maximum yield of 40-50 MT per hectare. Due to their short development period, low-chill cultivars when planted at standard densities often yield only one third of the maximum yields recorded for later maturing, higher-chill cultivars planted at similar densities (low-chill cultivars 15 - 25 MT/ha). The maximum yields recorded for a range of temperate fruits in Australia are shown in Table 5. Yield benchmarking is a useful tool to evaluate if management inputs are achieving their target potential.

Table 5. Maximum Yield Potential Recorded from Temperate Fruits Grown under Different Production Systems

Training System	Species	Number of Trees per Hectare	Maximum Yield Recorded (MT/hectare)
Vase	Low-chill Stonefruit	660	24
Palmette	Low-chill Stonefruit	800	28
Vase	High-chill Peach	800	51
Tatura	Apple	800	80

In terms of consumer acceptance of temperate fruits, fruit size, shape and colour are the most important fruit quality characteristics readily identified with and often these characteristics are culturally conditioned. With stonefruit, there is a preference for yellow-fleshed, very large size fruit. Small fruit size is the major quality defect of stonefruit in Australia. Fruit size is adversely affected by the short fruit development period (70-110 days), heavy crop loads (George et al., 1988a), excessive vegetative growth (Allan et al., 1993), low temperatures during the fruit development (Topp and Sherman, 1989b), and stress during the early post-budbreak period at the time of cell division (Hieke and George, 1995, unpublished data). Crop load can be adjusted by thinning, and excessive vegetative growth controlled by the use of growth retardants, pruning and cincturing.

Another major problem with temperate fruit early-maturing cultivars grown under higher rainfall in subtropical regions is their poor sugar content and flavor. Generally, late cultivars do not exhibit this problem. Fruit with better flavor and sugar levels are produced in drier regions and on sandy loam soil types. George et al. (1988a) have shown that heavy rainfall prior to harvest can cause fruit sugar levels to drop as much as 1.5° Brix. Besides environmental factors, many cultural practises have been shown to affect fruit sugar levels including crop load (George et al., 1988), cincturing (Allan et al., 1992; George et al., 1991), spring and summer pruning (George et al., 1988) and enclosing trees under cloches during the fruit development period. With stonefruit, non-melting fleshy cultivars may also be able to be left longer on the tree to develop higher sugar levels, without a corresponding softening of the flesh.

8. MARKETING

Most temperate fruit producers pack and market their own fruit, either directly to retail chains, or through the wholesale domestic market system. The main markets that temperate fruits are sent to include Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide. Smaller quantities are sent to Tasmania, Western Australia, Northern Territory and Newcastle. Approximately 90% of all temperate fruit grown is marketed on the domestic market. Increasingly, temperate fruit is being purchased through retail chains with their market share increasing from 34% in 1990 to 47% in 1994.

Stone fruit imports to Australia in 1995/96 consisted of 1,193 tons of apricots (US$3.2m), 593 tons of peaches (US$1.5m) and 5 tons of plums (US$22,480). Imports were mostly from New Zealand. The USA is currently seeking access to the Australian market, and some interest has also been shown by Chile. These are not a major threat to Australian stonefruit growers as they are grown in the Northern Hemisphere and are out-of-season with Australian stonefruit. Australian stonefruit would generally be of higher quality and fresher which is important to the consumer.

Less than 10% of Australian temperate fruit is exported, with the major markets being Singapore and Hong Kong. However, this proportion is likely to increase to 20-25% (conservative estimate) over the next 5 years. In 1994, Australia exported 39,000 tons of apple mainly to South East Asia and Japan. Australian stone fruit exports are primarily of plums, with a major component being from Western Australia. Total Australian exports in 1995/96 were 6,331 tons, comprising 4,977 tons of plum, 592 tons of peach, 524 tons of nectarine, and 238 tons of apricot. Exports to Taiwan were given a boost in 1996/97 through a 1,000 tons quota for peach and plum to Taiwan. While plums account for 70% of all stonefruit exported to Asia the national association has reported that there is also a definite market niche for peaches and nectarines from mid-September to December. This is a time when there are no peaches and nectarines available from the USA who is the traditional supplier of the Asian markets.

Currently Australia’s export of stone fruit is limited; however, with rising production there is increased industry interest in exports. Exporters are either larger producers, or networks of producers, or buyers operating from the domestic wholesale markets. Export marketing of stonefruit needs to be better organised and planned in the future to make a serious impact on the target markets as the USA has developed. The Australian Fresh Stone Fruit Growers Association (AFSGA) is represented on the Horticultural Market Access Committee, and is closely monitoring opportunities for export to new markets particularly Korea, China and Japan.

Asian economies are generally becoming more affluent and western in their tastes. This means that the more traditional, well-known fruits, such as stonefruits, are increasing in popularity. The Singapore age group between 25 and 35 are developing more western tastes due to the fact that many are being educated in Australia and the USA. This western education has also changed the way they shop, with a preference for supermarkets compared with the traditional wet markets. This has triggered an increase in western supermarket chains moving into Singapore and the development of central warehousing facilities. This, allows for better handling of perishable products such as stonefruit and hence better quality products sold to the consumers.

9. PROCESSING

Australia is the world’s second largest producer of golden style dried sultana, producing about 70,000 tons. Apart from dried grape products, few other temperate fruits are dried. High quality dried fruit products are becoming very popular in Asian markets, particularly in the new supermarket chains which have entire display areas for dried fruit only. Consequently, some R&D effort should be put into developing dried fruit products for export.

10. POTENTIAL FOR DECIDUOUS FRUIT DEVELOPMENT

The main strengths and weaknesses in deciduous fruit production are presented in Table 6.

Table 6. Main Strengths and Weaknesses of Temperate Fruit Production in Australia

Strengths	Weaknesses	Opportunities	Threats
· seasonal fruit · associated with summer · fills a market niche · long production period (September to April) · good export potential · traditional fruit with good consumer acceptance · can be grown in frosty areas where other fruit cannot · the industry is organised and has R&D and marketing levies in place. It also makes it easier to implement programs through the well organised industry.	· inconsistent quality · poor eating quality of many early season, low chill peach, nectarine and plum varieties · lack of coordination and training of growers in marketing and market development · no outlets for second grade fresh fruit (some of which is sent to market) · few alternatives to fresh fruit marketing in Australia (canning, drying, juice, conserves)	· high demand in Asia in October to January · increase production through increased plantings in diverse climatic areas to meet export and domestic market demand from September to January · Produce low-chill, early cherries, plumcots and apricots from current breeding programs · Develop high sugar varieties specifically tailored for Asian tastes	· other seasonal competing fruits (e.g. - Mango) · imports from other southern hemisphere countries · move towards ‘convenience’ foods

11. CONSTRAINTS IN DECIDUOUS FRUIT PRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

Both the Australian apple and stonefruit industry are well organised under the Australian Apple and Pear Association and Australian Fresh Stonefruit Growers Association (AFSFGA). These associations have implemented statutory R&D and Marketing levies. These are currently under review and are being pushed to be increased in 1998. The actual growers within the industry vary between highly entrepreneurial businesses to small family farms. Generally, it can be said that the growers are quite cohesive in their approach to further developing and improving their overall industry. The major constraints to further development are to improve the export marketing skills of growers/grower groups and to integrate current knowledge into marketing and production decision support systems.

12. GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND PLANS FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECIDUOUS FRUITS

Research and Development

The associations impose compulsory levies on the sale of their products. About 60% of the levy is used for market development activities coordinated by the Australian Horticultural Corporation (AHC), and about 40% is used for Research & Development activities, coordinated by the Horticultural Research & Development Corporation (HRDC). Both the AHC and HRDC are Australian Government funded agencies. The Australian Center for International Research (ACIAR) which funds international R&D projects between Australia and developing countries has provided financial support for a major project on developing temperate fruits in Thailand. The benefits of this project should flow on to other Asian countries with similar climatic conditions. It could be used as a model for similar development in other countries as it integrates all components of production and marketing and emphasises training of researchers and growers. A list of some of the major research programs being funded by the Australian Government is presented in Table 7.

Table 7. Some Major Temperate Fruit Projects Funded by Australian Government and Grower Levies

Project Title	Funding Agency	Project Leader	External Funds
Temperate Zone Fruit Development in Australia and Thailand	Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR)	Alan George	$680000
Stonefruit Cultivar Database	HRDC	Dougal Russell	$40000
National Plum Breeding	HRDC	Bruce Topp	$120000

Temperate fruit grower associations are now working on the following strategic priority areas:

• Domestic market development programs aimed at increasing consumer confidence in selecting, storing and using stone fruit leading to more frequent purchasing at higher threshold prices. The success of this program will be enhanced by improved consistency in product handling, product performance, and product description - Short Term.
• Product promotion, based on market research to position the product - Ongoing.
• Implementing information & technology transfer programs - Ongoing.
• Crop forecasting & statistics to assist marketing programs - Ongoing.
• Improving the handling and presentation of stone fruit, through the adoption of an industry best practice - post harvest model, including implementation of Quality Improvement programs along the distribution channel “cool chain” from grower to retailer, demonstrating improved profitability to all industry sectors - Short Term.
• Implementing retailer education programs, to achieve a trained fresh produce work force, knowledgeable in stone fruit - Short Term.
• Reviewing and conducting further consumer market research where necessary and, developing consumer education programs, to increase consumer confidence in fresh stone fruit - Short Term.
• Wholesaler education & training programs - Short Term.
• Export market maintenance & development programs - identifying new markets, to meet the projected increase in stone fruit - Medium Term.
• Developing a stone fruit breeding and evaluation program, to provide better information on varietal performance on a region by region basis - Medium Term.

Plans for Production Development and New Opportunities for R &D and Export

• The development of new breeding lines to improve quality and timing of temperate fruits in Australia will boost exports to Asia.
• The development of decision support systems to help grow and make informed growing decisions to ensure they can produce a product to meet market demands.
• Market research and development including the development of group/co-operative marketing to meet new market needs.
• Investigation and development of high-value value-added temperate fruit products.
• Research and development of better handling and packaging protocols, particularly for low-chill varieties, to better meet export and domestic market quality requirements.

Education and Training Opportunities

Further training and development is required in the following key areas:

• Quality assurance development and implementation.
• Marketing and market management.
• Use of information in decision making for growing a product to meet market needs.

13. CONCLUDING REMARKS

A considerable amount of information exists on all aspects of production and marketing of temperate fruits. However, due to the complexity of the whole system and poor communication lines there is often little interaction between the grower, the market place and the needs of the consumer. Substantial gains in orchard profitability could be made through using a systems approach to management and marketing of horticultural products and the use of electronic data transfer systems.

REFERENCES

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