The Symposium on Animal Feed Resources organized by the Asian Productivity Organization (APO) was held in Tokyo on 24th - 29th August, 1987. It was hosted by the Government of Japan and implemented by the Association for International Cooperation of Agriculture and Forestry (AICAF) in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF). Twelve participants from 12 member countries, 6 resource speakers and one observer attended the Symposium.
The main objective of the Symposium was to discuss the status of animal feed resources in APO member countries with a view to appraising the major problems and current policies as well as indicating general directions which might be taken by member countries in enhancing feed resource availability and its utilization. Accordingly, the deliberations focused on the regional report and other papers presented by selected resource persons, as well as the country papers prepared by the participants.
The following summary is based on the major findings discussed in these papers and the salient points which emerged during the meeting.
TRENDS IN ANIMAL AND FEED PRODUCTION
The regional survey reveals that feed requirements in the region1 were generally in excess of supply during the period 1970– 1984. The feed deficits were made up by substantial imports of animal feedstuffs. This situation could remain essentially unchanged in the near future unless member countries are able to effectively enhance the availability and utilization of feed resources given the expected increasing demand for animal products in the region.
Animal Products
On the whole, the demand for animal products in the region showed a rising trend during the survey period. The growth was especially remarkable in the case of poultry meat and eggs as indicated by the doubling or tripling of per capita consumption in most countries. There were differences in growth trends among countries with some, in fact, registering declines. For instance, per capita consumption of beef and veal grew substantially among high-income countries while it generally decreased among the low-income countries. Milk consumption increased moderately in most countries but declined in Fiji and the Philippines.
The demand for animal products in the year 2000 was projected using two projection parameters of per capita consumption, i.e., “small growth” and “moderate growth”, and projected population data based on historical trends. The results show that consumption of animal products in the region would increase by about a third under the small growth parameter and about 41–43 percent using the moderate growth assumption.
On the supply side, an estimation of animal inventory in the region based on modified tropical livestock units (MTLU)2 indicated only a 9.7 percent increase from 1970–1984 or an annual increase of 0.7 percent. Negative growths were, in fact, registered in the Republic of China, Philippines and Singapore.
Feed Resources
Cultivated land and permanent pastures and meadows were the main sources of feed supply in the region. Cultivated land areas have not increased appreciably but better utilization of this resource in the past 15 years was observed. It appeared though that greater extraction of crops and residues for livestock use could be attained if inhibiting factors, especially economics and technical know-how, were surmounted.
In relative terms, permanent pastures and meadows were of lesser importance although in some countries like India, these provided a sizeable supply of roughage for ruminants. General problems which had limited the contribution of this resource were cited, including over-grazing practices as observed in India, Pakistan and Fiji. In almost all the other member countries, instability of pasture leases, particularly in the Philippines, was another problem, let alone the fact that forages cannot compete with food crops for land utilization. Add to these the high cost per hectare of land and low benefit-cost ratios of most pasture improvement practices.
In order to meet the shortfall in domestically produced feeds, most countries in the region had to resort to importation of feedstuffs. The survey data reveal that only India and Nepal were net exporters of feedstuffs. It was argued that even greater imports would have taken place if foreign exchange were available. On a regional basis, the ratio of imports per dollar of exports in 1984 was estimated at 37 to 1. Feed grains made up 50 percent or more of imports in all countries except in Indonesia (9 percent) and Sri Lanka which imports a very small amount of maize. Oilseed cake and meal from soybean were the primary commodities in these cases. In the case of Japan, 90 percent of imported feedstuffs were feedgrains made up mostly of maize, sorghum, barley and wheat.
Formula Feed
As of 1984, there were about 900 feedmills operating in the region. Of this total, 86 percent were owned by the private sector and 13 percent by cooperatives. Only about 1 percent was government-owned or operated.
The feed milling industry on a regional basis had developed rapidly and in concert with demand. In some cases, this occurred with governments providing protection and incentives to the industry. Examples cited were the import ban or formula feeds in Fiji and the free access to feedstuffs and tax concessions provided in Malaysia.
The growth of the feed milling industry, however, was not without problems. For instance, many feedmills operated less than capacity in Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka. Also, there was unstable supply and great quality variation in locally-produced ingredients. It appeared, therefore, that greater attention would be needed to improve milling efficiency as well as product quality.
Feed Balances
Total nutrient availability, by source, and total nutrient requirements, by species, were calculated in an effort to estimate feed balances in the region. Availability and requirements were expressed in terms of metabolizable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP).
The results show a feed deficit for the region as a whole in 1970 and a larger one in 1984, both in ME and CP. Using a simulation technique, projections of ME requirements from 1984– 2000 point to a likely growth between 48 and 70 percent. Accordingly it was concluded that great demands would be made on the various feed producing industries.
TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS
In the face of serious feed deficits being experienced by most countries in the region and hence, the urgent need to enhance feed production and utilization, the Symposium proceeded to look into the technical problems and constrains involved and alternative technologies which might be adopted. In this regard, several classes of feeds were discussed, namely; conventional feedstuffs, agro-industrial by-products (AIBP) and non-conventional feed resources (NCFR).
Conventional Feeds
The limited land available for forage production and the absence of a tradition of grassland farming were cited as reasons for the relatively slow expansion of the animal feed supply in most Asian countries. The experience of Japan shows how land utilization for feed production could be made more efficient through such measures as development of improved pastures and intensive cropping system in arable land.
In the case of tropical countries in the region, a number of studies provide important insights into how forage production can be significantly increased. For instance, the oversowing of legumes in native pastures was found to be an effective way of increasing herbage production. The inter cropping of forage legumes in arable land was another useful method cited. Also, the combination of corn/schofield and sorghum/siratro shows relatively good harvest of forage without much reduction in the yield of the main crop.
A third scheme which could be promoted in many tropical countries is the “silvi-pastoral system,” particularly the coconut-pasture-livestock system. This was cited as a most potentially valuable for augmenting grazing resources as Asia accounts for much of the total coconut land area in the world. Leucaena which was considered as one of the most useful forage trees in the tropics would need to be reevaluated due to the recent outbreak of insect infestation where this legume is grown.
In terms of improving the utilization of conventional feeds, the Symposium examined various methods of forage preparation and processing. The major factor cited as affecting the feeding value of forages was the stage of maturity and degree of liquification. The feeding value of grass and legume was said to decrease linearly as the plant grows after late vegetative stage. Therefore, forages should generally be cut well before maturity.
But even if the plants were cut at the appropriate stage of growth, the conditions to which they were subjected before the actual feeding to the animals would have a significant influence on feeding value. Processing was undertaken to improve the feeding value, particularly of low quality feedstuffs. Several methods of processing roughages were presented as follows: i) chemical treatment which is based on a delignification process involving crop residues such as straws and stovers; ii) physical treatment besides chopping, grinding and pelleting which includes steam treatment and explosion method; and iii) biological treatment which involves the growing of fungi on straw or using the residual substrate after the cultivation of edible mushroom as feed.
For processing cereal grains, two basic methods involving wet and dry processes were reviewed, namely; cold processing and hot processing. Under cold processing, wet processes included soaking, reconstituting and germinating while dry processes consisted of grinding, dry rolling or cracking and crimping. In the case of hot processing, a wet process was pelleting and dry processes included roasting, micronizing, popping, extruding, steam rolling, steam flaking and exploding.
The importance of feed additives was also discussed. These additives such as hormones, hormone-like compounds and antibiotics are known to increase gain and improve feed efficiency.
Results from numerous studies were presented to indicate how and to what extent the various processing methods affected the feeding value of feedstuffs. The discussion also reviewed the broad range of alternative processes which could be adopted in the region depending on the conditions prevailing in each country. It was noted, for instance, that many of these processing techniques remained unutilized due to their high costs which are beyond the means of most farmers.
Agro-industrial By-products and Non-conventional Feed Resources
Considering the serious feed deficit situation in the region, the Symposium recognized the urgency of expanding the utilization of agro-industrial by-products (AIBP) and non-conventional feed resources (NCFR). These are defined as by-products derived from the industry due to processing of the main products and those feeds which have not been traditionally used in animal feeding and/or not normally used in commercially produced rations for livestock, respectively.
A review of the status of these feed resources brought about the following: i) Substantial and adequate quantitative and, to a lesser extent, qualitative data on individual feeds presently exist in most countries except those in the South Pacific; ii) Many of the feeds are common to most countries and variations in nutritive value are normal and attributable to locational differences; iii) Research programmes in most counties tend to focus on utilization of fibrous materials, especially cereal straws; iv) Urea-ammonia treatment and use of urea-molasses block licks are the most promising techniques; v) There are very few studies on the utilization of fibrous feeds in untreated form in combination with other ingredients but some evidence shows that supplements of leguminous forage may be as effective and more economical than chemical pre-treatments; vi) Much of the work so far has been done at the laboratory or station level and only limited effort has been made to extend these to site-specific and real farm situations; and vii) Enormous opportunities exist for much wider application of nutritional principles that can ensure more efficient utilization of crop residues, AIBP and NCFR.
A useful table on the optimum level of inclusion in the diet of some important by-products for different farm animals in Asia was derived from available information from practical feeding trials. These optimum levels of inclusion represent an approximation of the amounts that are likely to promote good response in the animals. In this context, the need to remove toxic or deleterious components which are present in many AIBP and NCFR was noted. Another useful table presented was a list of examples of primary feeds for intensive utilization of specific animal species by location (country). The choice of feed and location would depend on a clear understanding of what options were available to each country, particularly in terms of economic considerations. Irrespective of the choice for successful application, the Symposium perceived acceptable feeding systems to be those that are simple, practical, within the limits of farmers' capacity and resource availability, convincing and consistently reproduceable.
A strategy for action would call for more innovative technical application of the available information, backed by strong institutional support capable of focusing more particularly on the primary AIBP and NCFR. In this context, the following specific factors which merit attention were proposed:
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
As implied earlier, the choice of feeding technology would be, in the final analysis, an economic one. For instance, it was emphasized that the total costs of pre-treatments need to be weighed against the beneficial effects, including the extent of animal response.
In undertaking an economic analysis of feedstuffs, however, it was pointed out that most Asian livestock are produced on mixed farms rather than on specialized livestock units. The use of analytical tools should, therefore, allow the analyst to account for the economic consequences on the farm unit of a change made in the livestock activity. These tools would range from simple to more complex ones depending on the problem to be addressed or the purpose of the analysis.
In the application of the various tools, however, it would be important that costs and benefits of feeding technology were properly identified and measured through on-farm performance. While often this would be relatively simple, difficulty in measurement, especially of non-cash items could arise. Also, the determination of the field price of inputs and outputs could pose problems. In this regard, it was noted that valuation of animals on the basis of physical inspection is often preferred to liveweight basis. Knowledge of the market would, therefore, be essential in the evaluation of technology.
The simple techniques based on a budgeting approach were cited, including a variety under partial farm analysis and input-output budget analysis. More complex methods would be included under whole farm analysis. Examples of actual cases derived from economic studies in various countries in the region were shown to illustrate the application of the different techniques.
A number of important considerations in economic evaluation pertaining to livestock-feed systems were summarized as follows: (1) knowledge of the life cycle performance; (2) valuation of feedstuffs when no active market exists; (3) valuation of family labour, and (4) certain features of NCFR. The latter includes: i) collection costs; ii) seasonability of raw materials; iii) variation in quality of raw materials; iv) economies of scale; v) costs based on feeding unit (nutrient basis); vi) density and intake; vii) costs of alternative nutrients; viii) additional labour inputs involved; ix) cost of handling materials; and x) cost of storing bulky materials.
PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
The most significant problems which was frequently referred to during the Symposium was the gap between research and extension in animal feed technology. It was observed that research results often end up in laboratories and testing centers and hence, failing to benefit the farmers. Some countries expressed the need for varietal improvement, e. g., Republic of China (dryland feed grains) and India (short maturing and high yielding variety of forage). Also, the need to conduct more on-farm testing and demonstrations, particularly with regard to NCFR was emphasized. Related to this was the importance of undertaking economic analyses showing the costs and benefits of alternative feeding systems.
At the regional level, the apparent inaccessibility to information generated in individual countries would seem to call for a more efficient mechanism for inter-country transfer of technology. In this regard, it was noted that a fairly good amount of research on various feeds already exists and the issue seemed to be more of getting this into the national research and extension network of a country. In this regard, farming systems research and extension was cited as an effective approach to technology dissemination.
On resource availability, the limited land for animal feed production posed a severe constraint, particularly for smaller countries like Singapore and the Republic of China as well as highly industrialized countries like Japan. Even when land might be in relative abundance, overgrazing of pastures and meadows and the obvious priority given to food crop cultivation effectively limited the areas available for increased feed production.
Other problems cited were the poor quality and high cost of feeds, lack of incentives for feed producers, inadequate marketing and infrastructure facilities and onerous terms in pasture lease agreements.
GOVERNMENT POLICIES
The discussion on government policies focused on four major concerns, namely: i) production and import (i.e., food vs. feed crop production and domestic production vs. importation); ii) price intervention and subsidies; iii) determination of appropriate technology; and iv) research and extension. In this context, the Japanese experience was examined to illustrate how a country with limited natural resources adjusted and developed its livestock and feed industries.
Due to land constraint, Japan had to import most of its feed requirements in the form of concentrate and raw materials. To encourage domestic production of feed grains and roughages, several measures were adopted such as the subsidy scheme for farmers who diverted their rice land for feed grain production, development of feed processing technologies and improved agronomic practices like double cropping.
For less developed countries specifically, three main objectives of feed policies were highlighted. The first objective pertains to more efficient utilization of feedstuffs which would involve such major items as i) reduction of storage losses; ii) more rational use of feedstuffs by animals; iii) use of computers to formulate rations; and iv) use of pre-mixed feeds.
The second objective concerns the greater use of non-conventional resources and this would require ex-ante economic analysis of potential imported production practices. The third objective relates to the stimulation of farmers to increase production of feedstuffs. This might need not only price and subsidy schemes but also the expansion of farmland for feed production, the dissemination of new technologies and the improvement of extension services.
In order to meet the first objective, the better strategy would be to let the market mechanism work freely and fully and at the same time reduce the cost to government. In this regard, the following factors would need to be considered in enhancing efficiency; i) quality control of feedstuffs; ii) imports of micro-nutrients and protein sources which could not be efficiently produced domestically; iii) more imports of feedstuffs as the economy develops and labour becomes more expensive; iv) region-wide training on feed quality and formulation; and v) greater coordination of research and extension efforts.
As regards the second objective, the governments would need to develop standard economic analyses and computer programmes to analyze more precisely the responses of parameters in the utilization of NCFR. The third objective would require the establishment of farming research and extension principles, resolution of land ownership problems, maintenance of a stable political government and setting up of price stabilization schemes, among others.
In developing appropriate government policies, it was noted that a variety of problems may confront member countries in the region. However, there would be common or similar issues and accordingly, the experiences of more developed countries in both the positive and negative aspects of policy implementation could provide useful lessons to other APO member countries.
PROSPECTS AND PROPOSED FOLLOW-UP PROJECTS
Despite the seemingly difficult problems faced by many countries in the region in further expanding the supply of feeds and promoting their efficient utilization, the Symposium participants felt that progress could be achieved in areas with more concerted action taken by member country governments along the lines indicated above. Successes have been attained, particularly in the non-ruminant sector and the formula feed industry. The ruminant sector, however, would need to be given grater attention. On the whole, the livestock and feed industries appeared to be well positioned to make substantial advances.
In the light of the major findings emanating from the deliberations, the Symposium participants had occasion on the final day to exchange views on future projects which international/ regional organizations like the APO could possibly pursue as follow-up to the present project. The many suggestions in this regard reflected both the specific concerns as well as the common problems shared by each member country in the region. These were narrowed down into a few priority areas as follows: i) farm-level utilization and economic evaluation; ii) feeding systems; iii) forage availability and production; and iv) issues of methodology and policy.
