This study used participatory techniques to collect information. This approach is consistent with an overall increase in respect for the knowledge of local people among development practitioners (Chambers, 1983). Local people are often those most experienced in managing, harvesting and using resources.
Participatory approaches are most appropriate for complex, multiple resource-use rural economies and for addressing questions regarding behaviour and values. A growing body of evidence based on participatory methodologies illustrates the importance of resources and activities that have traditionally been regarded as insignificant or unimportant. This is particularly true for aquatic resources in what are traditionally regarded as rice-based economies, and where aquatic resources are regarded as supplementary rather than as key components of rural livelihoods.
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FAO country nutrition profile With an estimated per capita income of US$400 in 1997 the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the East Asian region. Social indicators are among the worst in the region. Forty six percent of the population lives below the national poverty line (World Bank, 1999). The coverage of medical facilities and immunisation is low, and infant (96 per 1000) and maternal mortality rates (65 per 10 000) are still high. Glutinous rice represents the main food in the Lao diet. The daily dietary energy supply per caput increased from 2030 kcal in 1968 to 2400 kcal in 1995. In 1999, rice provided 69% of the energy supply and 64% of the protein supply. Generally three meals are consumed per day, light meals or snacks are seldom consumed. A typical meal consists of rice complemented with small portions of vegetables, mainly green leafy vegetables and fish. Other common food items are roots, eggs, meat, poultry and various kinds of fruit. Food consumption patterns vary geographically and ethnically. Almost all mothers breast-feed their children and almost half of the mothers continue breast-feeding for 20 to 23 months. However complementary food is introduced much too early: one fifth of the infants receive food, mainly rice, during the first month of life. The early introduction of rice may provoke intestinal disorders and contrasts with the late introduction of other nutritive foods: 70% of children aged 10 to 11 months receive only breast-milk and water. Only a small number of children receive complementary foods at the recommended age. Breast-feeding and weaning practices differ geographically and ethnically. Feeding pre-chewed or steamed rice to new-borns is a common feature among the Lao Loum and Khamu ethnic groups while the H’mong ethnic group shows more appropriate breast-feeding and weaning practices. The National Health Survey in 2000 has found high prevalence rates of malnutrition among children: 40% of the children under 5 years of age were underweight, 41% were stunted and 15% wasted. Compared to surveys conducted earlier, the prevalence of underweight remained the same while the prevalence of stunting decreased and in contrast the prevalence of wasting increased. In 2000, the prevalence of chronic energy deficiency (CED) among adults was alarmingly high (19%), even higher than reported during a previous survey in 1995 (14%). Malnutrition among children as well as among adults is more prevalent in the Southern region compared to the Northern and Central ones. The National Health Survey included data on micro-nutrient deficiencies. The total goitre rate (TGR) among school aged children was 9%. Clinical signs of Vitamin A deficiency were also prevalent. A study conducted in Vientiane Province found anaemia in 56% of females aged 15 to 45 years. The increase in the prevalence of wasting among pre-school children and of CED among adults is alarming and requires immediate and well designed multi-sectoral interventions integrated into health, agriculture, education and overall socio-economic development. Adapted from: FAO Country Nutrition Information
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Participatory studies are not intended to be definitive, but rather to open up a range of issues and present new perspectives on existing problems by engaging stakeholders in analysis and problem solving. Techniques for accessing local knowledge that have been developed include Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), Rapid Agro-ecosystem Zoning (RAZ) and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) (Conway and Barbier, 1990; Chambers, 1994; Beebe, 1995; IIRR, 1996).
These techniques are cost effective and involve systematic, semi-structured activities carried out in the field. PRA adds the element of incorporating the knowledge of local people. Chambers (1994) describes PRA as “...a growing family of approaches and methods to enable local people to share, enhance and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions...” At the provincial and district levels, semi-structured interviews were conducted with local officials to discuss issues related to the local resources, wetlands and their role in the livelihoods of local people.
The main focus of these discussions was local strategies for food security and income. At the provincial level, meetings were held with a number of informants, including officers from from the Governor’s Office, Agriculture, Public Health, Environment, Women’s Union and the Planning Office. At the district level, discussions were held mainly with government staff from Agriculture and Public Health agencies. At the village level, activities were planned as a multi-layered structure. Initial activities were designed to include as many people as possible and encourage participation.
Participatory studies are not intended to be definitive, but rather to open up a range of issues and present new perspectives on existing problems by engaging stakeholders in analysis and problem solving.
One aim of these initial activities was to familiarize people with participatory methods and to help them feel comfortable about expressing their opinions. These sessions also provided general information about the community, including the ranking of household well-being according to local criteria. Activities progressed to meetings with groups of people organized by gender or economic status and asking for rankings and prioritizations on items from previous discussions. Finally, key informants were identified to take part in activities addressing specific issues identified in previous discussions. Such a progression of activities allows the assessment team to gradually become more informed and incorporate local information into more focused inquiry. A methodological framework and description of activities conducted are provided in Tables 1 and 2.
Selection of the three villages used for the study was done in collaboration with the provincial agricultural authorities using the following criteria:
The aim was to select villages that would reflect the broadest possible range of livelihood strategies, not to compare villages. Individual participation was not determined by statistical sampling methods but depended on who was available at the time and interest and willingness to participate. Other selection criteria included:
Villages within the three target districts of the Mekong Wetlands Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use Programme. This includes the three lowland districts of Samakisai, Sanamsai and Saisetha.
People in the villages should be engaged in a cross-section of livelihoods rather than one type.
Table 1: Methodology framework for village-level participatory activities
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Geography |
Livelihoods |
Rice farming system |
Aquatic resources |
Health and nutrition |
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Information |
Local features Topography Water bodies |
Village history Sources & seasonality of livelihoods |
Cropping practices, varieties, techniques Changes in history & trends |
Main wild species (where, when, how, who)Local migration paths Management practices History/trends |
Food behaviour Nutritional status Health condition |
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Methods |
Mapping |
Historical timeline Activity Identification Prioritization Food Identification Prioritization Disease Identification Prioritization Seasonal calendar |
Historical timeline Seasonal calendar |
Resources identification Historical timeline Seasonal calendar Semi-structured interviews |
Anthropometrical assessment Household food frequency survey Semi-structured interviews |
Table 2: General description of activities conducted at the village level
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ACTIVITY |
NOTES ON METHODOLOGY |
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Anthropometric assessment |
The assessment team measured nutritional status through anthropometric assessment. The data included name, age (date of birth for young children), sex, height, weight, educational level (years of schooling), employment, disease occurrence, chronic illnesses (including disability), and pregnancy history (number of pregnancies and child mortality). For adults, Body Mass Index (BMI) was used to determine nutritional status. BMI is calculated from the parameters of body weight in kilograms divided by square height in meters. This value is classified into three levels: a BMI value below 19 is defined as underweight, the values of 19 to 24.9 as normal, whereas those at 25 or higher are overweight. |
For children aged 0 to 18 years, their weights, heights and ages were analyzed using the computer software program ANTHRO (Centers for Communicable Disease Control and World Health Organization, 1999). It resulted in Z-scores for weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height. These three indices are classified using ± 2.0 SD (standard deviation) Z-scores as the cut-off point. In other words, a child whose Z-score is less than or equal to -2.0 SD is classified as malnourished, whereas a child whose Z-score is greater than -2.0 SD is defined as normal in terms of his/her nutritional status. Those with a Z-score of less than or equal to -3.0 SD are severely malnourished. |
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Food frequency survey |
The assessment team collected quantitative data on food consumption as well as the nutritional status of the population using a food frequency checklist and household form, respectively. |
A checklist of foods was categorized into groups of starch and carbohydrate, protein (animal, plant), fat and oil, vegetables, fruits, as well as condiment and seasoning items. Aquatic plant and animal foods were highlighted on the list. This checklist and a household form were used to collect information on the type and frequency of foods consumed by household members. |
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Focus group discussions and individual interviews |
The villagers were asked to discuss topics concerning their livelihoods including daily and seasonal activities, food supply (availability) and health problems that are common in their communities. Focusing on health and guided by the outcomes of these discussions, individual interviews were conducted with key informants on such aspects as health services, health seeking behaviour, food consumption, beliefs and taboos during pregnancy and lactation, as well as infant and young child feeding practices. |
Focus groups were also used to collect information about availability and use of aquatic resources. Small groups of villagers were assembled to discuss species collected, their availability, seasonality, and use. Gear and techniques for harvest were also discussed. Historical trends in availability, harvest and use were also included in focal group discussions. Groups of men and women met separately, so that differences in perspective could be better understood. |
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Observation and informal talks |
Discussions and individual interviews were conducted with villagers in their houses. To assess the availability of dietary iodine, salt samples were assessed using a semi-quantitative screening test called the I-kit developed by the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok. The assessment team visited local water bodies to look at fishing gear and watch people fish or collect aquatic resources. |
The data obtained included information on household resources (e.g. water supply, latrine, cooking facilities), environmental sanitation and food hygiene, food preparation and dishes consumed. |
Other issues taken into consideration included ethnicity, distance from the main markets and availability of dry season irrigation.
The aim was to select villages that would reflect the broadest possible range of livelihood strategies, not to compare villages.
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For the purpose of this study, an absolute or standard definition of ‘better-off’ or ‘worse-off’ was neither required nor desired. Participants set their own criteria for what they considered ‘better-off’ and ‘worse-off’, because what matters is villagers’ perceptions of relative status within the village. The criteria differed for each village but key considerations included food security, food availability, livestock ownership, type of house and available labour in the household. |
Because different groups within a community or household use resources in different ways, it is important to try to understand what these differences may be. In this study, the researchers looked at differences between gender groups (men and women) and economic groups (better-off households and worse-off households). This was done by creating a household well-being ranking exercise in which each household was ranked in relation to other households in the community by a group of peers within the village.
Focal group discussions and individual interviews were used to develop an understanding of the diversity of aquatic species in the study area. One such activity used local names to identify aquatic organisms and then using pictorial field guides to determine the scientific name. Guides were available for fish (Baird et al., 1999; Kottelat, 2001), turtles and other reptiles (Stuart et al., 2001), insects (INMU, 2000) and plants (INMU, 1999). In cases where the guides included common names in Lao, these were also used as a reference. Where guides were available, identification of organisms is purely anecdotal and has not been formally verified through the collection and examination of specimens. Field guides for amphibians, mollusks, and crustaceans were not available.
One important aspect of using participatory techniques is confirming and validating responses. Because information gathered is anecdotal and sample sizes are determined by factors other than statistical viability, confirmation and validation can not be achieved through statistical analysis. Triangulation is used to confirm information gathered through participatory methods. Triangulation is done by approaching the same topic from different points of view, using different questions, or asking different people the same questions. If responses are consistent, it is assumed that the information given is reasonably valid.
