1.1 Description of MRH Production System
1.1.1 Geographic Distribution
Mixed-farming systems in humid zones (MRH) are very important in South America (Argentina and Brazil) and Asia (China, India, Indonesia, and Thailand) (Table V.1). Significant amounts of this AZ-LS combination are also found in Australia, Mexico, and the U.S. The MRH supports just over one- fourth of the world’s population but uses only 7 percent of the world’s pasture land and 15 percent of its arable land. Its agricultural land is made up of almost equal parts of pasture and arable land, and it supports a population density of .3 ha/capita. Several countries in Asia with land in the MRH have population densities of less than .1 ha/capita; e.g., Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, North Korea, etc.
1.1.2 Livestock resources
The MRH supports about 20 percent of the world’s cattle and 8.2 percent of its goats and sheep (Table V.2). As with the land and people, most of the livestock in the MRH are in Asia and South America. Bangladesh, China, India, and Indonesia combine to account for 44 percent of the cattle, 68 percent of the sheep, and 86 percent of the goats in the MRH. Brazil alone accounts for 29 percent of the cattle in this AZ-LS, and it accounts for a large percent of the cattle produced in most of the other CSA countries. Based on livestock unit equivalents, 82 percent of the feed demand generated by the three types of livestock in the MR/H is from cattle. In this AZ-LS, buffalo (primarily in Southeast Asia) add an additional 25 percent to the total feed demand generated by the cattle, sheep, and goats.
1.1.3 to 1.1.7 (see Sere 1994)
1.2 Current Trends
1.2.1 Livestock Resources
Declines in OECD cattle numbers in the MRH system during the past decade were more than offset by increases in cattle stocks in Central and South America and Asia. Similarly, buffalo numbers also increased significantly in Asia and Brazil. Sheep numbers in the MRH, declined slightly over the past decade led by significant decreases in Argentina and India. However, these decreases were almost matched by significant increases in sheep numbers in Uruguay. Goat numbers increased significantly over the MRH, led by large increases in Brazil and Uruguay in CSA and by Indonesia, India, China, and Bangladesh in Asia.
1.2.2 Production Technology, Livestock Use, and Products
Productivity of beef and dairy cattle enterprises is generally improving in the MRH. The improved productivity is primarily due to increased use of crossbreeding and improvements in forage quality through increased use of derived pastures and fertilization. In addition to significant increases in dairy productivity, the number of dairy cows is also increasing.
1.3 Overview of Key Indicators
1.3.1 Direct Indicators
1.3.1.1 Soil Erosion - Forest Utilization
Ross et al. (1990) reviewed the impact of forest clearing on soil hydrology and erosion for tropical forest indicating that removal of forest cover in virtually all environments leads to instability in the soil cover, changes in the hydrological regime, soil erosion, and loss of productivity. However, there are few landscape level studies in tropical forests describing the resulting alteration on water yield, organic matter, and nutrient redistribution following disturbance and recovery (Anderson and Spencer 1989). Lal (1981) highlighted the multiple role of leaf litter at the soil surface on mediating soil loss from rainforest ecosystems, dissipating the energy of raindrop or throughfall impact, and increasing infiltration capacity. Leaf litter is the primary input source for nutrients in the soil as well as leachates from foliage throughfall.
1.3.1.2 Vegetation Ground Cover - Forest Utilization
Clearance of forest itself is an enormously varied process, taking place in a wide range of topographic, edaphic, and hydrological conditions at different rates. Interjection of livestock grazing in the process places additional impacts on soil characteristics, vegetation compostion/structure, surface features, and nutrient cycling. The interaction between tree overstory and soil litter cover interacts to regulate the rate of removal of soil and nutrients. Transporting capacity of nutrients is driven by rainsplash, overland flow, or saturated interflow. Rainsplash is mediated by the foliage and litter. The amount and energy of falling rain depends on canopy characteristics, such as size and spatial arrangement of leaves, and canopy density. Interception by trees and by epiphytes and lianes has been documented to be highly variable. Nigerian rainforests intercept 3 percent of rainfall, warm tropical forests in Colombia intercept 20 percent, teak forests in Thailand intercept 63 percent, central Amazonian terra firme forests intercept 12 percent, while nearby rainforests intercept only 9 percent of annual rainfall. The amount of rainfall intercepted is largely dependent on the size and frequency of rainfall events as well as tree morphology and nature of ground litter relative to humidity/temperature conditions in between events. Canopy cover is highly correlated to runoff and soil erosion with a steep exponential decay in runoff and erosion occurring as relative cover exceeds 30 percent. Rainsplash and the breakdown of soil organic matter after forest clearing causes disaggregation of surface soil material, blockage of macropores, reduced infiltration capacity, and they also facilitate particle detachment and erodibility if cover crops or grasses are not rapidly established on the site. Initial forest clearance and burning followed by short-term crop cultivation, and conversion to pasture based on introduced grasses, is initially productive for cattle grazing; pasture condition deteriorates over time as woody weed invations increases. However, they found pasture condition of swards (25 years) to be variable, apparently as a function of history of grazing intensity and related management practices. Phosphorus is the principal limiting nutrient in many humid tropical derived pastures following clearing of trees.
1.3.1.3 Soil Structure-Crop-Livestock Interaction
Although soils in Latin American savannas are generally considered to have excellent physical properties, they are susceptible to compaction and degradation from intensive use of machinery and application of fertilizers. Mechanical resistance and bulk density of the soil have been noted to be lower in derived pastures of Bracharia decumbens/Pueraria phaseoloides, with a better spread of soil aggregate size in the soils. Only a fraction of organic matter in residues of pastures are mineralized, usually about 40 percent over 1 to 5 years. The remainder enters more stable pools which mineralize more slowly. Cultivation accelerates the process. Pastures accumulate organic matter and N pools, thereby improving the fertility of the soil for later cropping.
1.3.2 Indirect Indicators
1.3.2.1 Land Use and Land Rights
Where land is abundant and population density low, cooperative land use may be individually more profitable than private land holding. Thus, in areas where rent from agricultural or livestock production is low, communal tenure systems tend to develop.
Properly organized common property institutions are mechanisms for coordinating community decisions so that individuals are provided with the assurance that others will not misuse common resources. The last communal rights to survive tend to be grazing or collection rights on communal grazing areas and forests where soils are marginal for cultivation.
When population pressure or market opportunities entice communities to sell land to outsiders, the communal tenure system may change to owner-operated family farms under free-hold tenure. In the past, consolidation of initial small land holdings or increasingly fragmented land, due to cultural or religious laws, resulted in the formation of either landlord estates (e.g., Bolivia, China, India, Iran, Japan, Korea and Taiwan), where owners allocated the usufruct of all land to tenants, or haciendas (mainly in Latin America and Western Europe), where owners cultivated their land using workers whom they allowed to grow subsistence groups under usufruct tenancy arrangements. Subsequent land reforms generally led to stable systems of family farms in the case of landlord estates but hacienda owners resisted change and frequently evicted tenants and transformed their estates into large mechanized commercial farms.
Yet privatization of land used for livestock production does not always result in increased productivity. Land titles must constitute fully alienable collateral in order for their introduction to bring production improvement over communal tenure systems. For example, the new land code and land restructuring in Russia resulted in land redistribution from state ownership to collective ownership by the workers with the right of individuals to exit with a share of land. However, such land cannot be sold freely for ten years, and there has been little change from the agricultural practices mandated while land was under state control. Lack of entrepreneurial skills, small land holding, low profitability due to price and trade controls, and political uncertainty create few incentives for landowners to establish family farms.
While individual property rights may not be appropriate for certain resources, government legislation to govern the use of resources frequently does not enhance the productive and sustainable use of resources either. For example, equity distortions in private land markets occur where land prices and the capitalized value of the potential income stream from the land differ significantly. This frequently results from government policy interventions aimed at favoring politically better connected segments of society, as exemplified by land use in Brazil and Mexico. Such differences inevitably reduce the probability that voluntary land sales will increase land-use efficiency and equity because efficient producers who purchase land based on its productivity will be excluded from the market. Governments throughout the world, frequently under the direction of international development agencies, nevertheless continue to introduce implicit and explicit distortions favoring larger farms.
Unproductive use or degradation of land resources is not the fault of the property regime per se, but rather due to the breakdown in the incentive mechanisms necessary for the concept of the property to have a meaning. Where central governments are unable to effectively enforce sustainable use of land expropriated from communal owners, previously well administered resources have often been converted to open-access resources because communities no longer have a vested interest in the resources, but they continue to bear the opportunity cost of their existence.
Conversely, private property regimes may fail to prevent overexploitation of resources in developing countries because there is frequently no adequate mechanism for preventing misuse by others of their resources. Thus, if transparent decision-making mechanisms are available to prevent individual abuse of resources, land administration by the community may provide comparable security, allocation flexibility, and equity advantages to enforced private land holding.
1.3.2.2 Draft Animals
It may be concluded that testing interventions related to draft animals must be carried out in full recognition of limited farmer resources and in the holistic framework of farming systems. In addition, research should cover one or more complete cropping seasons to reduce errors in measuring animal performance and to better understand interrelationships within households.
1.3.2.3 Cropping Systems
Evaluation of the crop-yield projections for the U.S., combined with currently available and emerging technologies, including biotechnology, classical breeding and agronomic research techniques, and use of knowledge enhancement approaches, provide evidence that with adequate management and use of inputs the world can expect dramatically expanded yields for many years to come.
1.3.2.4 Role of Livestock in the Economy
There will continue to be rapid urbanization in developing countries and in many rural populations, will absolutely decline. These demographic shifts provide excellent opportunities to redirect animal productivity and land-care approaches to larger scale producers who can adopt scale-related technologies.
1.3.2.5 Technology Transfer and Adoption
In developing countries the human dimension is becoming the critical factor. Management - which means knowledge - is one weak link. The other is the mechanisms for transferring knowledge. Adoption will vary from region to region. Redirecting efforts to include extension as part of agricultural universities in developing countries is feasible and has a high probability of success in many countries. The farming system approach has much merit and deserves attention, especially as a model to promote research/extension interface. More exploration is needed for use of CG centers as global extension centers rather than just for development of technology.
Table V.1. Human Population and Hectares of Arable and Pasture Land in the Mixed-Farming, Rainfed, Humid-Subhumid Tropic and Subtropic Zones (excluding Africa)
|
|
Human Pop. (mill) |
% of Natl. Total |
Pasture Land (mill ha) |
% of Natl. Total |
Crop Land (mill ha) |
% of Natl. Total |
|
OECD |
||||||
|
North America: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
United States |
34.3 |
13.7 |
8.8 |
3.7 |
9.6 |
5.1 |
|
South Pacific: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Australia |
5.5 |
32.4 |
7.8 |
1.9 |
7.0 |
14.9 |
|
CSA |
||||||
|
Argentina |
7.3 |
22.6 |
10.5 |
7.4 |
7.0 |
28.0 |
|
Barbados |
0.3 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Belize |
0.2 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Brazil |
99.8 |
66.4 |
82.3 |
44.7 |
24.5 |
48.6 |
|
Costa Rica |
1.5 |
50.0 |
1.6 |
69.6 |
0.2 |
66.7 |
|
Cuba |
4.0 |
34.8 |
0.5 |
16.7 |
1.0 |
38.5 |
|
Dominican Republic |
7.2 |
100 |
2.1 |
100 |
1.0 |
100 |
|
Ecuador |
1.5 |
14.2 |
1.2 |
23.1 |
0.4 |
23.5 |
|
El Salvador |
1.7 |
32.7 |
0.1 |
16.7 |
0.3 |
50.0 |
|
French Guiana |
0.1 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Guadeloupe |
0.3 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Guatemala |
4.0 |
43.5 |
1.0 |
71.4 |
0.9 |
64.3 |
|
Guyana |
1.0 |
100 |
1.2 |
100 |
0.5 |
100 |
|
Honduras |
2.0 |
39.2 |
1.6 |
61.5 |
0.7 |
43.8 |
|
Jamaica |
2.5 |
100 |
0.2 |
100 |
0.2 |
100 |
|
Martinique |
0.3 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Mexico |
16.5 |
18.6 |
9.4 |
12.6 |
5.0 |
21.6 |
|
Nicaragua |
2.9 |
74.4 |
1.4 |
25.9 |
0.8 |
72.7 |
|
Panama |
1.8 |
75.0 |
0.6 |
37.5 |
0.4 |
80.0 |
|
Peru |
5.0 |
22.4 |
2.3 |
8.5 |
1.2 |
35.3 |
|
Puerto Rico |
1.4 |
37.8 |
0.2 |
66.7 |
0.1 |
100 |
|
St. Lucia |
0.1 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Suriname |
0.4 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0.1 |
0 |
|
Trinidad & Tobago |
1.3 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0.1 |
100 |
|
Uruguay |
2.0 |
64.5 |
3.5 |
25.9 |
1.0 |
76.9 |
|
Venezuela |
6.7 |
34.5 |
3.5 |
19.8 |
1.2 |
37.5 |
|
ASIA |
||||||
|
Bangladesh |
115.6 |
100 |
0.6 |
100 |
9.4 |
100 |
|
Brunei |
0.3 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
China |
361.6 |
32.5 |
70.3 |
17.6 |
11.5 |
11.9 |
|
India |
271.6 |
33.2 |
3.5 |
29.7 |
42.4 |
25.0 |
|
Indonesia |
180.5 |
100 |
11.8 |
100 |
22.0 |
100 |
|
Kampuchea |
8.2 |
100 |
0.6 |
100 |
3.1 |
100 |
|
Laos |
4.1 |
100 |
0.8 |
100 |
0.9 |
100 |
|
Malaysia |
17.3 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
4.9 |
100 |
|
Myanmar |
41.7 |
100 |
0.4 |
100 |
10.1 |
100 |
|
North Korea |
13.6 |
61.0 |
0.1 |
100 |
0.6 |
30.0 |
|
Papua New Guinea |
4.0 |
100 |
0.1 |
100 |
0.4 |
100 |
|
Philippines |
62.4 |
100 |
1.3 |
100 |
8.0 |
100 |
|
Singapore |
2.7 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
South Korea |
39.6 |
92.3 |
0.1 |
100 |
1.6 |
76.2 |
|
Sri Lanka |
17.2 |
100 |
0.4 |
100 |
1.9 |
100 |
|
Thailand |
44.2 |
90.8 |
0.7 |
87.5 |
18.5 |
80.4 |
|
Vietnam |
67.2 |
100 |
0.3 |
100 |
6.4 |
100 |
|
Total |
1,463.4 |
|
230.8 |
|
204.9 |
|
|
% of World MRH |
83 |
|
76 |
|
88 |
|
|
% of World Total |
26.8 |
|
6.9 |
|
15.2 |
|
|
|
Cattle (mill) |
% of Natl. Total |
Sheep (mill) |
% of Natl. Total |
Goats (mill) |
% of Natl. Total |
|
OECD |
||||||
|
North America: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
United States |
8.9 |
10.3 |
0.4 |
3.5 |
0.1 |
5.3 |
|
South Pacific: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Australia |
2.1 |
9.1 |
0.1 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
CSA |
||||||
|
Argentina |
8.5 |
16.8 |
2.8 |
9.8 |
0.2 |
6.1 |
|
Barbados |
0 |
0 |
0.1 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
|
Belize |
0.1 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Brazil |
76.0 |
51.7 |
6.3 |
31.5 |
2.5 |
21.0 |
|
Costa Rica |
1.2 |
66.7 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Cuba |
1.0 |
20.4 |
0.1 |
25.0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Dominican Republic |
2.2 |
100 |
0.1 |
100 |
0.1 |
100 |
|
Ecuador |
1.0 |
22.7 |
0.2 |
14.3 |
0.1 |
33.3 |
|
El Salvador |
0.4 |
50.0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
French Guiana |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Guadeloupe |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Guatemala |
1.5 |
75.0 |
0.4 |
57.1 |
0.1 |
100 |
|
Guyana |
0.2 |
100 |
0.1 |
100 |
0.1 |
100 |
|
Honduras |
1.4 |
70.0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Jamaica |
0.3 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0.4 |
100 |
|
Martinique |
0 |
0 |
0.1 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
|
Mexico |
8.5 |
26.5 |
1.0 |
17.2 |
1.0 |
9.2 |
|
Nicaragua |
0.9 |
52.9 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Panama |
0.7 |
50.0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Peru |
0.4 |
9.8 |
2.3 |
18.7 |
0.4 |
23.5 |
|
Puerto Rico |
0.1 |
16.7 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
St. Lucia |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Suriname |
0.1 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Trinidad & Tobago |
0.1 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0.1 |
100 |
|
Uruguay |
2.9 |
33.3 |
7.2 |
28.6 |
0 |
0 |
|
Venezuela |
3.0 |
22.6 |
0.1 |
20.0 |
0.3 |
20.0 |
|
ASIA |
||||||
|
Bangladesh |
23.2 |
100 |
0.9 |
100 |
21.0 |
100 |
|
Brunei |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
China |
31.7 |
41.2 |
25.5 |
22.5 |
4.6 |
4.7 |
|
India |
51.0 |
26.6 |
14.0 |
32.0 |
25.0 |
22.7 |
|
Indonesia |
10.7 |
100 |
5.9 |
100 |
11.2 |
100 |
|
Kampuchea |
2.1 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Laos |
0.8 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0.1 |
100 |
|
Malaysia |
0.7 |
100 |
0.2 |
100 |
0.3 |
100 |
|
Myanmar |
9.3 |
100 |
0.3 |
100 |
1.0 |
100 |
|
North Korea |
1.0 |
76.9 |
0.3 |
100 |
0.2 |
50.0 |
|
Papua New Guinea |
0.1 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Philippines |
1.6 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
2.1 |
100 |
|
Singapore |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
South Korea |
2.0 |
95.2 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Sri Lanka |
1.8 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0.5 |
100 |
|
Thailand |
1.7 |
29.8 |
0.1 |
50.0 |
0.1 |
100 |
|
Vietnam |
3.2 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0.4 |
100 |
|
Total |
262.4 |
|
68.5 |
|
71.9 |
|
|
% of World MRH |
90.1 |
|
70.2* |
|
70.2* |
|
|
% of World Total |
20.0 |
|
8.2* |
|
8.2* |
|
|
* Sheep plus goats |
|
|
|
|
|
|
