3. CONSUMPTION, DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF WOODFUEL

The major consumer group of forest resources are households and the industrial sector. About 88% of households depend on forest resources to meet their basic energy needs. About 19.4 million m³ were, therefore, estimated to be the woodfuel consumed in 1996 (ZFAP, 1997). Industrial wood consumption (including sawlogs, transmission and fencing poles) was estimated at 3.1 million m³ during the same year.

Kalumiana (1997) reports that woodfuel is the largest source of energy in Zambia, followed by petroleum, electricity and coal. Over 90% of Zambia’s electricity supply is hydropower whose potential capacity is estimated at 6,000 MW, while installed capacity is 1,632 MW. Proven coal reserves amount to 30 million tonnes (Kalumiana, 1997).

Zambia’s mean solar insulation is 4 KWh m^-2/day, while mean wind speed is 2.5 ms^-1. National total annual production of animal dung (available for biogas production) is estimated at 759,000 tonnes (Kalumiana, 1997). Overall, total energy consumption in Zambia exceeds 4.5 million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent (TOE) per annum, with each fuel’s contribution being as follows:

Woodfuel - 68%

Petroleum Products - 14%

Electricity - 12%

Coal - 6%

(Kalumiana, 1997).

Studies conducted during the ZFAP planning phase exhibit three interesting situations:

**The first relates to the present small wood surplus from different production sources; a situation which may be unsustainable beyond the year 2000.

Table 3.1 : Annual Cordwood Supply and Demand Balance in 1996 - 2016 (Current Trends)

Source: ZFAP, 1997

**The second situation is that on the Provincial basis; four (4) Provinces (Copperbelt, Eastern, Lusaka and Southern) are already experiencing wood deficits and soon after the year 2000, only Northern, N/Western and Western Provinces would be barely self-sufficient in wood products.

Table 3.2 : Cordwood Supply and Demand Balance from production areas by Province in

1996 - 2016 (Current trends)

Source: ZFAP, 1997

Table 3.3: Cordwood Supply and Demand Balance from production areas by Province in 1996 - 2016 (ZFAP Scenario)

Source: ZFAP, 1997

**The third scenario is expected to result from various ZFAP interventions which are envisaged, such as those directed at improved forest management and fire control as well as those intended to halt wood waste at exploitation sites through processing and marketing stages. While nationally there might be a surplus of wood products, there will still be regional deficits as depicted in Table 3.3 above.

Chitondo (1997) estimates that about 0.7% to 1.0% of forest area is lost annually through deforestation resulting from agricultural expansion and charcoal production.

Evidence of increased wood fuel demands and land degradation can be verified by encroachment and charcoal production even in protected forest areas, a situation which is indicative of high consumption patterns and diminishing local wood stock supplies in open and production forest areas. Worse still, even botanical reserves have been encroached and charcoal production kilns and rampant deforestation are so obvious. Such trends are common in forest areas close to urbanised and highly populated cities and town centres. Riverbanks have been cleared of trees to pave way for agriculture and the trees cut are used for woodfuel production.

Environmental problems are, therefore escalating daily and in densely populated regions, supply and demand of forest products are foreseen to be increasingly unbalanced (Forestry Department, 1996).

Rural communities are completely dependent on fuelwood for cooking and heating. Latest information states that household energy supply in urban centres is also predominantly based on Charcoal. In three of the PFAP Pilot Provinces, estimates indicate figures of 150,000 ha. as areas harvested for charcoal production (PFAP, 1997).

Out of the 38 Forest Reserves in Central Province, the most encroached and/or depleted were found in Chibombo District, mainly due to charcoal production (Nkomeshya, 1997). This gives an indication of high charcoal demand and/or consumption and also reflects that the predominant land use system is charcoal production in forests near to urban centres. Most of the charcoal produced in Chibombo District is taken to the Lusaka market where the commodity fetches a good price because of high demand and consumption. This is also a ‘syndrome’ facing many rural communities in Zambia, whereby demand is not necessary from within, but from nearby highly populated town and city centres.

The high demand for woodfuel has resulted in non-species selective cutting regimes being applied by many woodfuel producers, culminating in severe depletion of many forest ecosystems and the resultant land degradation. Since rural communities can now neither find productive land nor meet the costs for agricultural inputs, the implied situation is one that perpetuates forest destruction irrespective of tree size, species and/or quality.

Other reports published by the Forestry Department have indicated that charcoal is the single most depleting agent of forest resources due to the continuous nature of its operations, which run throughout the year. . Current rates of harvesting are, therefore, very high, but against a poor monitoring and control system. On average, 2.5 - 3.5 kg of woodfuel are used per household per day in rural areas. This consumption when extrapolated to annual figures and in segregating between charcoal and firewood, amounts to not less than 72.76 kg per person per annum and 1025.37 kg per person per annum for charcoal and firewood respectively (Forestry Department, 1999).

The number of persons per household, type of food cooked, number of times of cooking and different tasks performed (water boiling, house warming, manner of caring for the fire, type of devices, distance to firewood fetching points and fuel mix (i.e. charcoal plus electricity, etc.) contribute in determining the quantities of woodfuel required per household at a particular time.

Urban households are estimated to consume about 240 kg per person per annum of firewood and 139.6 kg and 131.0 kg per person per annum of charcoal for small and big urban centres respectively (Forestry Department, 1999).

Such figures correlate with a study conducted in Kenya where a village of 5,000 people consumed about 12 - 18 tonnes of woodfuel per day. This survey also showed consumption of 15 - 20 kg per household of six (6) persons per day (Kapiyo, 1996).

However, consumption patterns are also affected by quantities of wood stock in surrounding areas or forests. Communities living close to and/or around well-stocked forests tend to have a steady supply of woodfuel and can afford to meet their daily requirements for woodfuel energy. On the other hand, communities depleted of wood stock will either do with whatever is available, or have to import woodfuel from other areas at inflated prices. The former is related to the Zambian situation in most rural areas, while the later is typical of urbanised areas. However, empirical observations have in recent times shown that even rural areas are now running out of wood stocks at a faster rate due to bad agricultural practices and charcoal production to supply urban centres.

In rural set-ups also, institutions such as Boarding Schools, Prisons, Hospitals, Kiosks and motels have continued to depend on woodfuel and hence, where they occur, have a bearing on the demand, consumption and supply patterns of woodfuel. The unfortunate situation is that all-current increases in demand, consumption and supply do not favour regeneration/production and, therefore, most often than not, wood stocks are harvested without any due regard to the sustenance of the production base. People are more interested in meeting their daily requirements for woodfuel than the eminent consequences of continued harvesting without regeneration.

Marjokorpi et al (1997) have outlined that annual consumption of woodfuel vary geographically, but they estimated that about 1.0m³ are used per household. Apparently, though small, this consumption level was found to have some significant impacts on preferred species.

In a survey conducted in the PFAP Provinces of Central, Copperbelt and Luapula, it was discovered that relatively large amounts of wood biomass are used for energy, in form of firewood and charcoal. Consumption of charcoal and firewood was found to vary, not only among different localities, but also between urban and rural areas. Annual consumption per household was estimated at about 8.0 tonnes of wood equivalent (Marjokorpi et al, 1997).

Settlements in wetlands (in PFAP areas) use wood from surrounding forests for drying fish. In areas with underdeveloped agricultural practices, inhabitants use fish as a major source of food and income, leading to higher consumption of wood for fish drying (Marjokorpi et al, 1997).

In the PFAP area, approximately 45% of the population live in urban centres in Central and Copperbelt Provinces (Marjokorpi et al, 1997). Over exploitation of forests has been concentrated on the surrounding of these urban areas, where excessive cutting for woodfuel has already led to increased degradation of woodlands. Due to increased demand and pressure on forest resources, the harvesting cycles have been shortened and late fires have become more frequent as people strive to earn a living. This has in most areas resulted in changes in species composition and the situation now threatens the active regeneration of forests and the threshold to convert forests to agricultural land has immensely declined.

Supply of woodfuel is mostly from indigenous forests except in areas where plantations have been established, in which case the local people collect firewood from the plantation logging wastes. Collection of firewood, however, depends on the scarcity of indigenous wood stocks that are preferred to exotic species and on the availability of plantations within a specific locality. Collection of firewood from exotic plantations is, therefore, typical of highly populated areas where exotic pine and eucalyptus plantations have been established such as along the line of rail (both TAZARA and ZR) and in almost all District centres where the Forestry Department exists. However, access to firewood in these areas is only permitted where logging operations are taking place and/or where people prefer to buy wood in terms of poles, but later use these poles as firewood.

3.1.1. Luapula Province

Charcoal, firewood, kerosene and electricity are the main household fuels used in Luapula Province. While all the four are prominent in urban areas, electricity is not common in rural areas (Kalumiana, 1996).

The total woodfuel consumption in 1996 was estimated at 98,805.5 and 353,097.2 tonnes of charcoal and firewood respectively. Out of the total firewood consumed, 5,539 tonnes were estimated to be used for fish smoking annually, representing 1.6% of total consumption. Urban households consumed 14.6% of total charcoal and 3.3% of firewood consumed in the Province. Consumption figures for rural households were found to be 85.4% and 96.7% for charcoal and firewood respectively. Estimates for the year 2000 put total woodfuel consumption figures at 110,012 and 477,565 tonnes of charcoal and firewood respectively (Kalumiana, 1996).

Most charcoal production is done in areas under preparation for growing crops, mostly during the months of August to November. The survey by Kalumiana (1996) revealed that there was very little charcoal production in Forest Reserves. Charcoal transportation was found to be by use of bicycles, which were well suited to the subsistence level of the charcoal industry. Most of the rural households were found mainly dependent on charcoal between the months of November to April/June/July. Firewood was prominent during the months of May to October (Kalumiana, 1996).

The survey (Kalumiana, 1996) revealed that charcoal is used for cooking, water heating, space heating/warming and ironing. For electrified households, cooking and water heating were the main end-uses. Major end-uses for firewood were cooking and water heating and the immediate alternative energy source for firewood consumers was found to be charcoal. The electricity option was not feasible at the time of survey due to the high cost of electrical equipment. Solar water heaters, costing ZK600,000 (US $480) per unit were found to be beyond the reach of most households (Kalumiana, 1996).

Although Kerosene was widely used by un-electrified households, its main end-use was lighting. The main end-uses for electricity were cooking and lighting. Few electricity consumers, especially those in small towns, used electricity for water heating. Most households not using electricity for cooking or water heating either had no equipment (or equipment broke down) or regarded use of electricity for such end-uses as being more expensive than charcoal (Kalumiana, 1996).

For the purposes of this working paper, Mansa District will be used to study the energy consumption patterns in Luapula Province because of its representative nature in terms of urban and rural standards of living.

Among the 296 households enumerated (comprising 108, 124 and 84 households in the low, medium and high cost areas respectively), it was found that proportions of households using the four main urban fuels were as follows: charcoal, 92.9%; firewood, 24.3%; kerosene, 44.9%; electricity, 74.4%. Assessment of end-uses showed that the majority of those using charcoal used it for cooking, water heating (mainly for bathing), space heating and ironing. The major end-use, however, was cooking. The major use for firewood was water heating and for the 58 sample households, 83.3% of them used firewood for the purpose (Kalumiana, 1996).

Kerosene was mainly used for lighting, with only 16.5% of its consumers using it for cooking. Major end-uses for electricity, in order of decreasing importance were lighting (100%), cooking (79.3%), ironing (72.4%) and space heating (41.8%). Only 10.3% of electricity consumers used it for water heating (Kalumiana, 1996).

Out of the 296 households enumerated, 258 (100 each in low and medium cost areas and 58 in high cost areas respectively) were using charcoal. Annual per capita consumption for each category was as follows: 151.24 kg for low cost, 138.39 kg for medium cost and 121.79 kg for high cost residential areas respectively. Using the 1990 proportions of households in each residential category, Kalumiana (1996) estimated that by the end of 1996, the total urban household charcoal consumption would be 6,131 tonnes for the District. When the 258 charcoal consumer households were assessed for fuel end-use, it was found that all used charcoal for cooking and 79.3%, 64.7% and 44.7% used it for water heating, space heating and ironing respectively. Only 6.5% used charcoal for baking scones, while 0.4% used it for brewing Munkoyo and beer.

Only 58 out of the 296 enumerated households were found using firewood. Per capita annual consumption was estimated to be 246.68 kg. The Total urban household firewood consumption for 1996 was estimated at 3,488 tonnes. The majority (91.7%) of households used firewood for water heating, while less than 10% used it for other purposes.

All households enumerated were found to be using firewood for various end-uses. Charcoal was only used on very few occasions. The charcoal used by the producers at home was mainly leftovers after packaging for sale had been done. In addition, households closer to urban centres were found to be using more charcoal than those far off. All households enumerated used kerosene for lighting (Kalumiana, 1996).

Per capita charcoal consumption for rural households in Mansa was assumed to be the same as for the sample households, being 95.45 kg per annum. It was also assumed that only 155 of the population used charcoal (Kalumiana, 1996). Since only one sample area was assessed for firewood consumption, the mean consumption figure for Samfya District was used to estimate total firewood consumption. The figure was 1025.34 kg/person/annum. Charcoal and firewood consumption in 1996 were, therefore, estimated at 1,748.5 and 125,225.5 tonnes respectively (Kalumiana, 1996).

Table 3.4: Estimated Total Woodfuel Consumption, in Tonnes (‘000 kg), in Luapula

Province in 1996 and the year 2000

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

Surveys conducted in the Province also indicated that due to prohibitive electricity tariffs, electric power has not been widely used by many inhabitants. Consequently, most rural and peri-urban populations depend on woodfuel energy (PFAP, 1997).

With a population growth rate of 2.2% (1990 census), consumption levels of woodfuel have been increasing over the years and some parts of the Province are now depleted of exploitable wood resources. Places such as islands on lake Bangweulu, swamps and parts of the Luapula valley are the most affected.

In Kawambwa District, total timber volume in 1996 was estimated at 42,300m3, of which firewood and charcoal production were 350,000 and 98,000 tonnes/annum respectively. Mansa with a total wood stock volume of 22,095m3 had firewood and charcoal production levels amounting to 107,000 and 18,750 tonnes/annum respectively (PFAP, 1997).

Annual deforestation in the entire Province was thus estimated to be around 17,959ha out of which charcoal production accounted for 10,000 ha, representing about 58% of total deforestation. Highest deforestation figures were recorded in Mansa and Nchelenge probably due to increasing population and demand for firewood energy used in fish drying, domestic and agricultural purposes.

Table 3.5 : Annual Deforestation Rates (Luapula Province)

Source: PFAP, 1997

Table 3.6 : Population per District (1990)

Source: PFAP, 1997

Most of the woodfuel produced in Luapula Province is consumed within except for a few quantities, which are exported to the Copperbelt Province.

3.1.2. Central Province

The total land area for Central Province is 94,494 km², with total population estimated at 725,611 (1990).

The proximity of the Province to Lusaka and the Copperbelt Province, which are the most populated areas in Zambia, has put great pressure and demand for forest products in the Province. Lusaka consumes about 126,625 tonnes of charcoal every year of which 74,075 tonnes come from Central Province. This represents 58.5% of the total woodfuel demand for Lusaka. As a result of this and the charcoal exports to the Copperbelt Province, indigenous forests in Central Province are seriously being cleared for charcoal and firewood production (PFAP, 1997).

About 90% of households in the Province continue to depend on forest products for domestic purposes. For instance, out of a total of 119,464 households interviewed in a recent survey (Kalumiana, 1996), 68.4 % depended on firewood as their main source of cooking energy. The second most common source of energy was charcoal which accounted for 19.3% of total household consumption of cooking energy (Kalumiana, 1996).

Table 3.7 : Total Population per District (1990)

Source: PFAP, 1997

The total population between the ages of 12 - 75 years old was estimated at 456,197 in 1996, out of which 182,898 were in one form of employment or another, representing 25.38% of the total population.

The total woodfuel consumption in the Province in 1996 was estimated at 52,845.4 tonnes of charcoal and 735,918.4 tonnes of firewood (Kalumiana, 1996). The main reasons given for the ever-increasing woodfuel production and consumption rates were:

-Insufficient cheap alternative energy sources;

-Low income of inhabitants due to limited income sources and unemployment;

-Proximity to the densely populated Provinces of Lusaka and the Copperbelt;

-unsustainable management and harvesting methods;

-Poor law enforcement by the Forestry Department.

Charcoal, firewood, kerosene and electricity are the four major household fuels in Central Province.

Urban households consume about 86.2% of total charcoal and 2.4% of firewood consumed in the Province. Rural household consumption figures are about 13.8% and 97.6% for charcoal and firewood respectively (Kalumiana, 1996). Charcoal is the dominant energy source for urban households in low cost residential areas. The survey by Kalumiana (1996) found that the main end-uses for charcoal were cooking, water heating, space heating/warming and ironing. For electrified households, cooking and water heating were found to be the main end uses. It was also found that urban household electrification reduces charcoal consumption to between 1.5 and 3 times.

Most charcoal production is done in areas under preparation for agriculture. Areas cleared for agricultural production, therefore, increase with increasing market demand for charcoal. The same survey by Kalumiana (1996) reported that only in Kabwe Rural District was uncontrolled charcoal production found in Forest Reserves. In Serenje and Mumbwa Districts, Forestry Officers allocate coupes to Charcoal producers. In Serenje charcoal producers were reported to be paying for the wood (through licences) and in Mumbwa the practice was that producers paid in kind by providing labour (Kalumiana, 1996).

Kalumiana (1996) also reports that there are four charcoal transportation modes used in the Province i.e. bicycles, ox-carts, single and round truck trips.

Kerosene use was restricted to lighting and had no effect on woodfuel consumption. Use of electricity was however found to reduce woodfuel consumption because of competition for the same end uses.

Table 3.8: Population Distribution in 1969, 1980 and 1990 and Projected Population in 1995 and 2000, Central Province.

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

For Central Province, discussions on consumption patterns will focus on Kabwe Urban and Rural Districts based on studies conducted by Kalumiana in 1996.

Among the 338 households enumerated (comprising 124, 105 and 109 households in the low, medium and high cost residential areas respectively), it was found that proportions of households using the four main urban fuels were as follows: charcoal, 76.9%; firewood, 18.6%; kerosene, 45.3%; and electricity, 62.4%. Kerosene was used mainly for lighting, with only 4.6% of its consumers using it for cooking (Kalumiana, 1996).

Major uses of electricity (in the medium and high cost residential areas) in order of decreasing importance were found to be lighting (100%), cooking (98.6%), water heating (83.6%), ironing (76.3%) and space heating (68.1%).

Table 3.9 : Percentage of 338 Surveyed Households using specified fuel in 1996

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

Charcoal consumption is at least three times more in households without electricity than those with it. Out of the 260 charcoal consumer households assessed, 97.3% used it for cooking, 71.9%, 65.8% and 51.9% used it for water heating, space heating and ironing respectively. A small proportion (4.17% in the medium cost households) used charcoal during preparation of floor polish (Kalumiana, 1996).

Table 3.10: Mean Annual Urban Consumption, kg/person, in 260 households using charcoal and 63 households using firewood.

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

Only 63 out of the 338 enumerated households were found using firewood. Per capita annual consumption was estimated at 243.99 kg (Table 3.10 above). Total urban household firewood consumption for 1996 was estimated to be 14,051.4 tonnes. Assuming the same consumption rate (Kalumiana, 1996) estimated firewood consumption for the year 2000 to be about 15,571.7 tonnes. The majority (87.3%) of households used firewood for water heating, while about 50% used it for cooking.

Table 3.11 : Estimated Population and Urban Household Consumption of Charcoal and

Firewood, in kg, in Kabwe Urban.

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

Hawker Traders (house to house traders) were found to be the most popular source of charcoal to consumers, providing about 55% of all supplies, while about 30% of all consumers got charcoal from Municipal markets. Other sources were at road sides and homestead selling points. Less than 1% of all consumers collected/produced their own charcoal. Of all the firewood consumed by Kabwe urban households, 59% was collected, while 41.3% was purchased (Kalumiana, 1996).

Kabwe Urban District was estimated to consume 65.8% and 1.9% of total charcoal and firewood consumption respectively in the Province in 1996 (Kalumiana, 1996).

In Kabwe Rural District, urban households were only enumerated in Kapiri Mposhi, which in 1990 had about 66% of all urban residents in the District. Out of a total of 65 households enumerated, 25 were in the low cost and 40 in the medium cost areas respectively. Calculations for total woodfuel consumption assumed that households in the low cost areas constituted 75% and those in the medium cost areas 25% of the total urban households (Kalumiana, 1996).

It was found that 67.7%, 4.6%, 33.8% and 61.5% were using charcoal, firewood, kerosene and electricity respectively. Of the total 65 households enumerated, 44 were found to be using charcoal. Annual per capita consumption was estimated to be 179.9 kg/person (Kalumiana, 1996).

Table 3.12 : Mean Annual Consumption, kg/person, in 44 Urban Households using Charcoal

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

Rural households were found dependent on firewood. Charcoal was only used to a very small extent. Out of the 55 households enumerated, it was estimated that per capita firewood consumption was 1,070.69 kg/person/year. Five percent of households were assumed to use charcoal. For 21 enumerated user households, per capita consumption was estimated to be 72.76 kg/person/year (Kalumiana, 1996).

By the end of 1996, it was estimated that total woodfuel consumption would be 2,743.5 and 269,146.8 tonnes of charcoal and firewood respectively (Kalumiana, 1996).

Table 3.13: Mean Annual Consumption, kg/person, in 44 Urban Households using Charcoal

Year	Population	Charcoal	Firewood
1996	251,377	914,509.7	269,146,840
2000	259,655	944,625.0	278,010,010

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

3.1.3. Copperbelt Province

In 1996, the Copperbelt Province consumed 1,138,111.1 tonnes of wood out of which charcoal accounted for 76% of total consumption. The bulk of this fuel was consumed by households (Kalumiana, 1996).

In addition to local consumption, an equivalent of about 79,140 tonnes of wood was exported, in form of charcoal, to Lusaka Urban. Electrified households showed reduced charcoal consumption levels. Household electrification, therefore, had no impact on charcoal consumption, but rather the impact depended on the income levels of consumers. This was shown by some consumers preferring to use electricity only for lighting which was cheaper (Kalumiana, 1996).

The woodfuel supply and demand balance showed a deficit of 442,261.0 tonnes in 1996 and 503,115.9 tonnes were expected to be the deficit in the year 2000. This according to Kalumiana (1996) means that about 3,538,080 by 25-kg charcoal bags were produced over and above the supply limit for the Province. In the year 2000, this figure is expected to rise to 4,024,930 by 25 kg bags (Kalumiana, 1996). Even without the portion of charcoal that is exported to Lusaka, the Province’s woodfuel balance still shows a negative picture.

Hawker traders are an important source of charcoal for households.

For the Copperbelt Province, energy consumption patterns would be reviewed based on Kalumiana’s surveys conducted in Kitwe and Ndola Rural Districts in 1996. Kitwe has been chosen because of its centrality to other towns in the Province, which is also representative of the population distribution, economic activity, effects of unemployment and woodfuel consumption patterns in households and industry in the Province. Ndola Rural on the other hand has been chosen because of its vastness in terms of area, forest resources (both product and service functions) and charcoal production for both local consumption and for export to other Districts within the Province and to Lusaka. Kitwe is, therefore, representative of most urban households, while Ndola Rural is representative of rural households.

The population of Kitwe was 199,798, 320,320 and 347,769 in 1969, 1980 and 1990 respectively (Kalumiana, 1996). It grew by 4.4% and 0.8% per annum between the 1969 and 1980 and 1980 and 1990 intercensal periods respectively. The District had the highest density, which in 1969, 1980 and 1990 was 257.1, 412.2 and 447.6 persons/km2 respectively (Kalumiana, 1996).

Table 3.14 : Population Distribution in 1969, 1980 and 1990 and projected population in 1995 and 2000, Kitwe District.

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

A total of 424 urban households were enumerated in Kitwe in a survey conducted by Kalumiana in 1996. Among these households, 72.4% were found to be using charcoal, while 15.6% depended on firewood. With regard to kerosene and electricity, proportions were 56.8% and 74.8% respectively. These figures do not reflect the electrification proportion in the Province, but concerns only those households covered (Kalumiana, 1996).

Among the 424 urban households enumerated, 307 were using charcoal. Charcoal consumption in non-mine townships was found to be at least 50% more than in mine townships for medium cost households. For low cost households, non-electrified ones consumed about 50% more than electrified ones. In 1996, it was estimated that urban households in Kitwe consumed 48,617.1 tonnes of charcoal. Assuming the same consumption rates, Kalumiana (1996) estimated that total household charcoal consumption would be about 49,413.0 tonnes in the year 2000. The survey also revealed that 97.1% of the 307 charcoal using households were using charcoal for cooking, 58.0% for water heating, 34.5% for space heating and 37.5% for ironing (Kalumiana, 1996).

Only 66 households out of the 424 enumerated were using firewood. Out of these, low cost households accounted for 65%; medium and high cost accounted for 18% and 17% respectively. The main use for firewood was found to be water heating, which accounted for 86.4%. For cooking, space heating, brewing and baking, the proportions were 50.1%, 12.1%, 27.3% and 12.1% of the 66 households respectively. Per capita annual consumption was estimated to be 132.64 kg. Total urban household firewood consumption was estimated at 8,303.4 tonnes in 1996. Using the same consumption rate, firewood consumption for the year 2000 was estimated to be 8,499.6 tonnes (Kalumiana, 1996).

Table 3.15: Mean Annual; Urban Consumption, kg/person, in 307 sample Households using Charcoal and 66 Households using Firewood in Kitwe Urban.

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

Assessment of fuel end-use for kerosene and electricity showed that the majority (93.0%) of those using kerosene used it for fire ignition, while 65.6% used it for lighting. Only 5.4% were using kerosene for cooking. With regard to electricity, major end-uses were lighting (100%), cooking (94.9%), water heating (88.3%), ironing (88.0%) and space heating (79.8%) (Kalumiana, 1996).

The population of Ndola Rural District increased by 128.5% between 1969 and 1990. It grew by 3.2% and 4.9% per annum between 1969 and 1980 and 1980 and 1990 intercensal periods, respectively (Kalumiana, 1996). Despite this population increase, the District has the lowest density because of its vastness. The population density was 3.1, 4.3 and 7.0 persons/km2 in 1969, 1980 and 1990 respectively (Kalumiana, 1996).

Table 3.16 : Population in 1969, 1980 and 1990 and projected Population in 1995 and 2000, Ndola Rural District.

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

No urban households were enumerated in Ndola Rural District. From experiences obtained in Central and Luapula Provinces, however, it was found that smaller towns had higher per capita charcoal consumption. For this reason, the per capita consumption of low cost households in Kalulushi District of 179.76 kg/person/year, was assumed to apply to urban households in Ndola Rural. The overall firewood per capita consumption for Kalulushi of 113.98 kg/person/year was also assumed to apply in Ndola Rural. It was further assumed that all households used charcoal and firewood (Kalumiana, 1996).

With all these consumption levels and patterns, it was estimated that urban household charcoal consumption was 2,396.0 tonnes in 1996 and would reach 2,400.7 tonnes in the year 2000. With regard to firewood, the consumption figures were 1,519.2 tonnes in 1996 and would be 1,522.2 tonnes in the year 2000 (Kalumiana, 1996).

A total of 60 rural households were enumerated in Chief Nkana’s area of Ndola Rural District. Annual per capita charcoal and firewood consumption was estimated to be 90.50 kg and 1027.50 kg/person/year. While all households used firewood, only 15% were assumed to use charcoal.

Table 3.17 : Estimated and projected population and household consumption of charcoal and firewood, in kg, in rural areas of Copperbelt Districts.

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

Figures for woodfuel consumption in industry were only available for Kitwe and Luanshya Districts.

Charcoal consumption at Nkana Division of ZCCM in 1996 amounted to 376 tonnes. The charcoal was used as a source of carbon to remove oxygen from molten copper by forming CO₂. The end product is anode copper. The Division was buying charcoal at ZK70,000/tonne (Kalumiana, 1996).

ZAFFICO Ltd. supplied 4,040 m³ of poles to the Division. In addition, 36,000 skimming blocks (wood pieces), equivalent to 1,185 m³ were purchased from individuals. Total wood consumption in 1996 for Nkana Division of ZCCM amounted to 5,225 m³ or 1,010 tonnes (Kalumiana, 1996). The wood was also found to be used in removing oxygen from copper.

Companies studied included ZAMEFA and the Match Corporation of Zambia Ltd. These two companies considered together consumed huge quantities of charcoal. In 1996, ZAMEFA consumed 225 tonnes and Match Corporation 600 tonnes of charcoal respectively (Kalumiana, 1996).

Although Match Corporation requires 1,000 tonnes for capacity production, charcoal supply is unreliable. It, therefore, also uses coal from Zimbabwe. Studies conducted by Kalumiana (1996) indicated that the Corporation was buying charcoal at ZK80/kg and coal at ZK82/kg.

Woodfuel Demand and Supply Balance

Table 3.18: Estimated Total Household Woodfuel Consumption, Copperbelt Province, 1996 and 2000 (Tonnes).

Source: Kalumiana, 1996

* Figures for Kitwe Urban include 376 tonnes of charcoal and 1010 tonnes of firewood consumed by ZCCM Nkana Division.

Charcoal figures for Luanshya Urban include 225 tonnes consumed by ZAMEFA and 600 tonnes consumed by the Match Corporation

3.1.4. Lusaka Province

Studies done by Kalumiana in 1996 concentrated on Lusaka urban and this paper will therefore present a review of the same.

Estimated charcoal consumption by households in Lusaka urban in 1996 amounted to 126,625.1 tonnes, which are equivalent to 3.2 million 90-kg bags of charcoal. Out of this amount, 74,075.7 tonnes (58.5%) came from Central Province, 15,828.1 tonnes (12.5%) from Copperbelt Province, specifically Ndola Rural District. In the year 2000, consumption is projected to be 143,749.3 tonnes. The Lusaka urban market was found to be larger than individual markets in Central and Copperbelt Provinces (Kalumiana, 1997).

In December 1996, charcoal prices were on average 30% higher in Lusaka than the highest price on the Copperbelt. This explains the motivation for the export of charcoal to Lusaka (Kalumiana, 1997).

Following conventional markets, Kalumiana (1997) reports that homestead traders are second important sources of charcoal for households. In contrast, hawker traders are second important charcoal sources for the Copperbelt and Central Provinces. Kalumiana (1997) attributed this to the fact that most production centres in Lusaka were far off from the reach of hawkers. This also suggested that most of the charcoal used in the Capital City was imported from other Districts and/or Provinces.

Firewood consumption by households was estimated at 14,576.8 tonnes in 1996 and projected to be 16,548.2 tonnes in the year 2000. The bulk of this firewood, unlike charcoal, comes from Lusaka Province. Firewood consumption was, therefore, found not to have any effect on the woodfuel demand and supply balance for other Provinces (Kalumiana, 1997).

Table 3.19 : Population Distribution in 1969, 1980 and 1990 and Projected Population in 1995 and 2000, in Lusaka Urban.

Source: Kalumiana, 1997.

The study by Kalumiana covered 489 households. Residential categories enumerated were as follows: 185, 174 and 130 households in the low, medium and high cost areas respectively. Proportion uses of fuels were found to be charcoal, 72.2%; firewood, 10.4%; kerosene, 43.6%; and electricity, 77.5% (Kalumiana, 1997).

Assessment of fuel end-use showed that 99.4% of those using charcoal used it for cooking. Other uses were heating water (54.1% - mainly for bathing), space heating (43.6%) and ironing (38.5%). The main use of firewood was water heating, with 88.2 % of the 51 user households using it for this purpose. Kerosene was used mainly for ignition (81.0%), illumination (46.5%) and cooking (14.1%) (Kalumiana, 1997).

For electricity, the major uses in the medium and high cost residential areas, in order of decreasing importance were lighting (100%), cooking (86.3%), water heating (72.8%), ironing (84.4%) and space heating (67.0%) (Kalumiana, 1997).

Of the 489 households enumerated, 353 were using charcoal as shown in Table 3.20 below:

Table 3.20: Mean Annual Urban Consumption, kg/person, in 353 Lusaka Urban Households using Charcoal in December, 1996.

Source: Kalumiana, 1997.

Average annual consumption in the low cost households was 186.3 kg per person. With an estimated population of 1,086,527 in 1996, total charcoal consumption was about 114,895.3 tonnes. Annual per capita consumption in electrified households was estimated to be 146.95 kg and 230.59 kg for non-electrified households. In the medium cost residential areas, average annual consumption was 55.6 kg per person. Total charcoal consumption was about 8,191.7 tonnes in 1996. In high cost residential areas, average annual consumption was 39.8 kg per person. Total charcoal consumption was about 3,538.8 tonnes in 1996 (Kalumiana, 1997).

Only 51 (10.4%) out of the 489 enumerated households were found to use firewood. In low, medium and high cost areas, 21.6%, 4.6% and 2.0% respectively were using firewood. Mean annual per capita consumption was 129 kg. In addition to other major end uses, 11.8% were using firewood for baking scones, while 9.8% used it for brewing (Kalumiana, 1997).

Total firewood consumption for 1996 was estimated at 14,576.8 tonnes, while in the year 2000, projections indicate figures of about 16,548.2 tonnes (Kalumiana, 1997).

Table 3.21: Principal sources of charcoal, as % of total, for Lusaka Urban consumers

Source: Kalumiana, 1997.

During December 1996, the average charcoal price in Lusaka was ZK139.92/kg or ZK 5,596.80 per 40-kg bag. This price was 28%, 29% and 33% higher than the prevailing prices in Kitwe, Ndola Urban and Chingola respectively. These three towns had the highest charcoal prices in 1996 (Kalumiana, 1997).

The bulk of the charcoal (59.8%) in Lusaka Urban was sold at Municipal markets. Next in importance were homestead markets which accounted for 30% of charcoal sales. Municipal and homestead markets were found to be important for consumers in the low and medium cost residential areas. Other sources were found to be insignificant. In contrast, consumers in the high cost areas depended solely on Municipal markets for their charcoal supplies. Also about 11% of all their charcoal supplies were purchased from roadside selling points (Kalumiana, 1997).

Figure 1: Comparison of charcoal prices between Lusaka and the Copperbelt Markets, December, 1996

Source : Kalumiana, 1997.

Table 3.22: Sources of charcoal for the Lusaka Urban market, December 1996

Source: Kalumiana, 1997

Lusaka’s total charcoal consumption level represents slightly over 20% of total national consumption (Kalumiana, 1997).