Within the last two years, there have been many examples of human actions that have led to land degradation in Antigua and Barbuda. Topsoil and sand from stream beds were indiscriminately mined in prime agricultural lands such as Betty's Hope, Belvederre and Christian Valley. This brought about rapid land degradation and accelerated soil erosion. The soil transported by intense rainstorms in turn silted stream channels, dams and even wetlands.
Antigua and Barbuda's coastal areas are extremely vulnerable to hurricanes, sea surges and tidal waves. During hurricane Lenny in 1999, it became evident that the roadways at Darkwood and Runaway Bay were improperly designed and located without consideration to the natural flow of seawater to the salt pond as well as the reverse flow. These wetland areas are prime nursery habitats for reef fish and other marine life forms.
Given the climate change effects within the last decade, Antigua and Barbuda can expect to experience storms and hurricanes with greater frequency and intensity in the future. This will necessitate effective and sustainable land use and development management practices.
Population increase and economic expansion will place extreme pressure on industry and agriculture to compete for scarce natural resources. Therefore the agricultural sector should send a strong signal to local government and demonstrate that lands demarcated for agriculture are, in fact, developed with appropriate infrastructure and used for crop and livestock production. Such lands, if left idle, could be lost to competing interests.
The Public Utility Act of 1973 establishes the right of the Antigua Public Utilities Authority (APUA) to supply, allocate and manage water supplies (Table 1). This overall mandate, however, has proven to be unsustainable since the management of groundwater and surface water reserves depends on the health of the forests and lower reaches in the watersheds. It is important, therefore, that some financial support in the management of the watersheds be provided by the APUA to the Forestry and Soil and Water Conservation Divisions. It is appropriate that the water supply to the public be vested in the APUA. However, the responsibility for the allocation of water to the various sectors should be vested in an independent body to minimise conflicts of interest.
|
Gerald Fernandes |
TABLE 1
Institutional Arrangements for Management of Land, Water and Plant Resources
Agency |
Ministry |
Legislation |
Functions |
Development Control Authority (DCA) |
Prime Minister's Office |
Land Development and Control Act, No 15 of 1977 |
Review and approval of development applications; development surveillance. |
Lands Division |
Ministry of Agriculture |
The Crown Lands (Regulation) Act (Cap 130) of 1917 |
Planning and allocation of government lands for residential, agricultural and other land uses; administration of Government of Antigua and Barbuda land leases and rentals. |
St. John's Development Corporation |
Prime Minister's Office |
St. John's Development Corporation Act of 1986 |
Upgrading of downtown St. John's through urban renewal and implementation of other development projects (e.g. Heritage Quay, a tourism complex including shopping, hotel and cruise ship berthing facilities). |
National Parks Authority (NPA) |
Ministry of Tourism |
National Park's Act of 1985 |
Development and management (including development control) of national parks, at present limited to Nelson's Dockyard National Park. |
Antigua and Barbuda Port Authority |
Ministry of Finance |
Development and management of lands at St. John's Deep Water Harbour. | |
Central Housing and Planning Authority (CHAPA) |
Prime Minister's Office |
Slum Clearance and Housing Act (Cap 277) of 1948 |
At one time CHAPA functioned as
Government's primary residential land allocation agency, but some of its
functions have been assumed by the Lands Division, Ministry of
Agriculture; |
Barbuda Council |
Responsible for the management of Natural Resources in Barbuda, however, there is some collaboration with the Central Government. | ||
Extension Division |
Ministry of Agriculture |
Control rental of agricultural lands to farmers. | |
Antigua Public Utility Authority |
Ministry of Public Utilities |
Public Utilities Act (1973) |
Control streams and groundwater resources. |
Soil and Water Conservation Division |
Ministry of Agriculture |
Soil & Water Conservation Activities. Water storages for agriculture. Monitor soil mining activities. | |
Forestry |
Ministry of Agriculture |
Forestry & wildlife Act (1941) |
Control forested areas (flora & fauna) in Antigua. |
Plant Protection |
Ministry of Agriculture |
Monitor pest & disease problems. | |
NSWA |
Ministry of Health |
Litter Act (1983) |
Control collection and disposal of solid & liquid waste. |
Public Works |
Ministry of Public Works |
Control sand mining operations on beach lands |
Antigua has one solid waste disposal site, Cookes Dump, located at Cookes in the Five Islands area. This dump site borders a swamp of area 225 ha that contains mangrove trees and functions as a nursery, breeding ground and habitat for marine and terrestrial wildlife. Although no definitive studies have been conducted to date, there is a strong possibility that some seepage of liquid waste from the dump is entering adjacent wetlands, affecting mangrove and other species that inhabit the wetland area.
Immediately after hurricanes and floods, the Cookes Dumpsite has been difficult to access due to fallen trees, debris and flooding caused by inadequate drainage. Efforts will have to be made to improve the drainage system and to plan additional mitigation strategies to minimize debris and other objects blocking vehicular access to the site.
St. John's city, which contains approximately 25 percent of Antigua's population, accounts for much of the economic activity. The city, which borders the St. John's Harbor and occupies a land area of 7.4 km2, has a relatively high population density of about 3000 persons per km2. During heavy rains, drains overflow and wastewater, oils, detergents and other pollutants are discharged into coastal areas. These areas have extremely poor drainage, and in the case of the Green Bay and Grays Farm areas, this poor drainage has been exacerbated by the construction of the Exhibition Center, which has interfered with the natural drainage of the area. These three areas still have a considerable number of households using a night-soil collection system. This situation combined with the poor drainage of the areas, implies that the potential for sewage-related outbreak of disease is quite high.
Uncontrolled and unregulated topsoil and sand mining in the streambeds of Body Ponds, Christian Valley and Pattersons areas are impinging on farm fields and creating unsightly areas that are prone to the erosive force of heavy rains. Topsoil is also mined illegally in the Betty's Hope area and the material is used for landscaping and road construction. There is also illegal movement of sand from a number of beaches around the island with consequent beach erosion in areas such as Yorks, Valley Church and Dark Wood Beach.
The forest is being degraded in the Body Ponds upper watershed areas. This is due to indiscriminate farming practices, overgrazing by roaming livestock, wildfires and extreme climatic events such as drought, floods and hurricanes. Deficiencies in existing forestry and wildlife policy, legislation and regulations are recognized as inhibiting proper protection and management of forest resources.
The Gaynors area, in the east of Antigua, is a vibrant ecosystem that is currently being cleared for agricultural development. This area is a unique ecosystem that contains mangrove forests and wetlands. Land clearing activity is damaging some of the mangrove stands and, if continued, will result in a loss of habitat and biodiversity within the area.
The intense rainstorm experienced in Antigua during hurricane Lenny in 1999 triggered mudslides in places such as Christian Valley Hills, Monks Hill and Cades Bay. This new phenomenon is causing great concern to the natural resource community as the causes for this problem are analysed and solutions sought.
Built-up development is increasingly encroaching on good quality agricultural lands, especially in Paradise View, Weatherhills, Cedar Grove, Woods Centre and New Winthropes in St. John's Parish, but to a lesser extent, also in rural areas such as Bathlodge. At present, the Development Control Authority has little influence over the use of agricultural land or its conversion to non-agricultural uses. There is dire need for coordination and collaboration among stakeholders in formulating plans and strategies for development.
Some roadways have been constructed across wetlands and beaches, without any provision for the natural drainage of the area, resulting in degradation of the ecosystem. During Hurricane Lenny in 1999, two such roadways, at Dark Wood and at Runaway Bay, were destroyed, with adverse impact on adjacent wetlands along with their flora and fauna such as mangrove stands, birds, fish nurseries and crabs.
Land resource management in the twin-island state is fragmented and requires clearer lines of authority as well as meaningful collaboration among all stakeholders in land resource planning, management and development. In a number of agricultural areas farmers do not own the land, but rent it from government or private land owners on an annual basis. Where leases are granted they are usually for a period of 5 years. Long-term leases of 25 years are available, with an option to renew, subject to Cabinet approval. However, the process of land acquisition for agriculture is time-consuming and costly and the inadequate land use policy creates conflicts among land users.
Watersheds are not well maintained, nor are the waterways leading from these watersheds. Years of indiscriminate cutting, clearing for agriculture, uncontrolled grazing and fires have resulted in serious degradation, accelerated erosion, reduced productivity of the land, increased siltation of reservoirs, loss of biodiversity, including wildlife habitat and loss of aesthetics. The watersheds are no longer efficient in trapping the rainfall and flooding is common in low-lying fields and in settlements where the water channels are not well maintained. Soil loss from the Body Ponds and Potworks watersheds has caused excessive sedimentation of downstream dams and streams as well as coastal habitats such as mangroves, beaches, sea grass beds and coral reefs. There has also been mangrove destruction at a number of coastal areas such as Jolly Beach, Fort James and Cades Bay.
Some of the land resource issues at the watershed level also affect the water resources. For example, high sediment loads in the watershed have resulted in increased maintenance costs for cleaning dams, ponds, streams, and drains. Additionally, the application of pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and other chemicals in agricultural production has polluted the Potworks Reservoir and its accompanying watershed area.
Other water resources issues include poor allocation and inadequate supply of fresh water to agencies and stakeholders and conflicts among water users. In particular, in Yeamans, Creekside and Potworks reservoir there are conflicts over water from public dams and ponds, especially where individual farmers have provided some financial resources and equipment for building or maintenance of the structure.
In the Creekside area, some of the croplands have been severely compacted by grazing livestock and use of heavy machinery. Such actions have affected the soil structure and developed a crusted surface, which has increased the flooding hazard of the area. The intermittent stream in the Cookes area has high salinity levels; lands within the floodplain of this stream have also proven saline, allowing only salt-tolerant crops to produce viable yields. With the land degradation occurring in the Potworks and Body Ponds Watersheds there is a general reduction in soil fertility, increased use of inorganic fertilizer and loss of biodiversity in these habitats.
The National Solid Waste Authority (NSWA) is planning to redesign the Cookes Dump. The landfill site will contain three 9-acre basins with membrane liners to minimize the effect of toxic wastes on adjacent lands. The work on this dump is ongoing and should be completed towards the end of 2001. Nevertheless, littering and unauthorized disposal of solid waste remains a significant environmental health and aesthetic concern.
APUA, in collaboration with the NSWA, is presently developing plans to install a sewage treatment plant to handle waste in the St. John's City area. Designs for this plant have been completed and the government is currently seeking finance and contractors to undertake the project. Obviously, the laying of a sewage pipe network would cause great disruption in St. John's, but it would give a perfect opportunity for replacing old water mains and placing electricity and phone lines underground, thus minimizing the potential damage of hurricanes.
Government has realized that the soil is an extremely valuable natural resource in Antigua & Barbuda. In this regard, Cabinet has declared that the land resource must be conserved and managed in a sustainable manner. To this end, they have requested the Soil and Water Conservation Division to begin drafting a policy paper to establish guidelines for the management, extraction and sale of soil in the twin-island state. Collaboration is being sought from agencies such as the APUA and the Extension Division and other stakeholders such as farmers, contractors and earthwork operators involved with soil management and use.
Antigua and Barbuda is a signatory to the Desertification Convention and, hence the government supports a proposed regional project for "Biodiversity Conservation and Prevention of Land Degradation" in the Body Pond and Potworks ecosystems.
Farmers in the Bendals area, which is a steep hillside, have carried out operations to install bench terraces. The site now produces tomatoes, melons, chive and thyme. The Forestry unit is now working with the Ministry of Trade and Environment to embark on an island-wide tree planting programme using specific trees like seaside grapes. With the scarcity of financial and human resources, community groups and civic-minded agencies are encouraged to play an active role in such initiatives.
The Agricultural Sector Plan for technology and research, natural resources, markets, production, trade, communication, etc. is currently being formulated and will be integrated with the National Economic Sector Plan.
A pipe distribution system along with pumping facility is been planned by the APUA in collaboration with the Soil and Water Conservation Division. Presently, the Soil and Water Conservation Division is working closely with farmers in the area as well as the Extension Division. The plan will provide farmers in the surrounding area of the Potworks Reservoir with access to irrigation water for their fields. It is hoped that this project will irrigate an additional 200 hectares of farmland.
The rich agricultural soils in the southwest sector of the island of Antigua are volcanic and have high infiltration rates. The government of Antigua and Barbuda, in collaboration with the Cuban government is about to conduct assessments of two main agricultural areas, Christian Valley and Orange Valley, with the intention of designing and installing surface water storage systems. Consideration is being given to sealing these storage systems with clay or membrane liner material.
Collaboration between APUA, Soil and Water Conservation Division and farmers is ongoing to consider the development of policy guidelines regarding water use from public lands. The APUA is now encouraging farmers, in areas where ground water quality and yield are appropriate, to site individual wells close to their fields. In addition, farmers have recently been given improved access to the APUA water supply grid.
The Soil and Water Conservation Division, working closely with the Extension Division and the government's chemical laboratory, has started monitoring and collating salinity levels for 18 sites around the island. It is hoped that appropriate information will be made available to farmers regarding soil and water management and crop suitability for different salinity levels.
It is hoped that a conservation tillage research programme for specific soils and crops will be started next year. It is envisaged that such a programme will allow farmers to reduce their tillage operations without compromising crop yields. Such actions will reduce overhead costs and significantly reduce soil loss, land degradation and pollution.
There is need for the political will and commitment to ensure that te country's development proceeds in a sustainable manner, with an understanding that economic development must be inter-locked with environment issues. In the past, the government reacted only when the damage was already done. In addition, there is need for synergy between Government's vision and the technicians' action plans and programmes. The whole development cycle should be considered for integrating policies, programmes and budgets regarding land, water and plant nutrition issues. The establishment of links between economic sectors, for example, tourism and agriculture is essential to clearly show the benefit of each supporting the other and their overall value to the national economy. Given budgetary constraints, it should be ensured that programmes and projects have a sustainable component built-in. In addition, to effectively utilise scarce resources, there must be a community- and private agency-oriented approach to sustainable land use and natural resource management.
The true value of the natural resource base should be incorporated in the National Accounts. There is also need to improve communication and dialogue among stakeholders nationally, regionally and internationally.
To better prepare for the effects of natural hazards, it is important that the country does not just react but rather prepares mitigation strategies and policies. In this regard, Antigua & Barbuda is developing a National Disaster Preparedness Plan with input from all sectors.
Finally, in order to plan and develop meaningful programmes there is need for credible data collection on a sustained basis with appropriate dissemination of information.
The Soil and Water Conservation Division will be the focal point for CLAWRENET in Antigua and Barbuda. Presently, however, there is no computer system housed at the agency. In this regard, it will be extremely timely if the Division could obtain such a system so that effective contact could be maintained with other CLAWRENET members.
