6. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF FISH FARMERS

6.1 Age distribution of fish farmers

Entrepreneurship requires energy and the courage to take risks. Age of the decision-maker is an important factor influencing change. Fish farming is widely accepted as an important source of income at this time in rural areas. Fish-farmers' age distribution is presented in Table 26.

Table 26. Age distribution of fish farmers

Age group	No of respondents	Percent
10 - 15	0	0
15 > 50	91	79
50 > 60	13	11
60 above	12	10
Total	116	100

SOURCE: Field Survey 1999

6.2 Level of education of fish farmers

Education is an important factor in changing attitudes and in motivation. Respondents' (fish farmers') level of education is presented in Table 27.

Table 27. Fish farmers' level of education

Education Level	Percent of respondents
Illiterate	32.76
iii to class X	30.17
S.S.C. Pass	14.66
H.S.C. Pass	8.62
Graduate and above	13.79

NOTE:

S.S.C. = Secondary school certificate examination (high school passed)
H.S.C. = Higher secondary certificate examination (pre-university course).

6.3 Occupational classification of fish farmers

Rural families pursue multi-enterprise-farming in an integrated manner (one enterprise taking inputs and services of other enterprises). Respondents' main occupations (prime thrust of their economic activities) are presented in Table 28

Table 28. Respondents' main occupation

Nature of Occupation	Small (%)	Medium (%)	Large (%)	All (%)
Agriculture (crops)	41.30	51.35	48.48	46.55
Business	26.09	24.32	18.18	23.28
Service	4.35	5.41	9.09	6.03
Fish culture	19.57	16.22	15.15	17.24
Others*	8.69	2.70	9.10	6.90
Total	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

NOTE: * Contractors building rural infrastructure

6.4 Changing patterns of consumption expenditure

Increases in real income affect patterns of consumption. Preferences for commodities and tastes shift with changes in income in the process of economic growth. According to the household expenditure survey of 1995-96 (BBS), the average consumption expenditure per household per month in 1995/96 was Tk 4 026 at the national level. In rural areas, the average consumption expenditure was Tk 3 426 per month. This was 48% of urban consumption of Tk 7 084.

6.4.1 Share of expenditure on fish by household

The average consumption expenditure per household per month in 1991/92 was Tk 2 904. The increase in 1995/96 amounted to 39% over a period of five years (an increase of 7.8% per annum). In rural areas, the corresponding figure was Tk 2 690 (it increased by 27%; a 5.4% increase per annum); in urban areas, the figure was 63%, or Tk 4 280. The gap between rural and urban income levels has widened.

In rural areas, opportunities for earning an income have improved significantly. With increasing income, consumption expenditure has decreased in percentage terms (expenditure patterns have changed towards durable goods, asset accumulation and education). Although the share of consumption expenditure to total expenditure has diminished in both rural and urban areas, the share of expenditure on fish, meat, milk, milk products and fruits has increased. The increase occurred faster in urban than in rural areas (Table 29). On average, the share of expenditure incurred in 1995/96 was 12% and 9% in 1991/92. Share of fish expenditure for urban households was 14%, and in rural areas it was 11% during 1995/96. Expenditure increased more for fish than for vegetables (in percentage share) both in rural and urban areas. Expenditure share on meat, milk/milk products also increased in line with advances in income.

Table 29. Share of food expenditure by major food items

Food Items		National		Urban		Rural
		91/92	95/96	91/92	95/96	91/92	95/96
Total expenditure on food (Tk)		1932	2323	2398	3276	1859	3137
Share of expenditure (%):
	- Cereals	49.74	43.93	38.73	31.05	51.95	47.81
	- Pulses	3.15	2.73	3.78	3.29	3.02	2.56
	- Fish	9.26	11.66	11.95	13.96	8.72	10.97
	- Meat	4.72	6.19	6.92	10.17	4.28	5.00
	- Milk & milk products	2.47	4.82	3.79	7.09	2.21	4.14
	- Vegetables	8.38	8.88	9.31	8.61	8.20	8.96
	- Edible oil	3.90	3.77	4.59	4.41	3.76	3.58
	- Spices	6.99	5.44	6.73	5.00	7.04	5.57
	- Fruits	1.25	2.35	1.70	3.72	1.16	1.94
	- Sugar/molasses	1.66	1.48	2.02	3.36	1.59	2.23
	- Beverages	1.42	2.01	2.63	3.71	1.18	1.50
	- Miscellaneous*	7.06	6.74	9.43	5.63	6.89	5.74
Total		100	100	100	100	100	100

NOTE: * Miscellaneous includes bread, biscuit, tobacco, betel nut, betel leaf and others.

SOURCE: Household Expenditure Survey, 1995-96, p.37.

Table 30 presents the share of consumption expenditure on fish alone by different farm sizes; it also includes people who do not own land. Share of expenditure on fish consumption increased in 1995/96 for all land-size groups, including families with no land, over the year 1991/92. The data amply show that availability of fish has increased over the years for all groups of landowners, and for families with no land. In rural areas, the amount of land owned reflects wealth and higher income. High-income families consume more fish (expenditure share is higher). In rural areas, some species of fish are every-day goods (consumption increases with higher income), and some species of fish are considered to be superior goods (whose income elasticity is positive and elasticity magnitude is high). Therefore, with an increase in real income, the demand for fish will rise also.

Table 30. Percentage share of expenditure on fish alone by size of land holding in rural areas (per household)

Size of land owned (decimal)	Share of expenditure to total expenditure		Percentage increase
	1991/92	1995/96
Landless	7.1	9.7	37
0.01-0.04	7.9	9.8	24
0.05-0.49	8.5	10.8	27
0.50-1.49	9.1	11.5	26
1.50-2.49	9.0	11.1	23
2.50-7.49	8.9	11.3	27
7.50+	9.1	11.4	25
All	8.7	11.0	26

SOURCE: Computed from the data provided in HES - 1995/96 p 38.

6.5 Role of women in fish production and fish trade

On fish farms, women are involved in production and in other important activities such as cleaning, processing, etc. Farm households pursue multi-enterprise production and marketing activities in an integrated approach. Women-members of families with no land, or only marginal land holdings, participate in large numbers in production and harvesting on their own farms or outside their farms. Female members of poorer families also participate in the harvesting of crops, in processing, cleaning, peeling and drying activities in much larger numbers than do their male counterparts. Most women's activities in the home are not duly valued as contributions to the GDP. The participation of women in productive activities is not only important for promoting equality between the sexes or for empowering women in the family, but also in terms of supply of labour and increased total productivity in the economy[27]. Women certainly play significant roles in fish-cultural activities such as:

• pond re-excavation,
• feeding,
• making feed mix,
• cleaning ponds and
• guarding ponds during the daytime.

When male respondents are asked to assess the role women play in aquaculture, they usually tend to minimize the important services they provide for fear of compromising the family's social status. These men may even display chauvinistic attitudes that are condoned in a society that is dominated by males.

Even in a case where a woman makes decisions or secures money to pursue activities in aquaculture, her contribution would be recorded in her husband's name or that of the male head of the family, thus concealing her identity. Under the strict and prevailing social norms, it is difficult to assess the role of women in economic activities in and outside the household compound accurately.

Therefore, in any “snapshot” survey, it is rather difficult to quantify correctly the role of women in aquaculture. However, we acknowledge women's significant role and important contribution to activities in aquaculture.

6.5.1 Survey results

Of 116 farm families surveyed, 76% of their female members actively participated in fish-cultural activities. Female participation was highest in medium-sized farm households, followed by large and then small households (the difference is not significant). Women working on small farms may have more diverse obligations than women working on larger farms (Table 31). Amongst the female members, housewives shoulder most of the burden of fish-culturing activities, followed by their daughters, mothers and then sisters (participation rate may well be equal for other household chores, except for the maidservant's).

The present survey reveals that in 72% of small farm households, 81% of medium farm households and 76% of large farm households, women participated in pond-cultural activities. Respondents' wives participated more than other female family members (shown in the following Table 31). Women participated in making feed, feeding, applying organic fertilizer and guarding ponds during the daytime. Normally, women's participation is higher in rearing livestock and in fish-cultural activities (activities based on household premises) than it is in field-based production activities.

In market surveys, the author found that 5% of the women were engaged in retailing in higher secondary markets in Mymensingh, where they had their own spots for selling fish.

Table 31. Women's participation in fish culture according to different sizes of farms

Women member	Farm size			Total
	Small	Medium	Large
Housewife	17 (51.52%)	15 (50.00%)	12 (48.00%)	44 (50.00%)
Daughter	9 (27.27%)	7 (23.33%)	4 (16.00%)	20 (50.00%)
Mother	6 (18.18%)	3 (10.00%)	3 (12.00%)	12 (13.64%)
Sister	1 (3.03%)	4 (13.33%)	3 (12.00%)	8 (9.09%)
Maid-servant	0 (-%)	1 (3.34%)	3 (12.00%)	4 (4.54%)
Total participation	33 (72%)	30 (81%)	25 (76%)	88 (76%)
Total no. of respondents	46	37	33	116

SOURCE: Field Survey, 1999.

NOTE: Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage.

NGO programmes for rural women reveal the extent of their organized participation in activities in aquaculture, particularly in pond-culture, in rural Bangladesh.

Proshika is one of the largest national NGOs in Bangladesh working with landless and poor farmers. Its strategy for human development is to organize people into groups and then to provide training, technical assistance, credit, input and marketing support. In general, there are more female than male groups (55:45). Though women comprise half of the total population of Bangladesh, they are highly disadvantaged, as a large majority of them are illiterate with low status in society due to many social and religious taboos.

Proshika's present programmes in aquaculture activities cover about two-thirds of the country, with as many as 46 of the 64 districts involved and over 800 000 women actively participating. Proshika's Fisheries Development Program involves women in aquaculture and fish-processing, fish-grading and net-making activities. The NGO also provides credit to organized groups of poor women and men in income- and employment-generating activities in aquaculture.

Table 32 reveals that groups of women are devising different aquacultural activities, for which they receive training, credit and encouragement from their group. Fish farmers receive five days of practical training in fish culture to develop skills in:

• selecting ponds and fingerlings,
• preparing ponds for stocking,
• the use of feed and organic fertilizers,
• disease control, etc.

Average yearly expenditure and income were Tk 30 970 and Tk 68 007 per acre (100 decimal) of water bodies respectively. Average fish production was 3.55 t/ha, while net profit was Tk 33 908 (average fish production in Bangladesh is 1.90 t). Appropriate training and available credit can boost fish production at the farmer's level many times.

Proshika has disbursed credit to organized poor women for open-water related fishery activities. These activities cover fish processing, operating fishing boats and nets, leasing haors and beels and fishing.

Table 32. Aquaculture projects implemented by Proshika in 1997-98

Name of project	Number of project			Credit Amounts
	Men	Women	% of total	Men (Tk)	Women (Tk)	% of Total (Women)
Fish culture in pond	407	351	46	1 979 8000	15 632 800	44
Fish nursery	8	2	20	310 000	60 000	16
Integrated fish farming	23	28	55	1 446 000	2 208 000	60
Prawn culture	49	53	52	5 842 00	4 373 000	41
Mini hatchery	2	1	33	95 000	42 000	31
Total	489	435	47	2 749 100	2 2315800	45

SOURCE: Rahman, et al. 1998, p.6.

NOTE: Proshika has been working for poor people in 11 530 villages in 1124 Unions under 173 Upazilas (total of 464) in 50 districts since June 1998. Total number of members is 1 570 759; of them 848 587 are female (54%) and 722 272 are male.

Activity	Number of projects			Amount (Tk)
	Men	Women	% Women	Men	Women	% of women rec'vd
Fish processing	25	34	58	2 715 000	3 914 500	59
Net making	6	56	90	474 000	5 173 000	92
Fishing boat and net	111	28	20	12 021 000	1 897 000	14
Leasing haors and beels	9	6	49	945 000	527 000	56
Fishing	40	25	38	2 748 000	1 346 000	33
Total	191	149	44	18 903 000	12 857 500	40

SOURCE: Rahman et al., 1998.

6.5.3 Women's participation in BRAC's fisheries programmes

The NGO BRAC began its fisheries programme as an income-generation sector under its Rural Development programme in 1976 by re-excavating 16 ponds. After only a few years, a feasible approach had been developed. Today, the fisheries programme is considered to be one of the most attractive and profitable income-generation sectors. To date (March 1999), the fisheries programme covers around 250 Upazilas in 55 districts of Bangladesh. BRAC implements several joint activities with several organizations such as DOF, WFP, IFADEP, the Ford Foundation, DANIDA, FRI, DFID of the United Kingdom and ICLARM.

Women overwhelmingly participate in BRAC's fisheries activities, especially in pond-fish culture. By the end of 1998, around 109 00 participants were involved in fish-culturing activities, covering 8 712 ha of small- to medium-sized ponds with a total of Tk 806 million in loans disbursed by BRAC for pond-culture. Female participants make up more than 90% of the total membership in BRAC, and they borrowed Tk 723.4 million. There are 109 002 members (90% women) involved in fisheries programmes. Around 138 090 participants received training in pond-aquaculture. Total water area under pond aquaculture is 8 712 ha, and the total number of ponds is 105 492. Women dedicated only 10-15% of their total daily work-time to culturing fish in ponds, which is considered a family-based activity.

Today, most of the NGOs are gender focused. Grameen Bank, CARE, 'Bhachte Shekha', and 'Nizera Kori' are other leading NGOs focusing on women's issues; they are involving women in many diverse productive activities, including pond-aquaculture. Foreign donors and joint projects with the government help women to obtain training and credit for activities in pond-aquaculture (e.g. Mymensingh Aquaculture Extension Project covering Kishoregonj, Netrokona, Jamalpur, Tangail, Sherpur and Gazipur districts, Oxbow Lakes Small-Scale Fishermen Projects, etc.).