Previous PageTable Of ContentsNext Page


Mountain environment and development

M. Muthoo

Maharaj Muthoo is the President
of Harinternational, which is devoted
to the issues of fragile ecosystems,
environment and development.
He has been Director of FAO's
Forestry Operations and Executive
Director of the Forest Stewardship Council.

A view of the diversity of mountain environments, and of environmental factors - not only natural and biophysical, but also social, economic and cultural - in sustainable mountain development.

This article is based in part on notes prepared by Rakesh Agrawal for Uttaranchal, Siddharta Bajrachraya for Nepal, David Barkin for Mexico, Anvar Buzurukov for Tajikistan, Gerry Neville for Mount Elgon, Mauricio Castro for Colombia and Prasert Trakansuphakon and Helen Leake for Thailand.

The timeless beauty of Kashmir - a paradise on Earth

- M. MUTHOO

Agar firdaus ho bar rue zamin ast o hamin ast, o hamin ast, o hamin ast "- if there is a paradise on Earth, it is here, it is here, it is here. So spoke the Moghul emperor Jehangir in the early seventeenth century while visiting the valley of Kashmir in India, enchanted by its majestic mountain environment which includes four peaks towering over 8 000 m. This beauty is timeless. Yet Nehru (1946), describing the same region, lamented that despite the "rich nature's gift, stark poverty reigns and humanity is continually struggling for the barest of subsistence". Why is there such a strong contrast between the physical beauty and the practical harshness of the mountains? Why do the riches of nature not provide an enabling environment for sound and sustainable livelihoods of mountain communities?

This article can hardly pretend to provide the answer. It merely highlights the question by a sample survey of the state of some mountain environments, with special reference to the poor developing world. In so doing, the article describes the diversity of situations and depicts a wide-ranging disregard of the carrying capacity of mountain ecosystems and of the livelihoods of local communities. Based on the overall picture that emerges, it considers the interrelationship of environmental, economic and social dimensions, and concludes that it is only in a holistic context that the issue can be addressed.

MOUNTAIN DIVERSITY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

There are over 130 mountain ranges in the world, discounting those that occur below sea level. Given the wide range of mountain ecosystems, they have developed broad biodiversity. The diversity of mountain resources is important not only to ensure the sustainable livelihoods of mountain communities, but also for the food security and socio-economic welfare of the people in the plains.

Topographical heterogeneity and the compression of climatic zones (Körner, Spehn and Messerli, 2001) are important drivers of diversity in mountain environments. This factor combines with others such as strong sun, desiccating wind or atmospheric moisture to create a multitude of mountain habitats. Steepness of slope and aspect are among other critical geomorphological factors that influence the rock weathering process, soil formation, vegetation types, wildlife and human habitations. For this reason bare slopes and lush green forest often lie in close proximity. The biota in the mountains is particularly influenced by contact with the underlying rock formations, continuous downstream biomass movement and soil erosion. Furthermore, most mountain systems are dynamic, with torrents, changing watercourses, lava eruptions, glacial movement and the geological activity that accounts for their existence contributing to their inherent fragility. Geologically speaking, the Himalayas are young and still growing, having been created out of the collision of tectonic plates of the earth's crust hardly 60 million years ago. This is why sea soils and substrata, including sea shells, are found on high mountain peaks, adding to their geodiversity.

The geodiversity of mountains, exceeding that of lowlands, in part explains the high mountain biodiversity (Körner and Spehn, 2002). Ecodiversity - a combination of biodiversity and geodiversity - is also higher in mountain environments than elsewhere.

This ecodiversity is reflected in the cultural diversity and land-use practices in mountain environments, which have evolved through adaptation to the specific soil, water, vegetation and weather conditions, thereby significantly directing the development of society and civilizations. Most of the prehistoric hunter-gatherer populations (from about 10 000 BC) of the Near East and Central Asia, the African Rift Valley and later the Andes, Sierra Madre and Tibet, originated in the mountains because of the great plant and animal diversity within short distances, year-round water, wood, wool, shelter and suitable conditions for survival, often in safe seclusion. Mountain farmer-herders from early in the third millennium BC evolved pastoral and cropping patterns leading to the domestication of local livestock such as the yak, llama and mountain goats and sheep and many of the most important staples, including barley, wheat, maize and potato. As witnessed by the rise and fall of the civilizations in Mesopotamia (the Euphrates and Tigris basin) and the Indus basin, it is not possible to sustain supplies of water for life downstream, or to prevent recurrent floods and famines, if the need to nurture the mountain environment is ignored.

Many mountains are functional islands and harbour high endemism, which is of special significance for food security the world over. Traditional upland grazing and sustainable systems of forest management and subsistence cropping have contributed to the establishment of rich alpine and subalpine biota. Biological richness is an indicator of the integrity of the mountain environment, which is at risk because of land use changes triggered by nature or by the market, population pressure and poverty. As Sir Edmund Hillary (quoted in Jefferies, 1985) noted 30 years after scaling Mount Everest, "In the past the Sherpa people of the Everest (Sagarmatha) region had been very careful in protecting their forests but now there is increasing financial pressure to persuade them to cut, and cut, and cut!"

Fortunately, the modern disegard for diversity, which ignored the local knowledge of mountain communities, is now being challenged by members of civil society and an enlightened international community. Mechanisms are being advocated to internalize positive externalities through payment for environmental services and resource use such as, for example, watershed services and bioprospecting (Barbier, 2000), so that local communities and countries are compensated for conservation efforts that provide global environmental benefits.

The following sections illustrate the diversity of mountain environments - with the term "environment" referring to the total environment of humankind, biophysical and social, natural and anthropogenic, economic and cultural, past, present and future.

The Khyber Pass in Afghanistan - historically of great strategic importance for trade, conquest and defence

- W.L. MITCHELL

SOME MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENTS AROUND THE GLOBE

Afghanistan and the Hindu Kush

The Hindu Kush has the world's highest ecosystems, extending over 3 500 km, with precipitation varying from less than 150 mm to more than 2 500 mm. Most of the mountain people live in agrosylvipastoral communities, closely dependent on their harsh high-altitude environments. They are among the poorest of the world's people.

The eastern Hindu Kush in Afghanistan is a cold desert with alpine tundra and snow-covered peaks over 7 000 m. In the steppe, with annual precipitation below 300 mm, most of the vegetation cover of small shrubs and grasses dries up by May. Deciduous forests with increasing altitude and precipitation comprise xeromorphic woodlands of walnut, birch, hazelwood and chinar (Platanus orientalis). Coniferous forests up to 3 300 m include pine, fir, junipers and deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara). Endowed with a vast array of ecosystems, Afghanistan has 4 500 vascular plants, 460 birds and 119 species of mammals (Hassanyar, 1996). Among those on the endangered list are the Caspian tiger, cheetah, snow leopard and markhor (Capra falconeri).

Almost 20 agro-ecological zones are in highland areas permitting rainfed agriculture and having wide crop diversity. The high-altitude rangelands are vitally important for the millions of nomads. Sheep and other livestock yield the celebrated karakul pelts, wool and hides. The mountains in Afghanistan harbour wild ancestors of rice, wheat and many fruits and nuts. The crops and livestock include several primitive varieties which are low yielding but have genetic resistance to diseases and environmental stress. Grapes, apricots, pears, prunes and pistachio are cultivated in the mountain desert, as are poppy and cannabis, which have become prominent in international drug trade. The country has suffered from indiscriminate hunting, destruction of habitat and loss of trees and other vegetation, including much-needed fuelwood for heating and cooking.

Afghanistan sadly epitomizes the problem of mountain conflict; more than half of tribal conflicts and wars have been raging in mountainous areas, with spillover effects far afield. The mountains of Afghanistan have been a seat of conflict since ancient times, when the Khyber and other mountain passes were the only route for invading armies crossing Asia in search of riches.

Ladakh, a region in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, lies at the confluence of the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas and has a harsh, arid environment similar to that of neighbouring Afghanistan and Tibet. At Leh (one of the highest inhabited spots in the world at over 3 800 m, with surrounding plateaus and passes at 6 000 m) the temperature sometimes sinks to -40°C. The salty lakes, including a 5-km-long lake at 5 000 m, provide water that is not potable for humans but can be drunk by horses and yaks. The yak is to these uplands what the camel is to the Arabian desert. The small population lives largely on its flocks, often moving from pasture to pasture. Because of the short season for plant growth and the poor soils, crops (mainly barley, sorghum and millet) give low yields. The steep slopes in the region, where rainfall rarely exceeds 100 mm, are not usable for crop terraces or rangelands. Despite material poverty, most Ladakhis demonstrate a serenity and stoicism closely tied to their Buddhist philosophy and lofty isolation.

The Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttaranchal

- R. Agrawal

Himalayas

The Indian state of Uttaranchal in the heart of the Himalayas has high precipitation, reaching 2 000 mm. The Ganges flows from snowy peaks of 4 800 to 6 000 m. The middle ranges, at altitudes from 1 500 to 2 700 m, are the most populous, together with lower areas along the rivers. It has fairly dense forests. Collaborative forest manage-ment has been practised in some of the small community forests through village cooperatives (panchayats); it is here that the "hug the trees" movement (Chipko Andolan) was started to hold back loggers. Protected areas cover about 20 percent of Uttaranchal (about four times the national average in India). An eco-development project including tourism has been started to provide alternative sources of income to villagers. Meanwhile, more than a million people continue to depend almost exclusively on medicinal plants and non-wood forest products, including lichen for spice and perfume, ringal bamboo for baskets and mats, and resin tapping which provides jobs. There is a need to develop improved agro-ecological and pastoral practices and alternative sources of fodder, ferti-lizer and renewable energy to substitute sparse biomass and fuelwood resources. Joint forest management is being intro-duced with the objective of stakeholder participation for safeguarding the forests and watersheds. As a result of mounting population pressure in the mountains, in only the past 30 years many of the perennial potable spring-water sources have dried up (Bhandari, 1998).

Bhutan, in the eastern Himalayas, is in a relatively pristine state; about 60 percent of its area is under forest cover. Above the tree line at 4 000 m, the alpine ecosystem includes pastures of short grasses and rhododendron scrub. Below that is a temperate ecosystem comprising hardwood forests of oaks and beech, and at lower altitudes fir forests and mixed conifers including the blue pine (Pinus wallichiana). Subtropical chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) occurs in deep dry valleys with sandy soils between 900 and 1 800 m. Forests support much of the country's biodiversity: 160 species of mammals, 800 birds and 5 000 vascular plants (Grierson and Long, 1994). About 26 percent of the land area has been set aside as national parks, reserves and conservation areas, including the 3 900 km2 Jigme Dorji protected area, and a US$20 million trust fund has been established for environmental conserva-tion in the country (Pommaret-Imaeda and Imaeda, 1989). These protected areas reflect the role of good governance in the management of mountains according to the limits and scope of their carrying capacity, as is also being ensured by annual quotas on the influx of tourists.

Of 24 peaks above 8 000 m, 17 are in Nepal, located in the central Himalayas. With five major physiographic zones and rich biodiversity, it is threatened by severe ecological problems, in recogni-tion of which Nepal has established several protected areas. The Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) is the largest and is a microcosm of Nepal, with about 1 140 plants, 100 mammals, 750 birds and hundreds of medicinal plants. Among the rare and endangered species are the snow leopard, musk deer and Tibetan argali. ACA management is based on a multi-land-use concept and on the grassroots philosophy that effective conservation depends on building the capacity of local people. As a conservation model, it is cited as a success story. However, much remains to be done in adapting management to the fragile ecology and diversity of ACA in the face of growing population pressure, poverty and socio-economic disparities.

Thailand

In the mountains of northern and northeastern Thailand, the evolution of rotational farming illustrates natural resource conservation in consonance with the specificity of the mountain environment and the needs of local communities, which include 13 hill tribes, referred to in Thai as "chao khao", mountain people. Northern Thailand is the main forested region of the country; forests cover the parallel north-south mountain ridges which form the source of several important rivers. Environ-mental conditions in these northern mountains are influenced by two seasonal monsoons, including monsoons from southern China which introduce a cold dry spell in the mountains. The ecosystem includes monsoon-fed forests, from high-altitude evergreen forest to middle-altitude semi-deciduous forest and lower subtropical vegetation. Topsoils, which are easily shed because of the amorphous rock formations, require cover to prevent leaching and erosion from the wet-season rains.

The ecologically efficient farming and agroforestry system, based on traditional knowledge and rotational cycles, conserves biodiversity in cropped fields, fallow lands and surrounding forests. It also entails fire prevention and care of vegetation over wider areas than the community uses. The saying of the Karen people "one gibbon dies, seven forests will be lonely; one swordbill dies, seven banyan trees are in solitude"expresses the need to maintain the integrity of the ecosystem and to protect plants and animals - even those not used by the local community.

Pamir, Central Asia and the Caucasus

The exploitation of natural resources during the past 50 years has done severe damage to the ecosystems of Tajikistan, a country that is nearly 93 percent mountains. Largely lying within the Pamir mountain range, with peaks reaching 7 495 m, Tajikistan has the largest continental mountain glacier (8 041 km2) and abundant water flow, second only to the Russian Federation. With continued anthropogenic pressures, the state of woodlands, pastures and parks is unsatisfactory. The unique tugai brushwood is almost entirely lost, along with the Turanean tiger, last recorded in the 1950s. Forced migration of commu-nities, such as the displacement of the Yagnobis from the northern Yagnob valley in the early 1970s, has led to loss of local agropastoral knowledge and increased inflow of cattle, causing erosion and infestation of the alpine meadows by invasive plants and animal diseases. The remaining mountain forests are sparse and overgrazed, giving rise to an increased area of mountain deserts. Conversion to grape growing (since abandoned) and heightened demand for fuelwood have led to overcutting near populated areas. Cotton cultivation is the major agricultural activity, involving widespread irrigation. However, water and watershed manage-ment has been neglected and landslides and floods are commonplace, as is the case also in several other Central Asian republics. A Global Environment Facility (GEF) project for the manage-ment of Aral water and land resources is a welcome undertaking but will require close follow-up and intensification. Long-term programmes of resource mobilization and rehabilitation, strengthening of national institutions and good governance are required.

Tajikistan is nearly 93 percent mountains, largely in the Pamir range

- FAO/20649/E. YEVES

The Anatolian high plateau in Turkey is a biological and cultural bridge between east and west. Large tracts of the plateau have eroded soils, and the crops (mainly wheat) depend on snow-melt and excessive groundwater tapping. There is growing recognition of the role of mountain management for conserving the country's rich biodiversity and ensuring food security and sustainable livelihoods. One example is the Camili Forest in the northeastern Black Sea mountains adjacent to the Georgian border. It reaches 3 500 m, with mixed temperate rain forest and high alpine meadows. It has some of the region's last pristine natural forest, dominated by oriental beech (Fagus orientalis) and spruce (Picea orientalis), Caucasian lime, Crimean fir, alder, chestnut, walnut, hornbeam and oaks. Livelihoods are based on sustainable subsistence agriculture, summer grazing in the high plateau, animal husbandry, small-scale production of hazelnuts and walnuts and honey production from lime and chestnut blossoms. Logging and tourism are yet to be introduced and will warrant appropriate environmental management to prevent irreversible damage.

Another example is Koprulu, a national park of significant cultural tourism (with Greco-Roman and Pisidian ruins) in the southern Taurus mountains, with forest and alpine ecosystems no higher than 2 500 m. Koprulu probably represents the largest remaining pristine cyprus forest in the world (Cupressus sempervirens). It has 350 plant species (including 43 endemics) and most elements of the Mediterranean maquis (GEF, 2000). Rural people living above the tree line cultivate locally adapted landraces of wheat and barley and also derive income from pine resin, livestock production and tourism.

The highly endangered mountain
gorilla of the Congo, Rwanda
and Uganda

- FAO/14981/J.J. LEROY

The area is vulnerable to increased visitor impact, uncontrolled hunting, illegal logging for fuelwood, furniture and building materials, unsustainable harvesting of herbs and heavy goat grazing. This park provides a challenging opportunity for demonstrating multifunctional planning in a protected area with a focus on recreational services without detriment to the natural environment.

African highlands

Africa has several isolated mountain systems including the Atlas in the north, Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya in the east, Lesotho in the south and the Foutah Djallon in the west. Despite Africa's low overall population density, lakes and lava attract a concentration of communities in mountain regions. Apart from the ravages of wars, humanitarian emergencies are commonplace in the mountain environments because of recurrent natural disasters, including tremors and upheavals of the earth, rockfalls, storms and snowslides, torrents and floods and volcanic eruptions. The 3 465 m Mount Nyiragongo in the Congo is the most active volcano in Africa. With every eruption, there is a heavy human toll and widespread suffering, as was witnessed in Goma, the Congo, in 1977 and 2002. The instability of the mountain environment necessitates careful planning of terraced crops and human settlements and partly explains why nomadism is the mainstay of many mountain communities.

Mountain forests

The map and figures presented here were derived by overlapping the global forest cover map produced by FAO's Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) and the map of the world's mountains (for all categories of mountain) prepared by the United Nations Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). The results indicate that 24 percent of the world's forests are mountain forests.

Mountain forests by global ecological zone

Region

Area of mountain forest

Mountain forests as percent of total forest

 

(million ha)

 
 

Tropical

Subtropical

Temperate

Boreal

Polar

Total

 

Africa

69

7

     

76

12

Asia

129

94

46

6

 

276

50

Oceania

19

6

10

   

35

17

Europe

 

33

61

183

1

278

27

North and Central America

43

35

74

39

1

192

35

South America

68

8

6

   

82

9

Total world

327

183

198

228

2

939

24

Mount Elgon, located astride the border between Kenya and Uganda, is a dormant volcano, about 15 million years older than the neighbouring Mounts Kenya and Kilimanjaro. Owing to its antiquity, its location near the equator and its elevation from the floor of Africa's great Rift Valley at around 1 000 m to its summit at 4 320 m, Mount Elgon is home to several plant and animal species that occur nowhere else in the world (IUCN, 2001). On the lower part are extensive areas of evergreen forest which give way to alpine moorland above 3 000 m. The mountain's valuable biodiversity is under threat from encroachment, overgrazing, clearing for farming, unsustainable forest harvesting and fires, which often burn out of control in the dry season. People living in and around the mountain derive sustenance from its natural resources and depend on its forests for fuelwood. Improved farm and fodder production and agroforestry are being introduced, including the cultivation of napier grass, fodder trees and shrubs, as well as seed potatoes.

Diversification of activities and incomes is required to reduce the dependency of neighbouring communities on the mountain. An appropriate policy environment is a prerequisite for the conservation of Mount Elgon's natural resources. A conservation and develop-ment project with international support has been operational in Uganda and is being replicated in Kenya. Intercountry cooperation is similarly needed for the conservation of the highly endangered mountain gorilla which roams across the borders of the Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. Several mountain wars and conflicts could perhaps be contained by promoting intercountry coordination and cooperation for integrated watershed management and regional mountain development.

A rehabilitated area in the upper streams of the Copalata-Zimatan watershed, state of Oaxaca, Mexico

- Centro de Soporte Ecologico, MEXICO

Kilimanjaro has distinct environments according to altitudinal zones, starting with lower montane forests between 2 000 and 2 400 m with wild olive and podocarps, giant forest hog, tree hyrax, tailed mongoose and Sykes monkey. This is followed by a rich zone of bamboo interspersed with flowering herbs, and trees with long strands of lichen, ferns, mosses and orchids up to 3 000 m. An open moorland stretches up to 3 500 m comprising meadows of tussock grasses and other plants according to altitude, which hold the soil. The ecosystem is threatened by too many careless climbers, illegal overexploitation of the tree cover, substitution of indigenous species and ruthless diversion of watercourses. This is having severe impacts on supplies of water for local communities for livestock and sustainable livelihoods. Similar impacts are witnessed in the Mount Kenya basin, where commercial horticultural operations have overused water resources without compensation for local users. Such conflicts of interest between outside entrepreneurs and mountain agricultural communities left without alternative incomes are not uncommon and need to be resolved equitably.

The Ethiopian highlands are among the world's biodiversity "hot spots". The coffee bean originated here. The largest African antelope (Tragelaphus buxtoni) is native to the mountain areas near Lake Zwai in central Ethiopia. The Alimar and Mondebo mountains in the south, the source of the Blue Nile in the north and the Bale mountains in the southeast have summer every day and winter every night. Several species of flora and fauna are endemic to the Bale mountains, including some endangered species such as Simien fox (Canis simensis). Vegetation varies with altitude from savannah and open woodland in the foothills at 1 450 m to some dense forests and alpine vegetation closer to the peak at 4 377 m. The physiognomy, topography and ecology change rapidly over 75 km; climbing the mountain is like crossing from the equator to 50°N latitude in less than half a day.

With only about 4 percent of Ethiopia remaining under forest (FAO, 2001), the savannah and semi-arid conditions have placed a greater burden on the vulnerable mountain environment and communities. Planting with exotic eucalypts has been sporadic and of little help. Rampant soil erosion and recurrent droughts have led to famines and food insecurity. Fires for land preparation, the prevailing rainfed agriculture and widespread pastoral pressure exacerbate the situation. At Guichi in the Ethiopian highlands, however, agriculture has been introduced with appropriate water harvesting, tillage technologies and cropping patterns to ensure farm income without further soil erosion despite the loss of grasslands.

Targeted programmes are needed to empower highland communities and reduce their poverty by aiding and strengthening their capacity to care for land and water resources, to prevent wanton fires and to draw on market mechanisms for better rewards for their labour, livestock, crops and crafts. A coordinated environmental and develop-ment policy is called for, including soil and water conservation and rehabilita-tion of vegetation cover.

Oaxaca and the Andes

The Sierra Norte mountains of the state of Oaxaca, Mexico, have been inhabited for a millennium or more by the Zapotec people, whose zest for conservation ethics has safeguarded their semi-arid pine-oak and cloud forests. The mountain watersheds rise up to 2 000 m and flow into aquifers below. In view of Oaxaca's perennial spring, Zapotec lands are threatened by unplanned settlements and ecologically inappropriate agriculture. Profuse tourism has dramatically reduced water levels in the aquifers at Bahias de Huatulco, creating a risk that water supplies will be exhausted by 2020.

Indigenous communities in the neighbouring highlands have suffered heavily from slash-and-burn practices and the indiscriminate destruction of their forests. A watershed rehabilitation programme to facilitate the recharging of damaged acquifers through improved land and water management techniques is compensating rural groups for their efforts to restore the forests and to harness the river flow (Barkin and Pailles, 2000). The programme is stimulating local incomes, alleviating poverty, promoting reintroduction of conservation cropping and regulating streamflow. The Yavesia people are now bottling mountain spring water which is sold in distant localities. Integration of water production and conservation programmes into a broader process of diversified community-based resource management is being facilitated by civil society support such as the raising of trust funds for local projects to protect river beds and banks and advocacy for charging the private sector and large water users on the coast to cover the costs of regeneration of the river basin. Indeed, it is necessary to recognize and reward the environmental services of the upland indigenous communities through a system of obligations for downstream water users as part of an integrated watershed management approach for ensuring sustainable supplies of water.

Together with their foothills, the Andes cover 8.1 million square kilometres. Elevations reach above 4 000 m in Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. The tropical Andes are a hotspot of biological diversity, with 45 000 vascular plant species. In the Peruvian Andes above 5 000 m, 200 families of flowering plants are found - 20 percent more families than are found in the whole flora of Europe, an area 20 times as large. This biological richness, far greater than in the neighbouring Amazonian rain forests, is a result of the compression of climatic zones along elevational gradients. Likewise, the 17 000 km2 of Ecuadorian tropical cloud forest contain over 3 400 vascular plants, more than in the 70 000 km2 of the Amazon. The total moss diversity for the five tropical Andean countries is 7.5 times higher than for the entire Amazon basin (Braun et al., 2002; Myers et al., 2000).

More than 70 percent of Colombia's population resides in the highlands, which constitute 28 percent of the total territory. The Andean cloud forest between 2 000 and 3 800 m has high species endemism of birds and trees. Rainfall varies from 900 to 2 000 mm and temperature from 6° to 15°C. The montane watershed in Quindio Province, to give one example, is a source of fuelwood and other forest products, but above all regulates water flow for agriculture and urban settlements downstream. The Quindio River provides the life blood of lowland people, especially during the dry season. The hydrological functions of the cloud forest and other upstream vegetation need to be evaluated in order to establish appropriate conservation measures and to recompense the upland communities.

In recognition of the need to conserve and sustainably manage the Andean high mountain humid grasslands or páramos, a network has recently been formed, the Grupo Páramo, made up of representatives of government, non-governmental organizations, rural people and research institutions from all the Andean countries as well as various European partners, for the conservation and good management of the páramos. There is also a need to devote attention to endangered species of the genus Polylepis, trees that grow at higher altitude than any others in the world. Polylepis forests in the Andean highlands serve as natural water catchment areas by collecting humidity from cloud and fog. They are also home to the rare Cochabamba mountain finch, a bird that only occurs between 3 000 and 4 000 m in northern Bolivia (Hjarsen, 1997). However, reforestation activities often use exotic eucalypts and pines rather than regenerating the natural environment, at the cost of the livelihoods of local people dependent on medicinal plants, game and tubers. Long-term ecological, hydrological and rural socio-economic goals require the protection and regeneration of endangered Polylepis forests and the zonation of different land uses.

The Andean scenario depicted above demonstrates that forests and forestry are only a component of integrated mountain management, sometimes necessary but not always sufficient, and almost never important through all altitudinal zones. Even if reforestation is the preferred land use, the choice of species and modus operandi have to be attuned not merely to the exigencies of soil and water conservation, but also to their compatibility with the needs and knowledge of local communities and demand for wood, fuel and non-timber products for providing sustainable livelihoods. There is a need to keep in view the scope for valuable products such as crops (e.g. foundation seed potatoes, tubers and fruits), mountain fur and alpaca wool for consumption and markets, especially those based on local biodiversity; mountain communities need to be compensated adequately not only for these products, but also for water flow, ecotourism and other environ-mental services, including carbon sequestration.

Andean high mountain humid grassland or páramo in the upper Quindio watershed, Colombia

- M. CASTRO-SCHMITZ

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Mao Zedong noted that "the mountain feeds the valley, and the valley feeds the city". But who feeds the mountain?

An unabated flow of natural assets downstream and the marginalization of mountain communities evoke urgency for measures to compensate mountain people for their stewardship role. Empowerment of mountain people, enhanced capacity and reinvestment of revenues are needed to ensure a continued flow of environmental goods and services, and to strike an equitable balance between the needs of the mountains and the ever increasing demands of the lowlands.

Mountains exist in all continents. Commonality among mountain environ-ments transcends the South-North divide. Yet the mountains in developing countries harbour the highest proportion of the world's poorest. Over 80 percent of mountain communities in developing countries live on less than US$1 a day. Of Turkey's 7 million forest villagers, the annual income of about 6 million villagers in the mountain and highland regions is below US$200 (Muthoo, 2001) - and Turkey is not the worst case. This abject poverty is a cause and a con-sequence of natural resource depletion and environmental degrada-tion, leading to survival problems in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas, the Pamirs, the Caucasus, Mounts Elgon, Kenya and Kilimanjaro, the Sierra Madre and the Andes. These problems call for combined considera-tion of environmental conservation and poverty eradication.

While there is a need for site-specific solutions, these shall have to be devised within the framework of integrated environmental and development strategies suitable for various watersheds and vulnerable ecosystems. Conversion into conservation areas will not suffice. Nor will narrow sectoral interventions regarding only forests, soils and water, or only grazing and farming, or only renewable energy, ecotourism and infrastructure. Current resource uses call for creative solutions whereby protection of wildlife, watersheds and landscapes is reconciled with potential productive functions, balancing the present and future demands of downstream users (e.g. water, power, timber and tourism) with the needs of mountain communities (e.g. safe shelter, fuelwood, fur and food). This balance would be facilitated if resource users, producers and managers were to adopt the concept of multifunctionality of the mountains as a guiding principle.

Development efforts should promote diversification of conservation and utilization technologies as well as of income opportunities for all concerned, because monofunctional potential is generally too limiting in time and space to secure livelihoods. Multifunctionality implies recognition of the linkages between biological and cultural diversity and the roles of various stakeholders, including holders of local knowledge, local institutions, the private and public sectors and civil society at large. It is necessary to look beyond mountains, to minimize and mitigate hazards and to build synergies, taking advantage of the vast diversity within the mountains and the surrounding social and economic environment.

Perhaps a quarter of the world's people lives in or around mountains, and more than half of humanity may depend on mountain resources (Messerli, 2001). The deterioration of mountain eco-systems not only affects mountain communities, but also jeopardizes the long-term welfare of lowland people. Security is perhaps the most important service that mountains might provide, whether related to water, food or energy, or to the protection of settlements from natural and human hazards. Environ-mental degradation, cultural erosion and social exclusion send forth refugees from the mountains, leading to conflicts and crises far beyond the mountains. Policy planners must recognize this and be informed of the interrelated environ-mental, economic, social and cultural dimensions of the issue.

A holistic approach is the realistic method for addressing the environmental opportunities and developmental challenges of the world's mountains. The mountain environment must not be considered in isolation. Dependent on it, directly and indirectly, are millions of people in the plains, as in the hills and highlands. Creative thinking, incorpora-ting mountains in the equitable develop-ment of all communities, countries and continents, is called for.

Bibliography


Previous PageTop Of PageNext Page