Z.A. Tajuddin
Livestock Research Division
MARDI, P.O. BOX 12301
50774 Kuala Lumpur
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews some of the in-station and on-farm research on bi- or tri-commodity approach
of livestock-fish or livestock-fish-crops integration in Malaysia.
This approach, introduced by the early Chinese immigrants, has been modelled on that of the
livestock-fish-crops integration adopted by a number of farming communities in China, although it is
less complex than that practised by the Chinese initiator.
The planktophagous species such as the bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) directly benefits from
the integration by filtering the bacteria-laden particulate matter from the livestock/poultry faeces.
Other omnivorous species benefit indirectly by the increased feed availability of macrophytes and
filamentous algae. Nevertheless, it is critical that the organic loading of the water be judiciously
monitored to avoid adverse physico-chemical (such as deficit of dissolved oxygen, increase in
ammonia concentration) and biological (blooms of blue green algae such as Microcystis aeruginose
and flagellates such as Euglena sp.) environments for the cultured fish and prawns.
Livestock-fish (and crops) integration depending on the livestock species and the fish and crop
combinations, are both technically feasible and financially viable. Despite that, there has been a
decline in the adoption of this technique because of poor social acceptance coupled with the introduction
of new aquaculture species (fish/prawns), which perform better on formulated rations.
INTRODUCTION
Integration of livestock-fish-crop has been a concept introduced by the early Chinese immigrants into Malaysia. As in China, the Chinese carps vis. the bighead carp (Aristicthys nobilis Richardson), the silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Valenciennes), the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus Valenciennes) and the common carp (Cyprinus carpio Linnalus), have been polycultured and traditionally integrated with livestock namely pigs and poultry (especially ducks and at times chicken). Owing to the planktophagous nature of the silver and the bighead carps, the phytophagous nature of the grass carp and the benthophagic nature of the common carp, this approach of farming continued to be adopted even though this approach is getting less accepted by the general consumers.
With the advent of more intensive methods of fish culture, fish and crustacean feed processing and the introduction of new cultured species such as the silver catfish (Pangasius sutchi Fowler), the catfishes (Clarias batrachus Linnaeus, C. macrocephalus Gunther, C. lazera C & V), jelawat (Leptobarbus hoevenni Blecker), the various Oreochromis tilapia sp. and their hybrids and the udang galah/Malaysian giant freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii De Man), despite being able to benefit through the integrated system, are more often than not being cultured through the use of supplementary feeds or even at times formulated rations.
Table 1 Manure production and characteristics per 455 kg live weight*.
Item | Units | Dairy | Beef | Swine | Sheep | Poultry | ||||
Cow | Heifer | Yearling 182–318 kg | Feeder ≥318 kg | Porker | Breeder | Layer | Broiler | |||
Raw Waste | kg/day | 37.2 | 38.6 | 40.8 | 27.2 | 29.5 | 22.7 | 18.1 | 24.0 | 32.2 |
(RW) | ||||||||||
Faeces/Urine Ratio | 2.2 | 1.2 | 1.8 | 2.4 | 1.2 | 1.0 | ||||
Density | kg/m3 | 1005.0 | 1005.0 | 10010.0 | 10010.0 | 10010.0 | 10010.0 | 1050.0 | 1050.0 | |
Total Solids (TS) | kg/day % of RW | 4.7 12.7 | 4.2 10.8 | 5.2 12.8 | 3.1 11.6 | 2.7 9.2 | 1.9 8.6 | 4.5 25.0 | 6.1 25.2 | 7.7 25.2 |
Volatile Solids | kg/day % of TS | 3.8 82.5 | 2.7 85.0 | 2.2 80.0 | 1.4 75.0 | 3.8 85.0 | 4.3 70.0 | 5.4 70.0 | ||
BOD5+ | % of TS | 16.5 | 23.0 | 33.0 | 30.0 | 9.0 | 27.0 | |||
COD++ | % of TS | 88.1 | 95.0 | 95.0 | 90.0 | 118.0 | 90.0 | |||
TKN** | % of TS | 3.9 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 4.9 | 7.5 | 4.5 | 5.4 | 6.8 | |
p*** | % of TS | 0.7 | 3.9 | 1.6 | 2.5 | 0.66 | 2.1 | 1.5 | ||
K# | % of TS | 2.6 | 3.6 | 4.9 | 3.2 | 2.3 | 2.1 |
+ 5 day biochemical oxygen demand at 20PToPTC
++ Chemical oxygen demand
** Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
*** Phosphorus as P
# Potassium as K
Data source: ASAE (1980)
As has been reported in many countries (Sin and Chen, 1976; Moav et al., 1977; Wohfarth, 1978; Rappepart and Sarig, 1978; Woynarovich, 1979; Delmendo, 1980), the integrated approach in boosting up production of agricultural yield per unit area, is economically feasible and optimises the utilisation of farm resources. Through intensified research since 1980 (Tajuddin, 1980; Mohamed et al., 1976; Mohamad Hanif et al., 1990), it has been proven beyond doubt that integrated livestock-fish-crops is not only technically feasible but economically viable in Malaysia.
Since the concept of integrated farming system in Malaysia has been modelled on that practised in China, it would be worthwhile to examine a conceptual model adopted vis. that of the Holei People's Commune Fishfarm of China (Edwards, 1982), in order to examine the various inputs, throughputs and also outputs, as would be prevalent under the Malaysian context. The subsystems of integrated farming system practised under the Malaysian scenario depends on the experience and capability of the family household and the relevance of the enterprise in the Malaysian agricultural scenario. The multiple enterprises have been modelled in Figure 1. It is not unusual under the Malaysian context to adopt the tricommodity approach of fish culture, livestock farming and planting of crops even though, it may be less complex compared to that practised in China.
It is expected that owing to the different composition of the different livestock and poultry wastes (Table 1; ASAE, 1980), different physico-chemical responses in the pond water and bottom soil will be elicited. As such, the productivity of the ponds and hence fish yields, would accordingly be affected.
However in all cases, the autotrophic and the heterotrophic food chains predominate in waste-fed pond. The food web is depicted as in Figure 2.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON LIVESTOCK-FISH AND CROP INTEGRATION IN MALAYSIA
To date the stocking rate of livestock and poultry and also fish and crustaceans have been based on some empirical experience from overseas or adopted from research done locally. For example, the guiding principal stocking rate of 494 birds/hectare of ponds was derived through an experiment involving three different stocking rates of 494, 988 and 1482 Peking ducks done in 1980 (Tajuddin, 1980). This recommended stocking rate takes into consideration the effects of different densities of ducks on the economic viability, physico-chemical qualities of the water and also the prawn and fish productivity.
Figure 1. Integrated system of livestock-fish-crop and industries at Holei Commune Farm.
Figure 2. Possible food chains in a waste loaded fish pond.
Legend: | |
direct consumption of manure by fish | |
- - - | autotrophic food chain involving photosynthesis heterotrophic food chain in which bacteria are consumed by larger organisms |
- - - |
Table 2. Means of biological and physico-chemical parameters according to treatments during the culture period
Parameters | DMRT | |||
T1 | T2 | T3 | T0 | |
pH | 7.09ab ± 0.07 | 6.98a ± 0.11 | 7.15a ± 0.1 | 6.85c ± 0.07 |
Conductivity (μmhos/cm) | 97.27a ± 2.32 | 82.43b ± 4.14 | 19.83c ± 3.54 | 76.14b ± 4.4 |
Alkalinity (g/ CaCO3) | 36.04a ± 1.32 | 28.69b ± 2.6 | 48.8c ± 3.9 | 13.63d ± 0.9 |
Hardness (mg/1) | 14.67a ± 0.43 | 10.77b ± 0.9 | 16.95c ± 0.84 | 9.75b ± 0.8 |
Secchi Disc (cm) | 44.12a ± 4.29 | 26.6b ± 4.6 | 28.13c ± 3.0 | 54.05a ± 6.7 |
Turbidity (SiO2) | 18.52ac ± 1.85 | 24.82b ± 3.25 | 21.75ab ± 4.1 | 15.29c ± 1.95 |
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | 2.67ab ± 0.39 | 3.04a ± 0.27 | 2.30b ± 0.25 | 4.83c ± 0.19 |
NH3-N (mg/l) | 0.496a ± 0.09 | 0.688b ± 0.03 | 0.736b ± 0.12 | 0.319a ± 0.05 |
NO3-N (mg/l) | 0.101a ± 0.02 | 0.106b ± 0.03 | 0.086a ± 0.03 | 0.045b ± 0.006 |
NO2-N (mg/l) | 0.033a ± 0.008 | 0.062b ± 0.01 | 0.040a ± 0.01 | 0.031a ± 0.007 |
Total-N (mg/l) | 2.56a ± 0.25 | 2.46b ± 0.4 | 3.55b ± 0.44 | 1.92a ± 0.21 |
Organic-N (mg/l) | 1.92ac ± 0.23 | 2.58ab ± 0.36 | 2.73 ± 0.39b | 1.45c ± 0.24 |
Ortho-PO4 (mg/l) | 0.236a ± 0.044 | 0.235a ± 0.05 | 0.200a ± 0.02 | 0.099b ± 0.02 |
Total PO4 (mg/l) | 0.308a ± 0.05 | 0.329a ± 0.08 | 0.334a ± 0.06 | 0.178b ± 0.05 |
Dry matter (mg/l) | 160.300a ± 12.4 | 165.33a ± 19.14 | 181.4a ± 14.7 | 121.33b ± 16.39 |
Chlorophyll a (mg/l) | 151.49a ± 25.97 | 129.85a ± 23.2 | 167.06 ± 29.81 | 126.1a ± 54.9 |
OD3 (mg/l) | 3.17ac ± 1.01 | 4.55a ± 0.74 | 4.71a ± 0.87 | 2.26a ± 0.29 |
Primary Productivity (mg C/m3) | 3.57a ± 0.5 | 4.15a ± 0.53 | 4.46a ± 0.6 | 2.22b ± 0.4 |
Zooplankton (indiv./ml) | 6680a ± 800 | 4769a ± 672 | 6332a ± 1084 | 1677b ± 420 |
Phytoplankton (indiv./ml) | 16472a ± 1828 | 36328b ± 8093 | 21188a ± 3023 | 9286a ± 2059 |
N:P Ratio | 4.04 | 4.45 | 5.95 | 2.89 |
Means with the same superscript are not significantly different (P¢0.05) DMRT:
The stocking rates of polyculture involving prawns, grass carp, bighead carp and lampam jawa (Puntius gonionotus Bleeker) was based on the work of Lee (1974).
In both cases the recommended stocking rates involved ponds with no flowing water, and under stressful condition of low dissolved oxygen, introduction of freshwater may be warranted.
Subsequent experiment conducted at the Malacca Freshwater Fisheries Station, involved ponds integrated with chicken (T1), Peking ducks (T2), chicken and Peking ducks (T3) at 494 birds/hectare/batch and control ponds given 37.05 kg/ha/month Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) over a 4-month period. The performance of chicken and ducks covering the brooding and grow-out periods in coops over the pond and with the Peking duck being accessible to a confined water surface, were similar to that achieved under the conventional rearing systems for these poultry.
In that experiment, the mean biological and physico-chemical parameters, conductivity, alkalinity, hardness, Secchi disc, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, ammoniacal-nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, total nitrogen, organic-nitrogen, ortho-phosphate, total phosphate, dry matter, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD3), primary productivity, zooplankton and phytoplankton counts, were significantly different amongst treatments (Table 2). Overall the waste-fed ponds (T1, T2, T3) had higher primary productivity, phytoplankton and zooplankton counts as compared to the control pond.
The integrated farming system resulted in different growth/specific growth rates, survival rates and final bulk weights for A. nobilis, C. idellus, P. sutchi and M. rosenbergii (Tables 3, 4, and 5.).
Despite the lower light penetration as exemplified by the Secchi disc reading in the waste-fed ponds, there were quite extensive growths of aquatic macrophyte, Hydrilla verticillata, in treatments T1 and T3 and hence the better performance of grass carps under these treatments (Table 3).
Table 3. Individual mean body weight of fish and prawns according to treatments during monthly sampling. Production figures are means of triplicate ponds.
Individual mean weight (g) | ||||||
Month | A. nobilis | C. idellus | P. gonionotus | P. sutchi | M. rosembergii | |
Initial Stocking size (g) | 0.899 | 1.4 | 29.2 | 97.05 | 0.05 (PL) | |
1st month | T1 | 257.17 | 108.70 | 185.65 | 465.90 | 5.22 |
T2 | 161.67 | 93.83 | 148.33 | 347.10 | 3.78 | |
T3 | 212.83 | 123.73 | 140.97 | 453.75 | 2.11 | |
T0 | 79.87 | 33.93 | 110.77 | 255.69 | 3.68 | |
2nd month | T1 | 610.00 | 295.84 | 255.83 | 671.00 | 11.02 |
T2 | 444.45 | 180.27 | 230.00 | 413.15 | 10.43 | |
T3 | 510.10 | 323.33 | 225.01 | 626.89 | 10.68 | |
T0 | 323.89 | 75.55 | 208.33 | 363.89 | 11.38 | |
3th month | T1 | 835.00 | 497.50 | 337.47 | 800.40 | 24.75 |
T2 | 601.11 | 231.80 | 264.44 | 542.50 | 22.54 | |
T3 | 649.90 | 475.00 | 286.11 | 713.90 | 22.78 | |
T0 | 477.22 | 88.23 | 247.19 | 444.61 | 23.28 | |
4th month | T1 | 884.34a | 780.55a | 359.99a | 833.56a | 34.60a |
T2 | 655.89a | 391.67bc | 297.78b | 558.89b | 40.14a | |
T3 | 732.67a | 605.73ba | 390.73a | 744.40a | 40.85a | |
T0 | 625.20a | 122.60c | 257.45b | 506.67b | 31.15a |
Means with the same superscript are not significantly different (P ≥ 0.05)
Table 4. Specific growth rates (SGR) % and survival rates (SR) % according to species and treatments.
A. nobilis | C. idellus | P. gonionotus | P. sutchi | M. rosenbergii | ||||||
SGR | SR | SGR | SR | SGR | SR | SGR | SR | SGR | SR | |
T1 | 6.15 | 97.2 | 5.65 | 82.7 | 1.92 | 98.0 | 2.25 | 88.4 | 7.39 | 40.5 |
T2 | 5.89 | 96.4 | 5.03 | 80.0 | 1.56 | 96.7 | 2.80 | 96.7 | 8.03 | 50.1 |
T3 | 5.98 | 95.6 | 5.42 | 83.3 | 1.85 | 95.3 | 2.32 | 86.4 | 8.04 | 42.6 |
T4 | 5.84 | 93.6 | 4.00 | 79.3 | 1.47 | 97.3 | 1.95 | 95.2 | 7.80 | 50.2 |
Table 5. Average bulk weight of fish and prawns according to species and treatment (kg/ha/4 month)
Species | DMRT | |||
Treatments | ||||
T1 | T2 | T3 | T0 | |
A. nobilis | 526.77a | 380.97a | 434.50a | 370.77a |
C. idellus | 231.45a | 116.14bc | 174.26ab | 36.35c |
P. gonionotus | 211.67a | 175.14b | 229.88a | 151.47a |
P. sutchi | 302.78a | 202.91b | 281.18a | 184.03b |
M. rosenbergii | 212.08a | 297.52a | 258.34a | 230.91a |
Means with the same superscript are not significantly different (P ≥ 0.05)
It would seem that the Indonesian carp (P. gonionotus), herbi-omnivore also reaped the benefit of the profilic growth of the H. verticillata. Besides the P. gonionotus were also observed to feed on the faeces of the grass carp. The average final body weight was significantly higher in T1 and T3 (Table 4). However, owing to the mortality of the bigger fish in T1 (because of low dissolved oxygen), the final average weight of the P. gonionotus in T3 was 30.7 g heavier than that in T1.
The zooplankton feeder, the bighead carp, benefited greatly by the higher zooplankton population in the waste-fed ponds. The possibility of the bighead carp feeding on allochtonous detritus, cannot be ruled out. As indicated by the dry matter which represents the total suspended matter in the water, the waste-fed ponds have significantly higher dry matter values. The detritus is an important food source for fish. Bacteria may constitute at least 1–5% of the dry weight and provide a protein rich food for the fish (Edwards, 1982). Aggregates from 6–20 μm can be trapped by zooplankton, from 21–60 μm by silver crap and that greater by 60 μm by bighead crap. Again, the performance of the bighead crap was superior in T1 and T3 (Table 4).
Pangasins sutchi seemed to have benefited quite substantially in the waste-fed ponds. Treatments incorporating chicken seemed to give more favorable response for this fish. Being an omnivore and voracious feeder, P. sutchi could have consume the faeces directly. This fish could have also consumed the feeds which were spilled from the poultry coops. However, P. sutchi could not reap the full benefit of the faeces from ducks because the latter were allowed to swim in the water during the day. As a whole, the fish did not achieve the full growth potential by virtue of the fact that the bulk of the protein derived from the faeces or the spilled over feeds, were not able to meet the growth requirement of the P. sutchi.
There was no significant difference in the average final weight and the bulk weight of the prawn M. rosenbergii. Nevertheless, the final weight still demonstrates the superiority of the waste-fed ponds in comparison with the control. As a whole, the mean survival rates of the M. rosenbergii were satisfactory ranging from 40.5%–50.2%. Being a benthic feeder, M. rosenbergii is more readily susceptible to low dissolved oxygen which at times reached a critical low level. Furthermore, the ammoniacal-N level in the integrated ponds were higher and in all cases reached critical levels as compared to that of the control. The lower final weight of 34.60g in T1 could be attributed to the mortality of the larger prawns during the third month.
Based on the market price, treatments T1, T2, T3 and T0 gave net return of $ 854.69, $ 627.94, $ 768.81 and $ 134.41 per month, respectively. Though the management of the integrated ponds were more complex, they gave better returns.
Through a series of trials within and outside the experimental stations, Hanif et al. (1990), showed that the bicommodity vis. livestock-fish/prawns and the tricommodity vis. livestock-fish/prawns-crops, can give very lucrative returns/hectare/year (Table 6).
CONSTRAINTS OF LIVESTOCK-FISH-CROP INTEGRATION
Despite the technical feasibility and economic viability of the integrated farming approach involving livestock, fish and also crops, the adoption of this technology is not widespread and is confined to the small farmers. There are a number of probable reasons:-
The management required for a bi- or tricommodity enterprise is more complicated as opposed to single commodity enterprise. The bi- or tricommodity enterprises would definitely require the involvement of farmers with wide experiences of the commodities involved. A farmer owning waste-fed fish ponds has even to acquire the basic knowledge on fish ethology because of the extremely delicate biological and physico-chemical dynamics of the pond water.
There are unpopularity in terms of consumer's acceptance for the fish cultured from waste-fed ponds. Freshwater fishes have always been associated with muddy off-flavour and integrated approach involving animal waste makes this approach even more unacceptable. The off-flavours can be attributed to the substance geosmin from the pond mud or to some phytoplankton blooms. It is quite common to observe waste-fed ponds with blooms of blue green algae which has been reported to cause offflavours. Blue green algal blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa Chroococcales are common in water fed ponds. Phytofalgellates such as Euglena sp. are also quite common.
Even though there is no direct evidence to indicate that there is any direct effect of eating wastefed dish on public health, there is definitely some psychological inhibitions such as the possibility of disease/parasite transmissions.
This approach is more popular with the small farmers because diversification offers them with greater variety of food. There is also the economic buffering capacity in the event that one enterprise fails or gives poor returns. The larger corporations need not necessarily resort to such buffering needs.
Table 6. Average income (M$/ha/yr) from different aquaculture, livestock farming and crop farming integration systems.
1Fish-Prawn-Poultry | 2Fish-Prawn-Poultry-Duck | 3Fish-Prawn-Duck | 4Fish-Prawn-Crop | 5Fish-Prawn-Poultry Crops-Other Livestock | |
Fish and Prawns | 26,843 | 27,143 | 26,070 | 21,225 | 26,000 |
Ducks and Poultry | 26,786 | 29,730 | 30,640 | - | 30,000 |
Other Livestock | - | - | - | - | 13,000 |
Crops | - | - | - | 5,880 | 6,000 |
Gross Income | 53,611 | 56,873 | 58,710 | 27,135 | 75,000 |
Operational Cost | 28,988 | 34,755 | 40,050 | 17,770 | 45,000 |
Nett Income | 24,623 | 22,118 | 18,660 | 9,365 | 30,000 |
1 Combination of poultry, udang galah (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), bighead carp. (ristichthys nobilis, silver carp (Hypophthlmichthya molitrix), grass carp. (tenopharyngodon idella, and Indonesia carp (Putius gonionotus).
2 Combination of such, poultry, udang galah, bighead carp, silver carp, grass carp, and Indonesia carp.
3 Combination of ducks, udang galah, bighead carp, silver carp, grass carp, and Indonesia crap.
4 River catfish/shark (Pangasius sutchi), Hoeven slender carp (Leptobarbus hoevenii), maize, sweet potatoes, cabbage, and okra.
5 Estimated yield with combination of sheep, poultry, ducks, fish, prawns, crops. 1US$ = M$2.7
CONCLUSION
Integrated livestock-fish-crops is not only technically feasible but is also economically viable in Malaysia. The change in approach from extensive to intensive fish culture and the psychological barrier to eating waste-fed fish discourages its widespread expansion. Nevertheless, based on socioeconomic considerations, this approach is appropriate for the smallholders where diversification becomes necessary food production per unit area. It is suggested that research based on the system approached need to be done in order to fully understand the intricate dynamic of waste loading from the livestock, the physico-chemical and biological environments of the water and soil and more importantly both the livestock and pond production.
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