Plant Protection Adviser and Director General
Department of Plant Protection
Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock
Malir Halt, Karachi 27, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
Pakistan now has four agricultural universities, six agricultural colleges, one forestry college and two fo`restry research institutes. They offer degree and certificate courses and the curricula are approved through consultation.
In Pakistan, pests cause immense damage to crops. To deal with them, young men are trained in plant protection as an integral part of agriculture courses. The B.Sc pest management course set up in 1961 was built up progressively from the Entomology course, initially offered as a minor subject in 1917 and later as a major one in 1934. Both M.Sc and Ph.D degree courses were also started with the curricula revised towards in-depth research. The theory and practical instructions were also greatly strengthened.
The earlier curricula in agriculture colleges and training institutes (for field assistants) consisted of theory and practical of very basic pest control practices. Later, new aspects were added (e.g. Pest Biology, Crop Behaviour, Host-Pest Interaction, and New Control Strategies and Materials). More recently, the curricula have included Innovations, Environmental Safety, Cost:Benefit Ratio, Pest Control Programmes, and others. Courses in Molecular Biology, Virology, Agrometeorology, Pesticide Chemistry, Biotechnology, etc. were also offered. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was introduced and became an important course. In addition, field practical on various aspects formed a significant part of the curricula. All these have helped to improve the capability of agricultural workers in identifying pests, pathogens and weeds, and in developing effective control options.
Apart from the public sector, a number of private pesticide companies and one NGO presently conduct training for their staff and the farmers. These courses are usually crop-specific and comprised of pest identification, pest scouting, and pesticide use and safety measures.
IPM, included in the Agricultural Policy (1991), is now considered an essential component of the agriculture production system aiming at reducing pesticide reliance. This has stimulated many agriculture institutes to develop IPM-related curricula for various training levels and of different specializations. Many short and specific training courses have been conducted by institutes/agencies for their workers, who in turn provide training to the farmers. Workshops on IPM in rice, cotton, sugarcane and fruits for researchers, extension workers and progressive farmers are also held from time to time. Some curricula are prepared in collaboration with outside bodies like FAO, World Bank and Winrock International. To keep in line with new developments, the curricula are also upgraded periodically.
INTRODUCTION
Pakistan is an ancient civilization, though its political boundaries were drawn only 53 years ago when it gained independence in August 1947. The territory is a region of diversified terrain, with mountains to the north and west and arid and semi arid expanses in the south and east. In the center is a flat fertile plain fed by the Indus and its tributaries, covering approximately 210,000 sq. km. The geographic area of Pakistan is about 80 million hectares. Out of this, 21 million hectares are cultivated; 16 million by canal irrigation and the remaining 5 million are either rain-fed or tube-well irrigated.
The major pests of rice, cotton, sugarcane and fruit crops in Pakistan are stem borers, hoppers, white fly, bollworms, thrips, pyrilla, fruit flies, mites, molds, rusts, smuts, mildews, rots, stunt, mosaic, bunchy top, inflorescence malformation and several nematodes and weeds. The post-harvest pests include Khapra beetle, red flour beetle and post-harvest rots. The management practices are prevention, observation and intervention, which had hitherto been mostly chemical. Efforts through education to integrate the available control measures have been made and stress was on the preparation of customized curriculum appropriate to the literacy, economic conditions and the other factors.
The great famine of 1876–78 and that of 1900 prompted excavation of irrigation canals and establishment of Agricultural Department on scientific lines in the provinces. The Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute Lyallpur, (now Faisalabad), the oldest in the country was established in 1906. The post of one Assistant Professor of Entomology was created in 1908 to impart education in plant protection. Over the years there has been increase in the number of Agricultural Research and Teaching Institutions. Now, Pakistan has four Agricultural Universities: two in Punjab, one each in Sindh and NWFP. Also there are six agricultural colleges, two in Punjab and one each in Kashmir, NWFP, Sindh and Balochistan. There is one Forest College and two Forest Research Institutes in the country. The Pakistan Agricultural Research Council through its National Agricultural Research Center, Pakistan Central Cotton Committee through its two Research Institutes and two Research Stations, and the Department of Plant Protection, are working at the Federal level with their IPM programmes. The provinces have their own Research Institutes and Extension Wings of the Agriculture Department for imparting training to the employees and to the farmers.
The various universities, colleges, departments and institutes offer degree and certificate courses and their curricula are discussed and approved through consultation. From time to time, new courses are introduced and the old ones are improved so as to meet the prevalent demand. The curricula are in conformation with the national standard and are usually prepared in collaboration with relevant academicians; local as well as foreign. Advice and support of international organizations are also sought for improvement.
HISTORY OF PLANT PEST MANAGEMENT CURRICULUM
Pests are known to have caused immense damage to crops especially grain crops. Desert locust and brown leaf spot of rice had brought havoc in the subcontinent. To mitigate the effect of pests a number of studies and investigations were made which recommended ways and means to boost agricultural production and reduce losses through protection measures. The protection of crops and stored produce was the cornerstone of agricultural policy. As a sequel to it, Agriculture Colleges and Field Assistants Training Schools were set up to train young men in the subjects of agriculture with plant protection as an integral part of the curricula.
In the Agriculture College at Lyallpur a post of Assistant Professor of Entomology was created in 1908. Initially the college provided a three-year education leading to the Licentiate of Agriculture Diploma. This course duration was extended by one year in 1914 and some attention was given to Plant Protection. Those completing four years were appointed as Agriculture Assistants and students completing only two years course were posted as Estate Managers. In both programmes, Entomology was taught as a minor subject.
A four-year B.Sc. degree course was started in 1917 and Entomology was taught as a minor subject. It was in 1934 that Entomology was introduced as one of the four major subjects covering insect-plant relationship and all measures to overcome pest problems confronted by the major crops. This continued up to 1961 when the college was upgraded to a university. This led to opening of Sections and Departments relevant to pest management and initiation of interdisciplinary programmes through cooperation with the allied sections. M.Sc. and Ph.D. courses were started. The syllabi were revised and in-depth research encouraged. Theory and practical instructions were given side by side. Laboratories were refurbished and libraries stocked with journals, monographs and textbooks as required for the advanced new curricula. This was backed by thorough evaluation of scholastic aptitude. Other institutions in the country likewise progressed with time and made good contributions. The Department of Plant Protection provides training in Plant Quarantine and Locust Survey and Control to its staff and others each year. These were short duration courses and the curricula consist of educational materials in pest biology and control.
Similar developments also took place in other locations. The Agriculture Institute, Sakrand was shifted to Tando Jam and named Agriculture College in 1956 and up-graded to Sindh Agricultural University in 1975. Five years later the Agriculture College at Peshawar became Agriculture University. The Barani Agriculture College at Rawalpindi was upgraded to Barani Agriculture University in 1996. At these places of agricultural learning a number of courses in Plant Protection, including Pest Management, are offered at the under graduate and graduate level.
THE REFORM OF CURRICULUM
The curriculum at the time of independence in 1947, and for about a decade later, was very simple. It was based on concepts, theories and principles derived from observations, investigations and studies with primitive tools, machinery, equipment, books and reference materials that were available then. Developments in all walks of life, including plant protection at home and abroad, were taking place. The rich experiences were absorbed, which triggered decisions and action for reform of the curriculum.
Keeping up with the demand of the time, the College of Agriculture at Lyallpur (Faisalabad) was upgraded to University in 1961. This was the first university in the country. Structural changes were made, new courses were started and some old ones were revised to cope with the needs of the subject areas in the country. The Directorate of Basic Sciences and Faculty of Agriculture were established. B.Sc. degree programme was replaced with a five year B.Sc. Honours course. In the Directorate of Basic Sciences, a Department of Zoology was opened which offered a basic course in Zoology for the undergraduates, while in the Faculty of Agriculture a Department of Entomology was organized for teaching Entomology, especially the latest pest management techniques at the undergraduate and graduate level. The syllabi of the classes were updated and efforts were made to bring them at par with those of the developed countries. Ph.D. degree courses were also started. Likewise, reforms in pest management curricula were also made from time to time in the other agricultural universities and colleges. The Agricultural Research Institutes at the Federal and Provincial level also made provisions for improvement in pest management in their annual programmes
All this while, efforts have been made to continue to provide quality education in plant pest management. Learned people were inducted, laboratories furnished with state-of-the-art equipment and materials, and plant protection machinery (especially sprayers) were acquired to help run advanced training courses. The curricula have been constantly reviewed and discussed under the aegis of the University Grants Commission, while help and advice from relevant quarters were also frequently sought.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE AGRICULTURAL
UNIVERSITIES AND RELATED INSTITUTES
The ultimate target of agricultural education and training, especially Plant Pest Management, has always been “the man behind the plough” who is a farmer, planter, gardener, orchardist, nurseryman or forester. The farmer in Pakistan is either by profession or by caste, and more so through combination of both. Previously, he was predominantly an illiterate and a subsistence farmer. A positive change has occurred and now he has the will and capacity to receive and respond to instructions in pest control. Instructions, advice and demonstrations by the government functionaries and private company people are generally based on the available knowledge. Also, crop festivals, grow more food campaigns, production competitions, farm visits, training and the other promotional activities have been instrumental in creating greater awareness among the agriculturists. Primarily, the plant protection knowledge source has been the Agriculture Colleges at Faisalabad and Sakrand and the Provincial Agriculture Extension Departments. The earlier curricula in the Agriculture Colleges and Field Assistants Training Institutes consisted of theory and practical of very simple or basic pest control practices. Later, new management practices were introduced through the curricula, such as, advanced courses in Pest Biology, Crop Behaviour, Host-Pest Interaction, and New Control Strategies and Materials. Recently, the curricula have included Innovations, Environment Safety, Cost: Benefit Ratio Studies, Globalization and Harmonization of Pest Control Programmes, and others.
After creation of Pakistan the education in Plant Protection consisted of courses in Botany, Zoology, Entomology, Plant Pathology and allied subjects. Weekly lectures, laboratory practical sessions and small-scale field experiments comprised the curriculum at degree level. The courses were simple but catered to the need of local agriculture. Still simpler were the training programmes for the field assistants who were considered as backbone of the Provincial Agriculture Departments. The courses in Plant Protection were part of a four-year agriculture degree or one-year diploma programme. They have enabled graduate employees to properly advise farmers on healthy seed gathering, selection of disease or pestfree fields, and simple control operations. Much emphasis was given to grain protection. The extension workers were instructed to get rid of Khapra beetle, red flour beetle, etc., by spreading wheat in thin layers for 4 to 6 hours in June-July. Bags must be disinfested by immersion for 15 minutes in boiling water and then expose to sun drying. Rice stubble and cotton sticks were to be removed from the fields after harvest or picking. Use of mercurial fungicides and organochlorine insecticides was introduced, given free and encouraged. Control practices were also considered a must and obligatory. However, little attention was given to the impact on the production system and the environment. Through visits, lectures, and practical, the agriculture employees imparted the same stuff to their subordinates and growers at large.
With the advancement in agricultural sciences the curriculum was improved. It included pest management methods, such as, regulatory, cultural, mechanical, physical, genetic, biological and chemical. Courses in Molecular Biology, Virology, Agrometeorology, Pesticide Chemistry, Biotechnology, etc. were offered. Integrated Pest Control (IPC) came into vogue, which was actually a combination of various control methods with a planned approach. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) then replaced this, which in essence was a farming system with the application of combined control operations compatible with the farm production unit and its social, physical and economic conditions. The course had improved the capability of agricultural workers to identify pests, pathogens or weeds, and to look for control options that are efficient and safe to the environment in the short and long term. The course also included familiarization with diagnostic techniques and pesticide application technology.
Lately, the courses contain findings of sophisticated research in related fields and are based on interactions and phenomena in nature as observed using the finest tools of investigation. It is widely accepted IPM has emerged as a hope for the agriculturists and the farming community at large. It brings into its folds various fields, such as, plant quarantine, ecology, seeds/varieties, crop husbandry, crop rotation, crop protection, fertilization, and others, and blend them together in a harmonious manner. The new courses, therefore, have improved substantially. Some of the course titles include Introduction to Pest Control, Ecology, Economic Entomology, Insect Transmission of Plant Diseases, Plant Nematology, Weed Physiology, Pesticides, Principles of Biological Control, Vertebrate Pest Control, Plant Disease Epidemiology, Pesticide Application Technology, Plant Virology, Biotechnology, Pest Management, Weed Management, Urban and Industrial Pest Management, Pesticide Toxicology and Advanced Pest Management.
The practical work includes collection, preservation and identification of major pests, pathogens and weeds, morphology, anatomy, physiology, study of nature and extent of damage to host plants and products, demonstration of control measures, pest scouting, loss estimation, pesticide application techniques (dusting, dipping, spraying, fumigation), and others. Irradiation, vapor heat treatment, pheromone repellants, and others, have been included in the latest curriculum. All these are to enable proper identification and diagnosis of pests, diseases, weeds and other related problems, including determination of economy threshold level, and making timely control decisions. They have been assessed and accepted by the University Grants Commission, UNESCO of the UN and other national bodies. To support the courses, textbooks, monographs, pest lists, maps and reference materials are made readily available. Some information is also accessed through the Internet.
Apart from the public sector, a number of pesticide companies and one NGO have conducted training for their staff and farmers. The courses are usually condensed and crop-specific. They include instructions in pest identification, pest scouting, and pesticide use, including safety measures. These courses are also participated by the agriculture extension workers.
The Government of Pakistan has always been keen to improve education in agriculture and plant protection. All efforts are made to assimilate new ideas, systems and materials in the curriculum and to promote innovations in all the subject areas. Topics and reference materials to encourage the use of pesticide products at lower doses, drift-free nozzles, and global positioning system for accurate targeting, are now added to the course work. Contact is also maintained with higher seats of learning at home and abroad to continuously improve the curriculum, and whatever help offered in this regard has always been welcomed.
CURICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN IPM TRAINING
Since the 1960s, emphasis was focused on chemical control. Control measures meant using of pesticides with little attention given to any other measures. This led to the development of insect resistance against many insecticides and heavy expenses in import of pesticides. With the transfer of plant protection from public to private sector in 1980, the use of pesticides gained further momentum and its use increased many folds. National scientists felt a strong need and justification to develop IPM to reduce reliance on pesticides in pest control. In the universities, courses were quickly developed on. Insect Resistance to Pesticides, Male Sterile Technique and Use of Pheromones, and many other areas. Also, institutional capacity building was strongly emphasized. The Government of Pakistan recognized IPM as an essential component in the agricultural production system, hence, IPM was approved and adopted as a national theme and included in the Agricultural Policy, 1991 to promote less reliance on chemical pesticides.
In response, the agricultural education sector developed appropriate curricula for various levels and in different specializations. They aimed to create awareness of IPM, better pest control, safer use of agrochemicals, respect for the environment, and use of alternative low-cost technologies in pest management. The curricula have become a continuous programme for IPM diffusion.
The Provincial Agriculture Departments, Cotton Research Institutes, Rice Research Institutes and Pakistan Agricultural Research Council provided shortduration IPM training to workers, who in turn, impart training to the farmers. IPM workshops in rice, cotton, sugarcane and fruits for researchers, extension workers and progressive farmers were held from time to time. The participants were provided with IPM Field Training Manual, which contained instructions in pest identification, survey and assessment of damage, and appropriate decision making. A Farmers' Field Training Guide was also published in the local language, besides English. The workshops and publications have been helpful in motivating the farming community to adopt IPM within the context of the existing socio-economic conditions in the country. Many private companies also arranged training at the village level. The course/training materials included pest identification, scouting, determining economic threshold levels and harnessing predators and parasitoids. Rice, cotton, sugarcane and apple have received much attention and the curricula contained relevant information in the form of field books with clear illustrations. The course/training itself involved lecture sessions, field trips, observations and evaluation. Each curriculum was prepared in collaboration with world bodies like FAO and the World Bank through collaborators, such as, Winrock International of USA and the Agriculture Research and Extension Departments. All the curricula were crop-specific and updated regularly.
PROSPECTS
The pest management curriculum in Pakistan is dynamic and improvements have been made over time. Its prospects are good in that the courses will be advanced further in the future to enable the students to meet with challenges of pest problems. There have been good interactions with global organizations, research and training centres, and universities, to incorporate new ideas and concepts, methodologies and techniques in pest management into future course work. Sustained efforts are also made to incorporate latest findings in biotechnology, advanced pesticide application technology, post-harvest pest management, research on insect growth regulators, pheromones and other trapping techniques, quarantine procedures, insect resistance management, toxicology and other allied fields, into the curriculum in order to broaden the outlook of the students. However, the design and working of plant protection machinery and field evaluation of pesticides have yet to receive due consideration.
It is generally felt that biotechnology, locust survey and control, and plant quarantine, have been receiving less than the needed attention. Apparently, the existing curriculum is still weak in these important topics. Biotechnology is known to be capable of enhancing further the crop protection measures now in practice. Fungal resistance, viral resistance and herbicide tolerance have been investigated for their effects on productivity and the results have been encouraging. The subject of biotechnology as an aid to plant protection has been proposed at the post-graduate level. This course will comprise of lectures and simple experiments to familiarize the students on the principles, techniques and their applications. On locust survey and control, there is currently no specific curriculum on this subject. This year, in collaboration with the International Pesticide Application Research Center and FAO, a special course will be conducted in August 2000. The curriculum will consist of lectures, demonstrations and practical work by locust experts. Remote sensing, survey methods and control measures will be the main components of the course. The curriculum will also contain topics on alternative control strategies to familiarize the students with swarm tracking and prevention through the use of high performance pesticides, insect growth regulators, pheromones, hormone analogs, entomopathogenic microorganisms and plant components (extracts). For plant quarantine, the agriculture universities and colleges will be asked to offer a course at graduate level to equip students with the knowledge of quarantine pest detection and fumigation. Also of importance is environment safety for which suitable topics have been compiled for dissemination among the students.
