Planting of Eucalyptus in Myanmar - Ohn Lwin

Assistant Director, Department of Forests Yangoon, Myanmar

ABSTRACT

Myanmar with one of the highest forest covers in the region, still has an adverse resource impact due to expanding population. Forest degradation, estimated annually at 218,600 ha, has led to plantation establishment to supply domestic fuelwood and pulp and paper industries raw material. Eucalyptus is preferred due to its adaptability to varied environmental conditions, multipurpose use and productivity - superior to native species. The Forest Department allocates some 40% of the 32,400 ha annual planting to fuel and industry raw material plantations; E. camaldulensis and E. grandis take up a good proportion of this. The plantation programme is to be diverted to community and private sector planting. Studies showed no adverse soil/water effect of eucalypts compared to native species. Benefits gained in tree growth far outweigh the amount of water consumed. In the dry zone - a major planting area - eucalypt (compared to open areas) tree cover reduced soil temperature, increased relative humidity and soil surface moisture. Eucalypt canopy and litter reduced erosional forces; pH in the dry area, invariably alkaline, improved in acidity. It was concluded that eucalypt plantations in themselves do not adversely impact the environment on correct site establishment. Plantations deflect the harvesting damage to high forest values.

Key words: Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Myanmar, industrial plantations, environment, community forestry, private investment.

INTRODUCTION

Myanmar, in continental South East Asia, is rich in culture, traditions and resources. It is endowed with one of the highest forest cover in the Asia-Pacific Region. Over half is forested, of which teak (Tectona grandis) grows in the reserved forests of about 14 million acres (5.67 million ha). The forests have been managed systematically on a sustainable basis since 1856. Timber harvesting is done to the Myanmar Selection System (MSS), in force since that time. In addition, the forests are being enriched through reforestation using valuable species, such as teak and other hardwood species, and very importantly, fuelwood species, including eucalypts. The Forest Department has an annual reforestation programme planting goal of approximately 80,000 acres (32,400 ha) for commercial, industrial, village supply purposes and catchment protection since 1980; details are in Figure 1.

There are many objectives and limitations in establishing plantations. The limitations and difficulties vary with the objectives, the planting sites and other abiotic and biotic factors. Specific difficulties in establishing plantation of indigenous species in the dry zone area, are the rainfall which can be as low as ten inches (254 mm) per year, and edaphic conditions to name abiotic factors. The soil in the dry zone is very poor and even the most essential mineral elements are lacking. On account of these unfavourable conditions, eucalypt is found to be the most adaptable species in this extremely unfriendly environment for tree growth.

It is relatively easy to establish plantations with eucalypts compared to other indigenous tree species; another factor of its desirability as a plantation crop is its multiple use potentials. On account of these factors, no species can compare with eucalypt for dry zone planting.

Figure 1. Forest plantations by year and species established in Myanmar (Unit: ha)

Source: Forestry Fact Sheet, Forest Department (1993)

OBJECTIVES OF EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS

Eucalypt plantations are formed for the following objectives: To supply 1) fuelwood, charcoal, poles, posts and small timbers for rural community; 2) timber for farm implements; 3) raw material for paper industries; 4) mine props and fishery posts; 5) to establish plantations under harsh climatic conditions with poor soil as this is the only species that can withstand such severe condition and grow well; 6) to protect erosion in the catchment area; and 7) to conduct research for other uses and for growth studies.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF EUCALYPTUS

Eucalypt plantations were first introduced in Myanmar in 1921/22, on a trial basis and for amenity planting. During the year 1921-29, 595 acres (241 ha) of seven eucalypt species had been planted as trial plantations (Figure 2). The species were: E. maculata, E. citriodora, E. rostrata (E. camaldulensis), E. resinifera, E. amygdalina, E. tereticornis and E. saligna. From these trials, the following results were recorded.

1. E. camaldulensis was the best of the seven species.

2. Seed sowing, planting with bamboo container and late planting were tested successfully.

3. Coppicing ability was noted in burnt over plantations.

4. Tests of two years old stump of E. camaldulensis gave 50% survival.

5. Trial plantings of E. camaldulensis, with 9x9' spacing during the rainy season (June to August) and winter (December to January) were possible.

6. Transplanting young seedlings of E. citriodora was rather difficult.

7. Damage due to termite, ant and cricket attack was observed in the nursery and field.

8. Planting in the taungya (shifting cultivation) method was successful but unsuccessful in abandoned taungya areas.

9. Planting of eucalypts stopped after this trial period up to 1966, because of the high establishment cost, low survival rate and sufficiency of fuelwood.

PRESENT SITUATION OF EUCALYPT PLANTATIONS

Due to population growth, uncontrolled exploitation and encroachment, local supply reserves and nearby forest have been badly depleted. To meet the demand for wood fuel and other forest products for urban and rural communities, the establishment of forest plantations with the appropriate species in the right localities has become the most important work to be done as early as possible.

The Forest Department established seven eucalypts species in trial plantations during 1967-69. The trial species were E. camaldulensis, E. grandis, E. robusta, E. tereticornis, E. saligna, E. globulus and E. citriodora. Of these, E. camaldulensis was selected for large scale plantings from 1970, for its adaptability to survive severe climatic and edaphic conditions, ease of establishment and wide ranging usefulness. About 45,524 acres (18,423 ha) of eucalypt was planted by 1989 (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Eucalypt plantations: 1921-29 Trial

(Mandalay Division - Pyin Oo Lwin Fuel Reserve)

(Remark: E. rostrata = E. camaldulensis)

Figure 3. Eucalyptus plantations in Myanmar, established 1969-89 (Unit: acres)

Source: Computer data, National Forest Inventory (NFI)

Eucalyptus grandis is the second best eucalypt species introduced in Myanmar. It grows well in hilly regions, such as Shan State and Pyin Oo Lwin where the soil and weather are favourable. It was introduced and planted as fuelwood plantation in Pyin Oo Lwin, Kutkai, Taunggyi and Aungban regions. Trial as industrial plantation was introduced in Pyin Oo Lwin and the species was found out to be suitable for making pulp and paper. Per acre outturn in Pyin Oo Lwin was recorded as 86.42 stack tons. The species was liable to termite attack in the plantation. It was recommended that the species should be planted as a fast growing species for plantation in localities over 3,000 feet (about 900 m) above sea level where weather and soil condition are most suitable for it.

TYPE OF EUCALYPT PLANTATIONS

There are three types of eucalypt plantations established with specific objectives and extent as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Plantation types established 1969-89

Source: NFI Data.

Village supply plantations

Figure 5. Village supply plantations

Population increase is exerting ever increasing demands for forest products from the existing forests. To meet the increasing demand, an extensive planting programme of fast growing tree species for village supply is of utmost urgency. The population pressure has been exerting a heavy strain on the demand side and with decreasing supply from the forests, high value forest estates have been heavily encroached upon with illegal extraction. To save the situation from getting worse, speedy and large scale local supply forests have to be reinstituted through plantation establishment. Eucalypt is planted with other indigenous species with the same characteristics, for village supply plantations. Village supply plantations are planted in the following area as shown in Figure 5.

Industrial plantations

Industrial plantations are established to supply the raw material for the paper mills at Sittaung (Mon State) and Yeni (Bago Division). The Sittaung Paper Mill started production in 1970. The mill used bamboo pulp from 1970 to 1982. As paper quality is improved with the admixture of eucalypts, mixed pulp is now used in paper production. Insufficiency of eucalypt timber is one of the constraints in paper production and more industrial plantation of eucalypt is called for. Industrial plantation areas established up to 1989 are given in Figure 3 for the supply of raw materials to Sittaung and Yeni mills. Plantation established at Mon State supply Sittaung paper mill and Mandalay and Bago Division, Yeni mill. The raw material requirement for these pulp mills is calculated as shown in Figure 6

Figure 6. Raw material requirement of paper mills

Assuming 20 weight ton/acre and 330 working days for one year.
Volume ton = 0.8 weight ton.

Catchment area plantation

Dam catchment area forests are protected to preserve the forest for protection against adverse climatic conditions and to prevent erosion, landslides, etc. Catchment areas are not only protected by legislation, but also by plantation establishment with suitable species. Enrichment or gap plantings are used to fill openings in the catchment area with suitable species, mainly indigenous. Eucalypts are planted only in poor soil and low rainfall areas of the dry zone and Shan State. Eucalypts are not only suitable to protect the dry zone area but also supply fuelwood for rural people in that area.

ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS

The Forest Department began large scale planting in 1967. Unfortunately, there was an hiatus with the planting programme due to the prevalent controversy over eucalypt plantations and serious ecological consequences. A study undertaken by the Forest Research Institute in existing eucalypt plantation, and in natural stands of native species, found no adverse effect of the eucalypt in comparison with other native tree species. The study dealt with such factors of the environment as the temperature and water regimes under various conditions in the dry zone.

The wood moisture content of E. camaldulensis and ground biomass production were also studied and showed no appreciable difference from other species. Comparison of plantations versus open areas indicate that tree cover provides a tempering effect to reduce the soil temperature and increases the relative humidity and soil surface moisture. The presence of leaf litter and overhead canopy protects from the rainfall impact thus reducing erosional forces. The study on soil acidity showed that E. camaldulensis improved the alkaline conditions in the dry zone where the soil is invariably alkaline (Sein Thet, Ko Ko Gyi, Thein Kywe, Htun Linn. 1985). Therefore, it can be concluded that eucalyptus plantations do not by themselves have an adverse environmental impact when planted on correct sites. The benefits gained in tree growth and wood production far outweigh the amount of water consumed.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS

Although Myanmar is endowed with some 50% of forest cover, it has a main and as yet insurmountable fuelwood deficiency problem. The need for wood fuel is especially greatest for the people in the rural areas. The requirement is essentially of domestic nature and to a small extent for non domestic purposes. With the critical supply situation, the issue will not be resolved for some time to come. The social implication of the fuelwood problem are:

1. City dwellers have to pay for the fuelwood and charcoal.

2. The large majority of the rural people depend on fuelwood and find a great hardship in acquiring same, as the resource is becoming distant.

3. Heavily fuelwood stressed regions have to make good with whatever material that will burn, like brushwood gathered from the vicinity of the villages, lopping branches from roadside shade trees and sweeping the floor of plantations for the leaves in the dry zone. People even use thick stemmed grasses.

4. Fuelwood deficiency has occurred in one State and five Divisions namely the Mon State and Ayeyarwaddy, Yangon, Mandalay, Sagaing and Magway Divisions. However, Ayeyarwaddy has the largest deficit that run into 3.83 million air dry tons. Yet it has to supply Yangon Division with a deficit of 0.50 million air dry tons.

The deficiency in these regions is out of control which has an adverse impact on high value forests in the region. Hence, large scale plantation establishment is the only answer to save the situation.

The internal rate of return (I.R.R) analysis of 15 years old E. grandis produced a I.R.R value of 15.64%, 19.35%, 14.97% for pulpwood, posts and poles and fuelwood respectively. With a ten year old E. grandis, the rate of return gives better results, 23.29% for pulpwood, 29.0% for posts and poles and 22.01% for fuelwood crops. The internal rate of return of ten year old E. camaldulensis produced a I.R.R value of 5.19%, 12.28%, 9.17%, 14.34% for fuelwood (poor site), fuelwood (better site), pulpwood (poor site) and pulpwood (better site) respectively (Figure 7). With 10 years rotation, the establishment cost of E. camaldulensis plantation both for fuelwood or industrial use were not more than 1,000 kyats (Figure 8). The value of the final yield (at least 20 stack tons) 6,000 kyats par acre can be compared with the initial investment.

Figure 7. Internal Rate of Return

Figure 8. Establishment cost of E. camaldulensis plantation in Myanmar

Source: MFD norm. (Official exchange rate, 1 US$ = 6.5 Kyats).

GOVERNMENT FOREST POLICY AND LEGISLATION

Forestry policy

Myanmar Forest policy was previously based on the tenets contained in the forest policies of old in many Regions, namely production, protection and amenity purposes. The policy dated back to the times when Myanmar after annexation to the British Empire, was a province to British India. Being a province to India, the policy adopted was the Indian Forest Policy of the time. No attempt had been made at all in formulating a de facto policy and the times were such that, there had been a great deal of forested areas with low population in the country. However, occasional attempts were made at formulating policy by the Forest Department but unfortunately could not be adopted. Nevertheless, a manifesto on the forestry policy was published by the party organ during the last political regime. This was in use as guiding principles on policy until the present regime took over. In the meantime, attempts had been made at formulating a new forestry policy in 1992. It is still in the process of preparation.

The basic principles enunciated in the policy are: 1) ownership of the forest estates; 2) the protected areas system; 3) land use and forestry; 4) the management mechanism; 5) rural development and the roles of participatory and community forestry; 6) support to the forest based industry and the use of lesser known species; 7) privatization of timber trade; 8) forestry research; 9) forestry education; and 10) forestry budget.

On the above bases, more stress will be given in actual practice, on the participatory and rural development aspects through integrated regional development initiatives. With the liberalization of the State control and monopoly in the timber trade, more private sector involvement has been introduced lately, not only in timber trading practices, but also taking initiatives to introduce participatory and community involvement in reforestation efforts for the utilization of the forest produce on self help basis.

Forestry legislation

As with the forest policy, Myanmar had been using legislation dating back to 1902 adopted and amended from the Indian Forest Legislation of 1865 to suit the then prevailing conditions. Amendments were made from time to time and again during the previous socialist regime, certain prerogatives provided in some sections of the legislation were delegated to the Township and State and Division administrative sectors. Though the forestry legislation was old and required replacement by up to date legislation, no attempts were made until the promulgation of the legislation of 1992. When the present regime took over the administration, the 1902 forestry legislation was still in use. Finally in 1992, knowing the actual position of the forest estates, with the population rising to the 42 million mark, and with new prevailing concepts on forestry, legislation was redrafted anew.

Pragmatic ideas, such as people’s welfare and participation, were given prominence in the legislation allowing village communities to establish community owned plantations on public forest lands and even in the reserves on usufructuary bases. The produce from the plantations are to be used by the communities with no constraints attached by the Forest Department. Another breakthrough in the legislation is the commercial aspect. The village communities will be allowed, as in community plantations, to establish fuelwood plantations for commercialization. No constraints will be imposed except taxation as in force.

During the socialist regime, all forestry matters were handled by the State agencies which were, the Forest Department responsible for the conservation and management aspects, and the Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE), concerned with the extraction of timber for internal sales and export. The new legislation now allows for the private sector to operate in the trade - or work under joint venture with the Myanmar Timber Enterprise. The legislation is a change from the State controlled economy to private sector involvement not only in trading but is also divorced from the old concept of revenue generation and directed to forestry for the people.

PLANTATION TECHNIQUES OF EUCALYPTUS CAMALDULENSIS

Nursery

Seed is collected June to August from select planted trees in old plantations. Seed are cool stored in airtight metal containers. Fresh seed is used for better germination.

Nursery production. Seedlings are nursery raised; much attention is given to preparing germination beds. Depending on the seedling demand need, germination boxes are used for small plantations, and germination beds for large plantations. Generally boxes are (2x2x½) feet while germination beds are (3x18x1½) feet. Dimensions vary with the space availability in the nursery. Germination beds are separated by 3 feet wide paths for easy access in bed management. Bamboo pegs and split bamboo are used to make frames to hold container bags.

Nursery sites should be close to the planting site to save labour in carrying seedlings and to prevent damage and injury to planting stock in transport. Great care is taken in the choice of the nursery site. Good site selection is a sure way to success, and it is also cost effective. Usually in situ forest top soil is used in the nursery. Depending on the soil composition, draining capacity and fertility status, addition is made of sand and manure to improve the water holding capacity and fertility regime. Generally alkali content is high in the dry zone and such soils are avoided. Mixtures of soil, sand and manure are used in both germination bed and polythene bags. The ratio of the soil mix which consists of forest soil, sand and manure is 3:2:1 for germination and 8:1:3 for polythene containers. Mixture ratios vary with the local soil composition.

Thoroughly mixed germinating medium is spread on the germination beds to five inches thick, and one inch of top dressing of sand is applied and kept moist before seeding. Lines (½" x ½") are marked on prepared seed beds with 2" spacing. Seed are sown in the line.

Container (polythene bag) preparation. Polythene bags, 3x7 inches perforated for better aeration and drainage are filled with prepared soil mix. The filled bags are placed in compartments holding about 1,000 bags each and watered for 3 days before transplanting seedlings.

Seed sowing. The best time to start raising seedlings is in December to January. Seedlings are, however, raised from the end of January in colder areas to avoid frost damage. For even seed distribution in the lines, seed are premixed with sand and hand spread evenly along the line. A thin layer of top dressing of sand is applied over the sown beds. The top dressing of sand is about 0.25" to avoid wastage of seed from splatter during watering and to keep the seed under a moist sand cover. After sowing, watering is by sprayer or atomizer. Seed germinate in 5-15 days. In the dry zone and in very hot areas, complete shading is given to prevent seedling mortality through drought due to high temperature and evaporation from top soil. Shade is removed at sun down. In very cold places seedlings need shelter from frost, heavy rain and direct sunlight in young stages. Two ounces of seed in the germination bed (3 feet x 18 feet) give approximately 10,000 seedlings. Weeding is done continuously in the germination bed.

Transplanting. Seedling transfer to polythene bags starts as soon as seedlings are large enough to handle and past the cotyledon stage with 2 pair of leaves. The most suitable size is when seedling are 1½ -2" tall. Before transplanting, soil is well watered to prevent severing the roots, and for easy pricking out of seedlings. Transplanting is best done in the afternoon when the heat of the day subsides. A pencil size, sharp pointed bamboo stick is used to make a hole for good accommodation of the root system in the bag. Good care is taken in transplanting by seeing that: experienced staff are used; forceful pricking out the seedlings will damage the roots and is avoided (a suitable tool is used to prick out the seedlings easily); plantlets are not held too long in the hand; enough space is made for roots (2-3 inches deep) in the medium to avoid the root folding; the tap and lateral rootlets are seen to be in contact with the soil in the medium; recently transplanted seedlings are kept under cool and moist conditions to establish seedlings quickly; transplanting is not done later than April to have seedlings of the right size for planting out; once the seedlings are established partial shade is given up to 3 weeks and watering is done twice a day in the morning and evening only.

Hardening. Three weeks after transplanting, all partial shades are removed to give more light to seedlings and to place them in the open. Seedlings for planting out need hardening treatment which is done by phased removal of shade. The optimum plant size is 18-24 inches. For speedy on growth of right sized seedlings, controlled watering and good nursery care is needed. Watering is controlled to retard the growth rate and fertilizer used to promote faster growth. After 45 days of transplanting, there are different sizes of seedlings in the same nursery bed. Seedlings are sorted for uniform plants and moribund ones removed. Uniform sized seedlings are obtained after 30 days with careful management. Seedlings in bags are moved frequently to prevent root ground contact. Protective care is reduced to harden seedlings for good survival in the open planting site. It is advisable to root prune one month before planting out with a sharp instrument and to allow the plants to recover from shock to avoid heavy casualties in the site. After 2-4 weeks of hardening, all plants are strong, sturdy and ready for planting out. Weeding in the nursery is necessary throughout the nursery time, for container plants or seed beds.

PLANTING SITE PREPARATION

The taungya (shifting cultivation) method is the standard method in raising plantations. In this method, farmers (local workers) are allowed to grow their cash crops (rice, wheat, corn, peanut, etc.) between planted trees. The area is felled in December and left for 3 months for the felled material to dry. Then in the first week of April felled trees are burnt; unburnt portions are collected and burnt again to get a clear site for planting. The more material to burn, the better as intense heat reduces weed growth in the rains. Staking is done in early May and planting out in mid May in lower Myanmar and not until there is regular and enough rains in July in upper Myanmar. Spacing depends on the object of management: for fuelwood plantation, spacing is (6x6) feet; for industrial plantation (8½x8½) feet; for catchment area protection (15x15) feet.

Seedlings are planted in prepared pits in the site. In dry zone (low rainfall) areas, the pits are usually (6x1½x1½') with the inner pit (1½x1.5x15') or (4x4x1') with inner pit (1x1x1') to collect more water during the rains. The dimensions vary according to the hardness of the soil and terrain conditions. For other areas (2x2x1') pits are used or 5 inches diameter planting holes 10 inches deep to get enough root space to accommodate the seedling with the earth ball when taken out of the container bags. Till the time of planting, seedlings are stocked in temporary nursery (under shade) near the planting site.

PLANTING MAINTENANCE

Planting is done with skilled labour starting just after the break of monsoon in June or July. Once the pits are dug, they are filled with top soil. Seedlings are put in and the soil heeled firmly around the plant. Planting should be completed by August. Patching up is done after the area is planted. There are three kinds of planting stock: stumps, stock raised in permanent or temporary nurseries, stock raised in bags. Bare rooted plants are used with other types of planting; growth and survival percent (about 60%) are not comparable with container raised plants with 90% survival rate.

Tending operations. Tending operations such as weeding, cleaning, climber cutting, soil working and fire protection have to be done to a precise schedule.

Fire protection. Eucalypt plantations are protected from fire throughout the 10 year rotation. For protection forest, plantations are protected up to the age of five years. Fire breaks (about 15-20 feet wide) are made along the entire length of plantation. Fire watchers are kept throughout the dry months from February to May. Fire fighting is done by watchers, forest guards and workers. Early burning and control burning outside the area should be done in January before the dry season. Fire protection is done from February to May every year. Fire watchers and guards are engaged for the season and not the regular staff; the norm is 75 acres to a person.

Disease, insect pests and control. Over watering and over shading have to be taken care of especially during unfavourable weather. Damping off is a wide spread disease but with good management practice it can be prevented. This is a disease of post emergent seedlings; the disease appears as a rot on the stem at soil level and spreads rapidly leaving characteristic patches of dead plants in the bed. To avoid the disease, precautions should be taken not to allow damp conditions (reduce watering), removing shading and using fungicide.

Damage due to termites, ants, crickets, grasshoppers and moles has been recorded both in the nursery and in the field. Attack is not serious in Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantations but termite attack is a major problem in E. grandis plantations. The roots of E. grandis are attacked by termites in the nursery and field. Water dissolved endrine (19.5, E C) at 1:800 is sprayed to protect the leaves and stems of the plants. A stronger solution 1:600 is used for underground parts. Pouring 0.34 gallon of solution (1:600) around the stem per plant is effective for individual site protection.

Fungus attack on the leaves of E. camaldulensis was recorded in Popa (Mandalay Division) only and no other fungal damage has been reported. The attack was mainly on the leaves which turned black as the disease advanced. No serious damage was recorded and the disease did not advance much further. Though attacked by the fungus, other healthy branches produced leaves. The fungus is best treated with Bordeaux solution. The pathogen was suspected to a Cylindrocladium species, but others as Graphium and Phomopsis are not ruled out.

UTILIZATION OF EUCALYPTUS

Eucalypts are widely used as: fuelwood, poles, posts and building material for rural people, farm implement for rural people, raw material for paper mills, mine prop for Namtu silver mine (Shan) and Thitchauk mine (Sagaing), windbreak plantation (Kaungka, Kutkai, Shan), catchment area plantation, reforestation in severe climate and poor soil area, bee keeping, amenity planting and research purposes.

Mya Aung and Win Kyi (1980) studied the utilization of thinning poles from eucalypt plantations and found that these materials are used for different purposes in rural farming communities as shown in Figure 9.

Eucalypt oil. According to Khin Hla Myint et al (1970-72), eucalypt oil can be extracted from E. globulus and E. citriodora. E. globulus yields an essential oil of 1.68% to 3.1% out of which cineole constituted 70.33% to 85.37% which compares favourably with the standard pharmaceutical yield of 0.75% to 1.25% essential oil and cineole 65% to 75%. Eucalypt oil for perfumery can be extracted from E. citriodora; oil content and the percentage of citronella are not less than British Standard. The country’s annual requirement of E. globulus and E. citriodora oil is about 15,000 lbs and 150,000 lbs respectively. To obtain this yield of oil, an establishment of 1,500 acres of E. globulus and 3,000 acres of E. citriodora is required.

Figure 9. Utilisation of E. camaldulensis in Myanmar

Source: Mya Aung, Win Kyi (1980)

CONCLUSIONS

Eucalypts species have been tried in plantations since 1922 when there were still large areas of natural forest. The trial objectives with eucalypts were not only for the production of timber but also for amenity purposes. Another intent was to test its adaptability to various environmental conditions, i.e. locality/species matching for successful plantation establishment. Seven species tried can be classified into two categories: high altitude cool weather species, e.g. E. grandis, and those adaptable to all conditions from extremely hot and dry to cool climatic conditions, and also high rainfall areas, e.g. E. camaldulensis. Although these results were obtained, no serious attempts have been made on plantation establishment of appreciable extent, as in the past, there had been no problems with the wood requirements in the country.

Today the population has grown more than three times and the natural forests became ever more degraded and denuded. The time has arrived to give serious thought to plantation establishment with eucalypts. On account of its high adaptability to varying environmental conditions and its versatility of usage, no indigenous species can replace eucalypts for specific purposes like community fuelwood and multipurpose plantations all over the country. Starting from 1967, trial plantings were made for large scale planting, and based on the findings of these test plantings, actual large scale planting started in 1972 and in 1984.

Since E. camaldulensis was found highly adaptable to the extremely dry and hot region of central Myanmar where forests are totally denuded, large scale plantations were established for fuelwood in the region. Additionally industrial plantations were made in the high rainfall area of the Mon State to supply raw material for Sittaung Paper Mill, and in Bago and Mandalay Divisions for Yeni mill.

Plantation establishment has not gone smoothly all the time. There was a gap for many years when no eucalypts of sizable areas could be planted. It was due to the sudden collapse of the high expectations of eucalypts resulting from the great controversy over its suitability as a plantation crop. Given that E. camaldulensis is the most suitable species in the dry zone environment of central Myanmar, there is no other choice but to use it in plantation establishment. Species indigenous to the region are many and varied. But they are extremely slow growing and in the situation where one of the main objectives is to get firewood in a reasonably short time, E. camaldulensis was found to meet all the requirements expected of a tree species for the dry zone plantation.

Eucalypts were planted on a meager scale between 1967 and 1971 in trials for fuel and paper raw material. In the four year period 1,715 acres were test planted. The planting rate escalated in 1972 from about 3,500 acres annually and reached the maximum of 8,700 acres in 1979. The total area planted in that time was 36,380 odd acres. The planting tempo nose dived in 1980 with 400 acres planted in that year for three successive years then after annual planting rate was 600, 1,100 and 1,400 acres respectively. The planting rate in 1984 catches up again to the scale of 1972. Starting in 1984 the rate gradually increased year after year from 1984 to 1991, and altogether over 51,000 acres were planted. In 1991 there were 92,665 acres of eucalypts plantation. This constituted 8.8% of the total plantation area of various species (Figure 1).

Including the dry zone, there are today six regions in the country with a firewood deficiency. It is projected that the shortage shall be more acute, with an increase of one region increase by 2005. The shortages have had serious adverse impacts on the high value natural forest stands which have gradually been degraded. Forests denudation and degradation now stands at about 540,000 acres annually, the deteriorating forest environments results from no other than the actions of the people, which is the most unpredictable variable. Until and unless the peoples need for forest produce in general, and the biofuels in particular are met, forests will continue to be degraded.

It is accepted that people’s activities are central to the denudation and degradation issues, and it is essential to meet people’s requirements is essential to avert further undesirable trends in conserving valuable forest estates. The Forest Department has allotted some 40% of the annual planting programme of 80,000 acres to fuelwood and industrial raw material plantations. In this plantation component eucalypts will take up a good proportion both of the E. camaldulensis and E. grandis. Furthermore, instead of the Forest Department itself handling the fuelwood plantation programme, the area of activities will be diverted to communities and the private sector.

It has also been found out that given the opportunity to operate, village communities, be they in the dry zone of central Myanmar or in the moist zone of Ayeyarwady mangrove wetlands (both of which are fuelwood stressed region) are very eager to establish fuelwood plantations on a participatory basis. Recently carried out socioeconomic study in selected villages of Ayeyarwady Division in the delta indicated 100% people’s willingness to participate in community fuelwood plantation establishment on a self help basis. Although a similar study was not been conducted in the dry zone, it was found that villagers are eager to establish village owned fuelwood plantations, given the incentives of the right of usage of the produce.

Eucalypt can be summarized as the most useful species in the prevailing scenario of the fuelwood stressed region of the central dry zone. It has a great potential as good raw material for the paper mills. There are three main species of eucalypts widely used in Myanmar in ranking order: E. camaldulensis, E. grandis and E. citriodora. In spite of the still unsettled controversy and the debate prevailing in many areas, these are suitable, as trees for the people.

Furthermore, eucalypt biofuel plantations act as a buffer to avert damaging impact on the high value forests. As viewed in the socioeconomic context, there is still no alternative under the designated background. On the other hand the Forest Department is aware of the fact that the species is not everywhere suitable for planting having known its ecological impacts. There are alternative species which have limitations of their own. They are also being used in plantation establishment, which are Acacia auriculiformis, Cassia siamea and Leucaena leucocephala.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The suitability of eucalypts as multipurpose species for plantation establishment is beyond doubt in some ecologically highly degraded regions such as the dry zone of central Myanmar. Under the conditions prevailing there, further ecological retrogression can not be expected with the planting of eucalypts. It is within the context of the dry zone scenario where the tree cover is hardly more than the bushy growth of Euphorbia, Terminalia oliveri, Tectona hamiltoniana and thorny bushes that E. camaldulensis plantation is highly recommended.

Planting of eucalypts is recommended and is best done on the compatibility basis with the objectives which would be decided more on socio-economic requirements, than on any other considerations. Furthermore, eucalypt is only recommended in the highly biofuel stressed regions, where no other indigenous species would do better. It is also recommended to the disclimax vegetation region where forest regrowth cannot further be expected due to the heavy onslaught of human intervention. Eucalyptus is not recommended in areas where other high value species can be planted, as Myanmar has had the hard experience, of the mistake made in trying eucalypt in areas where Xylia dolabriformis does well. It is highly recommended that eucalypt planting for biofuel plantations be carried out under usufructuary land use and participatory basis by the rural communities.

Finally, eucalypt is also recommended for industrial plantations to supply raw material to paper mills, given that there are marginal lands where it is profitable to plant them.

REFERENCES

Anon. National forest inventory plantation data.

Ba Thwin. 1974. Introduction of Eucalyptus grandis as plantation trees in Mandalay/Maymyo Forest Division.

FAO. 1979. Eucalypts For Planting.

Forest Department Myanmar. 1991. Forest Resources of Myanmar.

Forest Department. 1993. Forestry Fact Sheets.

Forest Law. 1992.

Khin Hla Myint, Maung Gale, Yin Pe. 1972. Eucalyptus oil from planted eucalyptus in Myanmar.

Kyaw Tint and Tun Hla. 1991. Forest Cover of Myanmar.

Ko Ko Gyi. 1986. Species trial for fuelwood production.

Ko Ko Gyi and Zaw Win. 1985. Species trial for pulp wood production.

Mon State Forest Department. 1982. Plantation plan for Sittaung pulp and paper mill (Draft).

Mya Aung, Win Kyi. 1980. Field study on utilization of thinning poles from Eucalyptus plantation.

Myint Han, Win Mar, Ohn Ohn Thein. 1987. Effect of age on the pulping characteristic of plantation grown Eucalyptus.

Myint Swe. 1991. Modern principles of climatic matching for species selection.

Pe Thein. 1989. Field Study on industrial Eucalyptus plantation in Kyaikto, (Mon State).

Ral Lian Sum, Win Kyi. 1975. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, it's structure and properties.

Saw Win. 1986. A preliminary study on the coppicing of E. camaldulensis and E. grandis.

Saw Win. 1987. An assessment of yield of E. camaldulensis in Katha Forest Area.

Sein Maung Wint. 1972. Problems in the establishment of Eucalyptus plantation.

Sein Maung Wint, Ba Thwin, Than Swe. 1970. Trial plantation of fast growing species in Myanmar.

Sein Thet, Ko Ko Gyi, Thein Kywe, Htun Linn. 1985. Environmental Impact of Eucalyptus plantation with special reference to E. camaldulensis.

Soe Tint. 1984. Fuelwood outturn study in dry zone.

Soe Tint, Saw Win, Thein Kywe. 1985. Form factor, yield, structure and properties of E. grandis.

Yeni paper mill plan (Draft)