Case Study 11. Hay and crop residues in India and Nepal^[7]

The situation in India

Animal husbandry has been inseparable from Indian agriculture since time immemorial. Native knowledge and practices of stock-rearing were greatly enriched by the pastoral Aryans who first settled in the northwest of the country and spread throughout thereafter. Until the beginning of the twentieth century, feeding strategies were based on what was provided by nature; grazing formed the bulk of the feed and any shortfalls were made up by using tree fodder. Migratory and semi-migratory production systems minimized the shortages.

Rapidly increasing human population and urbanization disturbed this balance; the need for food crops led to a drastic reduction in grazing areas, with tree felling and consequent marginalization of the land holding. The demand for livestock products had a parallel increase and continues unabated today. The limited grassland production is very seasonal because of the rainfall pattern. To compensate for feed shortage, farmers made increasing use of crop residues and by-products, and these are now an integral part of livestock feeding systems throughout the country. The great demand for food limits fodder cultivation; rainy season surpluses from natural grassland are, however, made into hay in some areas.

Despite its many difficulties and fodder limitations, India has 15% of the world's livestock population (on 2% of the earth's land area). There has been a considerable rise in stock numbers in recent years and the national herd is now 450 000 000 head. The area under sown fodder has remained static at about 4.8% of the cultivated land. The limited forage production is a matter of national concern, and demand is rising sharply. Table 27 gives national estimates of requirements and supply.

Table 27. India's green and dry fodder availability and projected requirements (million tons)

Source: Draft Report of the Policy Advisory Group on Integrated Grazing Policy, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Govt of India, 1993

Through extensive efforts in research and development, the situation is improving progressively, albeit slowly. Since the early 1960s, fodder production has increased by seven to eight times, mainly through the introduction of high-yielding varieties and better technology to increase output from sown fodders per unit of land area. Degraded grassland has been improved through sylvi-pastoral systems allied to soil and water conservation, bringing biomass production on wasteland up to 8 t/ha. The contribution of agriculture to GDP (1991-1992) was 28.4%; domestic product from livestock as a percentage of all agricultural output increased from 8.6% in 1980-1981, to 21.3% in 1990-1991 (Singh et al., 1995). Little cultivated fodder is conserved, as it is so scarce that it is all used green to supplement coarse roughages. Only during the rainy seasons, August-September and February-March, is hay made from the grazing areas in some parts of India. In order to feed stock during the lean seasons (October-December and May-June), crop residues are conserved in large quantities. These are low quality and coarse feeds, but are still very valuable in low-input systems of poor farmers.

Figure 59. Temperatures and precipitation in Leh, India

LIVESTOCK-FORAGE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

The great diversity of India's climate, topography, water resources, flora, fauna and ethnicity markedly influences land use and production systems. Livestock production, however, is common to all production systems. In some places, notably the arid and semi-arid zones of Rajasthan, Gujarat, etc., and the cold deserts of Ladakh, Lahaul and Spiti, livestock are the mainstay of the production system; food crop residues and trees are also major feed sources. The main systems may be classified as follows:

Peri-urban livestock production The peripheries of well-organized habitations, both small towns and large cities, are the source of daily milk supplies to the urban populace. The farmers in peri-urban areas rear a few (4 - 30) healthy, productive milch animals and grow vegetables for the remunerative city market. They grow fodder on a year-round basis as part of their rotation (maize, bulrush millet, sorghum and cowpea in summer; berseem in winter) - none is conserved. Wheat straw, maize stover and other crop by-products are stored and purchased from rural areas. With this system the use of concentrates is essential.

The urban system Only milch animals (cows and buffaloes) are reared in the urban areas (both large and small cities). The animals are kept in congested sheds and fed on seasonal fodders and crop residues bought from rural areas. In some places there are shops selling green fodder. In order to maintain high yields, the stock are fed concentrates and receive good care - they are the healthiest of any system.

The rural system About 80% of India's population live in the rural areas and are in some way involved in livestock production. All farmers - large-, medium- and small-scale or landless - rear livestock, which are both a source of income and an insurance of livelihood. The rural population lives in villages; each village has its grazing areas, which may be wastelands or well-identified grasslands. These grazings are neglected, mismanaged and very low-yielding. High yields are only available during the monsoon, and average dry-matter yields vary between 0.5 and 4.2 t/yr (Singh and Misri, 1993). Fodder cultivation has not really caught on, except in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and western Uttar Pradesh. The commonest forage crop rotations, their yields and economics are given in Table 28.

Migratory grazing These systems have traditionally been practised in the Himalayas, but have spread to the deserts of Rajasthan and Gujarat and to some other parts of tropical India. Thirty migratory communities are described by Randhawa (1959). Migratory herds move from place to place following fodder availability. There are two categories: the semi-migratory and the transhumant systems.

Semi-migratory system This is practised by farmer-pastoralists in the Himalayas, who often have their permanent residences and crop-land in the foothills, as well as other, subsidiary, occupations. In summer, they take their stock to the sub-alpine and alpine pastures, where they stay from March to October. Right of usage of pastures is traditionally distributed between families, although the property rights remain vested in the state. Some farmers hire graziers to take the stock to pasture, and they are paid in both cash and kind.

Transhumant systems These are elaborate year-round systems of migration; the graziers do not have a fixed residence, although lately some have started having permanent households so that elders and young (for education) can stay behind. In tropical areas, migration starts when fodder becomes scarce locally. Migration may take place from Rajasthan to Uttar Pradesh during summer, with the herds returning at the onset of the monsoon (July). In the hills, particularly the Himalayan region, the upward journey from the plains begins in January-February and the flocks of sheep and goats reach the sub-alpine pastures in March; they graze in the sub-alpine and alpine zones till September-October, then travel back to the plains. On the plains, forage is always in short supply, and supplemented by forest grazing, but the graziers always have to supplement grazing by purchasing crop residues and grazing time on fallows.

Table 28. Common forage crop rotations and the economics of their cultivation

Notes: barja is bulrush millet. M.P. chari is sorghum
Source: Singh, P., 1988.

In Changtang (4 000 m altitude) the pastures are classified according to seasons. When grazing a pasture, care is taken to leave enough standing herbage, since the grass dries off and assures the necessary feed for the return migration. A herder, after grazing his stock in the winter pastures, starts the upward migration by grazing standing hay in the autumn and summer pastures - this allows sufficient time for the spring pastures to attain high growth and assures their sustainable vigour (Misri, 1993).

CONSERVED FODDER IN INDIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Fodder conservation is as essential to livestock rearing as is fodder production; apart from seasonal scarcities, the pasture on offer is often so scarce that crop residues are fed throughout the whole year. A general pattern of mixed feeding in the mid-hills of the Himalayan region is given in Table 29.

Silage is rarely made, except for a few large dairy enterprises. Dry crop residues and hay from natural grassland are the conserved feed.

Table 29. Feed offered per day and per livestock unit in the mid-hills

Source: Gill et al., 1967.

Crop residues

The straws and stovers of rice, wheat, finger millet, maize, sorghum, bulrush millet and sugar cane tops are the major lean season feeds used by farmers, alone or supplemented according to availability and the financial status of the farmer. The average chemical composition of the major residues is presented in Table 30

Table 30. Chemical composition of some common Indian crop residues

Source: Available published literature

In the Himalayan hills, even when grazing poor pastures, the animals often receive straw; Table 31 presents such a feeding regime.

Table 31. Supplementation of grazing animals in the mid-hills of the Himalaya

Source: Gill et al., 1967.

Rice straw

Rice is India's major food crop, with 43 million ha grown. The grain to straw ratio varies between 1:1.3 and 1:3. Bran accounts for about 15% of the paddy husk. Rice is harvested manually and threshed by hand, occasionally by bullock treading. Hand-beaten straw is of better quality and easier to store. Storage is usually in circular or rectangular stacks in the open field.

Wheat straw

Wheat, at 24 million ha, is India's second crop. It is harvested when the grain is ripe and the straw golden and brittle. Reaping is done manually, but threshing is by power or tractor-driven threshers, which break the straw into pieces 3 - 4 cm long, which avoids later labour for chaffing. The chopped straw is heaped in the field until stored, either under cover or in mud-plastered waterproof heaps. At the time of use, the straw is removed through a hole in the base of the mud covering. Chopped wheat straw is mixed with concentrates and water before feeding to stock.

Finger-millet straw

This is a rainfed crop, grown on 2.6 million ha. Ripening of the seed-heads is not synchronized; farmers harvest the ripe heads periodically and leave the stalks until the whole field is harvested (a period of 40 - 60 days). When the grain harvest is complete, the stalks are harvested. Some farmers harvest the whole crop at about 80% and leave the cut stalks in the field to ensure drying of the immature grain. Threshing is by treading, and the straw is stored in the open field, which affects its quality badly. Straw stored under protection is of better quality.

Sorghum and bulrush millet stovers

Sorghum (jowar) is an important food in central India, being grown on 17 to 18 million ha. Stover comprises 40 - 60% of the total biomass. Panicles are harvested by cutting the tops of the plants; the stover is harvested separately. The plants are cut by hand and tied in small bundles, then stooked in the field in a way that allows good air circulation. Later, the stover is stacked near the homestead; it is fed chopped, mixed with green feed and concentrates. Bulrush millet (bajra) is grown on 12 million ha, mostly as a rainfed crop, and provides large quantities of stover, which is highly appreciated as a feed by the farmers.

Maize stover

Maize is grown on 6 million ha, producing 18 - 20 t/ha of stover. The crop is well distributed throughout the country, and its stover is an important feed. It is often sown mixed with cowpea or soybean; this improves the quality of the stover. Cobs are hand-harvested and the stover thereafter dried in the field, like sorghum. Green fodder is always mixed with the chopped stover.

Sugar cane tops

Sugar cane is grown on 3.7 million ha; it is harvested manually and part of the apical internode is usually left with the top. After harvest, the tops - which form 15 - 20% (25 - 30% of the cane yield) of the biomass available - are dried, stacked and used during lean periods.

Hay

Haymaking is localized in India; in most areas the grasslands are under such pressure that no herbage is available for conservation. In some of the peninsular states, like Maharastra and Gujarat, haymaking from protected forests and grasslands is very common. The major reason for the popularity of haymaking there is the lucrative market in big cities like Mumbai. Most of the hay produced in these states is sold and transported over long distances to places like Mumbai, Kashmir and Ladakh. Haymaking is also widespread in the hilly regions of the Himalayas: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the hilly tracts of Uttar Pradesh.

There are privately-owned grasslands and wastelands, but protected forest areas are the best hayfields. In the context of natural forest management plans, the state agencies close huge areas to grazing to ensure forest regeneration. The right to harvest grass may be auctioned or the local population is allowed to harvest the herbage free of cost. Village community grazing lands are also used for haymaking, using a participatory approach. Most of the grass cut is conserved as hay. Orchards, field bunds, riversides and other protected sites are also hay sources.

Himachal Pradesh is the only state where grasslands are privately owned; these are known locally as ghasnis and vary from 1 to 10 ha. They are protected from grazing during the growing season and the peak of herbage is during the monsoon, when it is very difficult to dry hay because of the heavy rains. Haymaking is therefore delayed until October, but by then the grasses are overmature and the quality of the hay is poor.

In the semi-arid areas, some farmers own wasteland unsuitable for development as arable land; these areas are grazed until the onset of the monsoon, then they are fenced with thorny bushes. The monsoon growth is made into hay in August - September. There is an unusual system of haymaking in the tribal areas of Gujarat: after the rice harvest in September, the fields are left fallow and wild grasses like Dichanthium annulatum, Arthraxon spp. and Setaria spp. form a sward which is harvested as hay, but after seed shattering, to provide the seed-bank for the ensuing year. The hay is kept for summer use. In the cold, arid Himalayan region, 30 - 40% of the cultivable area is planted to lucerne; traditionally one cut was taken in August, but now two or three cuts are made. The hay is tied in small bundles which are stacked on the flat roofs of the houses. As there is very little precipitation, there is no fear of the hay being spoilt.

Haymaking techniques

The techniques are age-old: the herbage is cut by iron sickles (except for the Buddhist Ladakhis, who use a yak-horn sickle, believing that lucerne cut by an iron sickle will not re-grow; they begin haymaking on an auspicious day fixed by the local monk). The cut herbage is spread over the field and turned several times till it dries. In Kashmir, the hay is made into trusses and hung on trees or tripods to complete drying. Usually, however, the hay is tied into sheaves bound by grass rope. Made hay may be stacked; it is often stored in trees. In some hilly areas, the hay is stored in attics. In Gujarat, Maharastra and parts of Madhaya Pradesh, with large quantities for sale to distant markets, the hay is baled. The botanical composition of hay varies from place to place, with the common feature that there are hardly any legumes. Only in parts of Kashmir might the hay contain small quantities of Lespedeza sp. Hay from both the tropical and hilly areas is very poor in quality, mainly due to late harvest. During the rains (July - early September), when the herbage is at its best, the weather is unsuitable for harvest and drying. It is consequently made in October, by which time the grass is overmature and dying off.

The potential and nutritional status of the herbage from the mid-hills is presented in Table 32.

Table 32. Composition of hays at different stages in the mid-hills of Himachal Pradesh

Key to columns: CP = crude protein. EE = ether extract. CF = crude fibre. Ca = calcium. P = phosphorus.

Source: Gill et al., 1970.

Management has a marked effect on yield: community grazing lands in the Himalayas produce about 7 t/ha of green matter, while privately-owned hay fields produce average fresh weight above 10 t/ha (Kotru, 1997).

There is a huge market for hay, straw and stover. Throughout India, it is common to find sales points for green and conserved fodder, but the marketing is not organized. Shops retail fodder in urban areas; some farmers bring fodder to town and sell it door-to-door for domestic livestock. The selling rates for hay depend largely on the transportation: hay originating from western India and sold to the Army in Ladakh may cost up to Rs 250 (about US$ 7) per kilogram. Farm-to-farm sales are usually by barter.

Table 33. Contribution of different plants to hay at Almora (1 500 m elevation)

Source: Koranne and Singh, 1980.

Possibilities for improvement

The greatest limiting factor in hay production is the late harvest, which leads to low quality. Therefore, the possibility of communally managed mowing machinery and dryers should be investigated. Storage methods for hay and crop residues should be improved. Mechanical baling for transport of marketed hay requires improvement. Further work and extension on the urea treatment of crop residues is required.

Hay in Nepal

The situation in Nepal is similar to that in India, but since land holdings are even smaller and the terrain is mostly very broken, the feed situation is even more problematical. Livestock is an important component of Nepali farming systems and is the most important cash source for rural families. There are three distinct topographical regions: the terai is the plains and lowest foothills, tropical in climate; the hills (middle mountains which are highly populated and cultivated); and the mountains, which go to the snow-line and are largely pastoral. The hills, where the population pressure is greatest, is the toughest in terms of agricultural and animal production; land holdings are very small, averaging 0.71 ha, and terraces are made even on 50 to 60° slopes. Maize is the most important crop, followed by rice and wheat.

Integration of livestock into production systems is pronounced, the largest number of livestock being in the hills (mainly cattle, goats and buffalo). In the mountains, yaks and yak crosses (chauries) are very important, and transhumant systems are followed. Everywhere, crop residues are very carefully stored, often in houses or in trees, but the handling of wheat straw is less developed than in India and Pakistan, as it is a relatively recent crop in much of low- and medium-altitude Nepal. The main feed deficit is during November to February, when pastures are either snow-covered or growth is dormant. Tree fodder is widely used in periods of feed scarcity and many forests, especially of oak, are severely lopped. Hay is made in summer in the mountains and after the monsoon in the hills and terai, but the quantities available are always insufficient. Hay and straw are rationed during the season of scarcity to maintain the livestock, but often in insufficient quantity and quality for growth, so many of the hill cattle are stunted. Since the total quantity of conserved feed is insufficient, straw treatment with urea, which would improve feeding value, but also increase intake, is pointless.

In the high mountain areas, haymaking practices vary from one ethnic group to another; some have long traditions of making hay from natural pasture, others do not do so although the seasons are harsh throughout these lands fringing the snows. Transhumance is practised (sometimes routes overlap and what is summer pasture for cattle herds from low down become winter grazing for yaks and chauries (but that does not suffice to provide cold-season feed). Yellow-flowered lucerne (Medicago falcata) occurs naturally around irrigated lands and in protected sites in the high valleys, and is valued as a fodder and hay plant.

Table 34. Information on three livestock systems in Nepal (Average per household)

Notes: (1) chauries are cow ´ yak hybrids. (2) TDN = total digestible nitrogen.
Source: Yadav, 1992.

Table 35. Labour need, crop and by-products of three crop production systems in Nepal

Source: Yadav, 1992.