OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS - Muhammad Mehboob Alam

Muhammad Mehboob Alam
Director, International Waterlogging and Salinity Research Institute
Lahore, Pakistan

SUMMARY

This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of "Operation and maintenance of drainage systems for sustainable agriculture and enhanced rural livelihoods". As part of its work for Pakistan, the IPTRID mission identified five priorities constituting the updated Pakistan-IPTRID programme:

a. improved O&M of drainage systems for sustainable agriculture and enhanced rural livelihoods;

b. enhanced management of drainage water resources towards the NDA;

c. water management in Baluchistan;

d. capacity building in GIS for waterlogging and salinity control;

e. strengthening the IPTRID network in Pakistan.

Improved O&M of drainage systems for sustainable agriculture is one of the priorities for irrigated agriculture in Pakistan.

National and international literature is reviewed with particular reference to O&M of drainage systems and experiences in Pakistan. The main focus of the review is on:

a. institutional factors for effective O&M of drainage systems;

b. farmers' participation in O&M;

c. performance of drainage systems;

d. management information systems for improving O&M.

The review includes conclusions and recommendations. The major recommendations on institutional factors for effective O&M are related to environmental protection, adequate funding for O&M, research support, inter-agency coordination, legislation for provincial irrigation and drainage authorities (PIDAs), area water boards (AWBs) and farmers' organizations (FOs), institutional support to FOs and policy regarding farmers' participation. The main recommendations on farmers' participation in O&M of drainage relate to collaborative on-farm drainage, training and capacity building of FOs, pilot studies on participatory approaches, social mobilization for farmers' participation and coordination of government agencies with FOs.

With regard to performance of drainage systems, the major recommendations relate to O&M funding, maintenance assessment surveys, regular desilting, O&M through participatory drainage, preference for tile drainage, credit for farmers, priority maintenance of surface drains and capacity building.

Recommendations related to management of O&M of drainage systems include monitoring and evaluation, environmental impact assessment, study of the salt balance and its impact on the system, coordination and integration with the farming community, database development, information sharing and networking.

INTRODUCTION

For the purpose of this review of "Operation and maintenance of drainage systems for sustainable agriculture and enhanced rural livelihoods", national and international literature has been reviewed with particular reference to O&M of drainage systems. Emphasis is given to drainage systems in Pakistan, O&M issues and government policies addressing the waterlogging and salinity problem. Conclusions and recommendations are drawn, with special attention to:

• institutional factors for effective O&M of drainage systems;

• farmers' participation in O&M;

• assessing performance of drainage systems;

• management information systems for improving O&M.

The aim of the study is to help with preparation of the project formulation framework (PFF). IPTRID's assistance in this activity is gratefully acknowledged.

BACKGROUND

The irrigation system in Pakistan is one of the largest in the world. Seepage from the system resulting from continuous development has caused waterlogging and salinity. The objectives of more recent drainage systems have not been realized because of inefficient management and inadequate O&M funds. Considerable inputs from international agencies have been made, however, with some success.

As part of the international input, in 1991 the Pakistan-IPTRID programme was begun. The broad objectives are to promote technology and R&D in the irrigation and drainage sector by providing a forum for interaction among developing countries, donors and national and international research institutes. Special objectives of IPTRID are to extend technical assistance to developing countries and facilitate training and exchange of information and link R&D with development.

An IPTRID mission visited Pakistan in June 2000 and identified five priorities for the updated Pakistan-IPTRID programme.

1. Improved O&M of drainage systems for sustainable agriculture and enhanced rural livelihoods.

2. Enhance management of drainage water resources towards an NDA.

3. Water management in Baluchistan province.

4. Capacity building in GIS for waterlogging and salinity control.

5. Strengthening the IPTRID network in Pakistan.

This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of the first priority. The ultimate aim is to prepare a PFF on "Improved O&M of drainage systems for sustainable agriculture and enhanced rural livelihoods".

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

National literature review

Shah and Qureshi (2000) studied the Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) project and its impact, with specific reference to O&M. Since 1994, with the assistance and cooperation of beneficiaries, the watertable depth has been lowered to its level before drainage infrastructure implementation. Negative factors were trade union interference, lack of timely funding and delayed responses from agencies when immediate action was needed. Performance-based O&M contracts were proposed to avoid such situations and helped to achieve the envisaged results. The project was rated as positive with respect to reducing waterlogging and salinity, reducing damage to infrastructures, increasing yield, income and water supplies and improving health and the environment. In general, the project helped sustainable agriculture and enhanced rural livelihoods.

Chaudhry and Bhutta (2000) assessed the performance of the Fourth Drainage Project. Their study revealed that in addition to funding constraints, major O&M problems were associated with periods of pump breakdown and unserviceability, electrical and civil work failures, poor maintenance, inadequate surface drain capacity, lack of beneficiary involvement and insecurity of facilities. They made recommendations based on their observations and reviews of previous research, including introduction of institutional reforms, participation of beneficiaries from planning to sustained operation, provision of adequate maintenance funds and training and motivation of farmers and technical staff, particularly on O&M of drainage facilities. The implementing agency should maintain the system until it can be placed on a sound operational footing involving local funds and facilities without dependence on imported technologies. Coordination between the construction and operating agencies must be guaranteed. Maintenance of surface drains should be given priority to enhance subsurface drainage.

Niazi et al. (2000) conducted pilot research on a farmers' participatory drainage system at Bahawalnagar. A farmers' drainage organization (FDO) was established which took an active part in planning, design and construction of the village drainage system and now supervises O&M. The FDO was organized through participatory rural appraisal (PRA). Mobilization of farmers in drainage is difficult, but there is an urgent need to involve beneficiaries in drainage O&M and reclamation systems. The authors recommended that farmers should identify project boundaries, suggest measures, clarify roles and responsibilities and ensure collection of farmers' contributions before starting actual work. Training of staff and farmers in all aspects of a project should be ensured.

Mirbahar and Sipraw (2000) studied participatory on-farm tile drainage systems in Sindh. They concluded that performance of tile drainage units with farmers' participation is effective and can be implemented on a large scale. Farmers must be motivated and short-term credit facilities provided. The authors recommended increasing the capacity of local private construction contractors by providing short-term loans for acquisition of tile-drainage machinery.

Hussain and Haq (2000) studied the pilot programme for farmer-managed interceptor-cum-subsurface drains (ICSD) in the Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia South (FESS) project. The farmer-managed ICSD concept arose from concerns about O&M sustainability in interceptor drainage. The effects demonstrated at FESS trial drainage sites showed clear benefits and prompted farmers to construct ICSDs. The project's social unit helped to mobilize FOs and identified important factors for success with ICSDs, which include site selection, site-specific approaches, stability of participation conditions, appropriate social mobilization and involvement of farmers at every stage. The authors pointed out that time-consuming activities include building farmers' trust, verification of land holdings, approval of the partnership agreement and registration of FOs.

Masood and Gohar (2000) studied the transition from salinity control and reclamation projects (SCARPs) to community tubewells in fresh groundwater areas, and watercourse lining in saline areas to be operated by FOs under the Punjab Private Sector Groundwater Development Project (PPSGDP). The project is being implemented through farmers' participation in planning, budgeting, contract supervision and financial contributions. FOs are established at watercourse, minor and distributary levels through comprehensive social mobilization. A groundwater regulatory framework is being established to ensure sustainability; farmers are involved in groundwater monitoring. The authors recommended educating farmers on the need for water conservation and management through active participation at all levels, from planning to O&M. They emphasized that projects should be planned in consultation with farmers to obtain their support.

Latif and Masih (2000) assessed sustainability of community tubewells and evaluated the impact of SCARP-I transition on watertable depths and quality of pumped water. The indicators used were engineering, technical and organizational aspects, reliability, equity, manageability, financial viability, technical/social guidance and replicability. The results were not encouraging: equity, reliability, financial viability, formal meetings, record keeping, external guidance, replicability, incentives, benefits and leadership were rated as "low". The ability of FOs to manage community tubewells, technical/engineering aspects of the system, environmental impacts and conflicts were rated as "medium". The authors concluded that community tubewells in the study area were non-sustainable and recommended improving the sustainability indicators. Training farmers in system management and collective action can help in participatory irrigation and drainage management.

Pathan and Rind (2000) studied SCARP transition in the North Rohri Pilot Project to assess farmers' participation, especially with regard to equity and sustainability in irrigation and drainage management. They suggested that the policy of transferring groundwater resources from public management to farmer-managed irrigation and drainage is necessary, and that implementation could be improved by encouraging more head-reach farmers to install tubewells. They suggested electric flat-rate tubewells and imposing water tariffs or restrictions on access to canal supplies for head-reach farmers. The authors concluded that transfer to tubewells can be implemented in such a way that losses in terms of equity, sustainability and productivity can be minimized.

Ujjan et al. (2000) studied tile-drainage units in LBOD projects under the command of Bareji distributary. Watertable and sump-operation data indicated that inflows resulting from water losses and outflows from drainage units almost balanced, because very small fluctuations in watertable levels were observed between August 1999 and July 2000. O&M costs for this period were projected to evaluate the drainage loss. Results indicated that estimated O&M expenditure recommended for future operation exceeds actual expenditure by more than 100 percent.

Lashari and Memon (2000) studied the viability of farmers assuming responsibility for O&M of irrigation and drainage systems in the LBOD project. For this purpose, FOs were established at three pilot distributaries/minors of the Jamrao, Nara and Rohri canals and registered under the Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority (SIDA). The FOs have used their own labour to desilt distributaries and hired tractors and excavators where needed. They are approaching the National Drainage Programme (NDP) and the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) to run drainage facilities. In the field, O&M issues are being encountered that relate to monitoring of irrigation and drainage systems, rehabilitation of distributaries and slow progress in forming FOs. Problems include lack of research on O&M of irrigation and drainage, research results not being disseminated to beneficiaries and lack of coordination.

Qureshi et al. (2000) evaluated performance of the LBOD spinal drain. Monitoring of selected reaches was carried out between 1995 and 1999. The delivery ratio of the drain indicated that it is not performing according to design specifications. The condition of the drain was evaluated by a diagnostic walk-through survey. Critical cross-sections showed sediment deposition, and it was observed that stability of the drains is disturbed by vegetation growth, wind action, animal activity and improper maintenance. The authors recommended proper monitoring of the drainage system and O&M carried out with farmers' participation.

Alam and Hassan (2000) highlighted the status and future needs of networking in irrigation and drainage in Pakistan and the role of IPTRID and IWASRI in facilitating this. IWASRI is cooperating with national and international organizations to disseminate the latest research and experience, technical papers, newsletters and reports to organizations working on waterlogging and salinity. It was recommended that irrigation and drainage authorities should divert resources to promoting networking activities. The NDP can be a vital catalyst in promoting networking, because it is a country-wide programme involving provincial and central government departments, research organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

Tarar (1995) reviewed surface and subsurface drainage technologies in the context of actual performance in Pakistan, taking into account effluent quality, watertable control, salt balance and salt effluent disposal sustainability. Emerging long term issues such as salt distribution, impacts on fresh groundwater quality of continued recycling, overall salt balance and disposal of drainage effluent outside the basin were discussed. Sustainability of many SCARPs is endangered because of operational and financial difficulties. The most critical long-term issue is effluent disposal; none of the methods in the system seem acceptable. Disposal outside the system by taking effluent out to sea is recommended as the ultimate sustainable solution. The author suggested consideration of preventive approaches to reduce effluent volumes through water management and biological drainage.

Chandio and Chandio (1995) studied O&M costs and performance of drainage tubewells. They recommended that tubewells should only be installed in fresh groundwater zones and that their capacity should be reduced. Costs can be reduced by using centrifugal pumps and tile drainage could be introduced in saline areas, with farmers' participation. They recommended effluent disposal into the sea.

Mirbahar and Sipraw (1995) evaluated the performance of East Khairpur Tile Drainage (EKTD), a pilot project of the Drainage and Reclamation Institute of Pakistan (DRIP) and collaborative tile-drainage units. Pre- and post-project conditions were compared. EKTD performed relatively poorly in watertable control, soil reclamation, farm incomes and drainage costs. The results showed that collaborative tile drainage is the only answer for future on-farm drainage in Pakistan. In collaborative drainage, farmers shared 40 percent of capital costs and had full responsibility for O&M costs. The authors recommended providing loan facilities to farmers for on-farm drainage.

Awan (1995) evaluated the performance of SCARP Mardan, studying factors influencing performance such as design, land slope and quality and time of construction and reporting satisfactory performance of the drainage system. He recommended checking hydraulic conductivity and calculated drainage rates against field performance. The performance of drainage machinery should be studied with regard to overall project economics and quality of work. He suggested monitoring watertable conditions and on-farm aspects such as changes in crop yields, biomass, salinity/alkalinity and water quality.

Reeves (1995) studied O&M needs of the LBOD project, showing that success will depend on efficient O&M. He recognized the importance of beneficiaries and their need for good O&M and hence the need for greater farmer awareness. As O&M is costly, feedback through groundwater level monitoring is required for operation of the project. Benefits need to be fully demonstrated to farmers to obtain their participation. Feedback from the project can help to fine-tune the next stage of irrigation and drainage development.

Sheikh and Soomro (1995) evaluated performance of tubewells at Khaipur. Comparison of pre- and post-project results showed that after satisfactory operation for 14 years the watertable has regained its original level. The study showed changes in watertable depth, discharge, salinity, pumping installations and agricultural aspects resulting from improper operation and poor maintenance of tubewells and disposal drains.

Rehman and Rafiq (1995) studied drainage systems and developed a strategy for future sustainability. They identified major issues affecting future strategy, including O&M of drainage facilities, salt balance in the root zone and safe disposal of drainage effluent outside the system. The proposed strategy includes preference for O&M of existing facilities, careful selection of new drainage projects, development of a national surface-drainage system and monitoring and control of soil and water degradation. The authors recommended creation of self-sustaining autonomous service units involving beneficiary participation in each province for O&M of drainage facilities.

Boers and Zuberi (1995) analysed the drainage situation in Pakistan and identified research needs. In their view, waterlogging and salinity have developed from an agricultural into an environmental problem calling for new research methods involving application of hydrological models. They suggested that research should focus on salt disposal problems, drainage of saline groundwater zones, reuse of saline effluent, environmental impacts of evaporation ponds and integration of irrigation and drainage at national level. The authors suggested the Indus basin outfall drain (IBOD) concept.

Rafiq et al. (2000) studied participatory drainage in Bahawalnagar Pilot Study area. The major conclusion is that drainage systems operated by farmers help to control the watertable. Only beneficiary farmers participated in the farmers' drainage organization; they are prepared to pump only for irrigation. Based on experience gained from this study, the major recommendations include involvement of farmers at all levels to create a sense of ownership and responsibility. Training for farmers is essential; farmers should contribute before the start of any work; female staff should work with female farmers.

Wolters (2000) synthesized research by IWASRI in collaboration with the Netherlands Research Assistance Project (NRAP). Lessons learned from O&M of the drainage system are documented, including:

• farmers might be ready to pump for irrigation but they will not pump continuously for drainage;

• surface drains are not functioning properly because of poor maintenance;

• O&M problems mean that benefits expected at the time of design cannot be fully achieved;

• installation of drainage without securing O&M is wasted;

• cleaning choked surface drains can prevent waterlogging and help sustain watertables.

Further study of the effect of maintenance on large open drains and improved methods of O&M were suggested.

The World Bank (1994) analysed the irrigation and drainage situation in Pakistan, identifying problems, their origins and options for solutions. With regard to O&M of drainage systems, the analysis showed that the system has deteriorated because of deferred maintenance and utilization beyond design capacities. Water and drainage charges are not currently linked to O&M needs: the gap between O&M expenditure and recovery through water charges is large and increasing. Unlike on-farm drainage, off-farm drainage is a public service which must be supplied by the Government. Problems arising from inappropriate institutional frameworks require reforms to ensure autonomy, transparency and accountability in the present organization of drainage. The study suggested a different approach to solve irrigation and drainage problems, based on the idea that water provision that is not a public service should be commercialized and later privatized. Only market-determined incentives for irrigation and on-farm drainage can sustain performance. The study recommended organizing farmers to carry out some O&M and emphasized the importance of legislating on water rights, markets and institutions and pilot levels at canal command, establishing public utilities and developing user organizations. Development of provincial water authorities and strengthening of federal agencies in their roles in irrigation and drainage were also recommended.

Kamal et al. (1997) presented the experience of farmers' participation in the LBOD project. The Drainage Advisory Service (DAS) has developed and implemented strategies for information, communication, consultation, gender and collaboration, resulting in participatory processes that include FOs and women's action groups. DAS recommended development of a partnership system overseen by a stakeholders' committee for taking collective responsibility for LBOD.

Zuberi (1999) reviewed Pakistan's groundwater resources and compared public and private tubewell performance. The study showed that although SCARP tubewells have provided benefits, their performance has suffered because of underachievement of targets, inefficient centralized management resulting in technical and O&M problems and unsustainable financial burdens.

Qamar (1998) presented an appraisal of national water strategy. He recommended reducing deep drainage and promoting subsurface pipe drainage. He supported the outfall drain from central Punjab for effluent disposal into the sea and supported the new institutional reforms for decentralization and management transfer of irrigation and drainage systems proposed under the NDP.

Ruiter (1999) evaluated approaches in Pakistan to introducing and enhancing farmers' participation in drainage. Features were presented of seven projects that work on farmers participation in drainage and irrigation. The projects are:

• Bahawalnagar Pilot study area by IWASRI/NRAP;

• farmer-managed interceptor-cum-subsurface drains (ICSD) in fordwash eastern Sadiqia south (FESS);

• on-farm drainage in the on-farm water management (OFWM) project by OECD/OFWM;

• the Baluchistan community irrigation and agriculture project (BCIAP);

• Punjab private sector groundwater development project (PPSGDP);

• the Hakra 4-R distributary water user organization pilot project by IWMI-Pakistan;

• the drainage advisory service (DAS) of the left bank outfall drain (LBOD) project.

Only four of the projects deal with drainage. Twenty-eight features have been evaluated and compared, most of which affect farmers' participation. For example, incentives and constraints may include technology to be used, possibilities of reusing drainage effluent, final ownership of the facility and the contribution required. The conclusion was that the approaches of different projects to farmers' participation and levels of success cannot simply be compared, because concepts of participation are different. In some projects, participation is an objective in itself; in others, it is a means of achieving another objective. There is no perfect model for enhancing farmers' participation.

Birch (1997) studied drainage aspects of the OFWM project implemented from 1992 to 1998 in various parts of Pakistan. One of the objectives was to strengthen farmers' participation. The physical works included development of 25 on-farm surface drainage schemes in the Punjab districts of Gujrat, Gujranwala, Sialkot and Lahore, where removal of excess water is required after the monsoon. The concept met the farmers' need to control waterlogging and salinity with subsurface drainage. The project organized drainage beneficiaries' groups (DBG) to share 50 percent of the cost. It was decided that DBGs would provide land and build the field drains themselves. To assist DBGs with maintenance, the project provided help with the training programme, maintenance manuals and follow up visits. Greater integration of on-farm drainage with irrigation/water management, coordination of line agencies for sustainability, legislation for ownership of drainage infrastructures and training for farmers' organizations are recommended.

Bashir et al. (1996) studied the performance of interceptor drains in the Chashma Right Bank Canal (CRBC) and FESS projects. They concluded that interceptors control watertables effectively in the vicinity of canals. Investigation of soil types is necessary.

Qamar (1993) studied environmental issues of irrigation and drainage in Pakistan. Major environmental implications in drainage include loss of habitat and vegetation resulting from construction of drains and changes in river and lake ecology, land use, groundwater regimes and waterfowl migration because of reduction in wetlands. Improved education, adoption of less pollutive technologies and policy reforms and institutional changes based on successes in other countries were recommended.

Rafiq (1993) studied the environmental effects of surface-drain, tile-drain and tubewell technologies. The conclusion was that surface drains and tile drains are quite efficient in removing salts, whereas tubewell water used for irrigation dumps salts on the soil. Detailed study of the impact of tubewells, especially in SCARP areas, was recommended.

Qaiser (1997) highlighted government objectives, policies and strategies related to sustainable participatory management in irrigation and drainage and institutional changes in the water sector as a part of policy reform. Government policy objectives include increasing water productivity, equitable distribution, O&M costs and revenues, increasing private sector involvement in development and O&M and pilot testing FOs. Strategies to achieve these objectives include:

• an integrated approach, implementing national drainage and water management programmes;

• institutional reforms in irrigation and drainage agencies;

• beneficiaries' participation;

• salinity control and reclamation project (SCARP) transition and fresh-water exploitation by the private sector;

• on-farm drainage shared by FOs;

• government-managed subsurface drainage in saline areas, except where beneficiaries contribute partly;

• cost-effective O&M and recovery to make the system self-sustaining;

• efficient procedures for development and O&M;

• transfer of surface drains below 425 litres/sec to FOs for O&M.

Increased focus on soil and institutional components, training of farmers and physical, managerial, environmental, technical, financial and operational development to address sustainability of the irrigation and drainage system were all recommended.

Akhtar (1997) discussed farmers' participation in the NDP, which was developed with the objective of ensuring efficient O&M of drainage facilities through motivation and increased participatory management by beneficiaries and involvement of the private sector. The NDP is conceived as a step towards institutional and policy reforms and changes in legal and regulatory frameworks to allow farmers and the private sector to participate in O&M of drainage facilities to make them sustainable. The NDP has four main components: sector planning and research, institutional reforms, drainage investment and programme coordination and supervision. The institutional reforms component deals with farmers' participation in irrigation and drainage; farmers will be involved at policy and management levels, in drainage works and O&M, PIDAs, AWBs and land evaluation committees. Public information, education and communication centres will be established at projects.

Cross (1992) assessed environmental effects of drainage in Pakistan, highlighting the use of environmental impact assessment (EIA) checklists for project planning and describing the EIA methodology of scoping and screening to identify position, constraints and negative and residual impacts of the projects. Negative impacts of drainage requiring mitigation, including salt mobilization and transport, organic waste transport, changes in soil chemistry and threats to ecology and health were identified.

Vaghera et al. (1995) studied the drainage system in the Mahi canal India, concluding that watertable conditions before and after drainage installation reflect control of the watertable. Reduced water levels and salinity result in considerable increase in the crop yield. They recommended installation of the drainage systems in other areas.

Bhutta and Wolters (1997) studied waterlogging and salinity in Pakistan and suggested remedial measures. O&M of drainage systems is carried out by provincial irrigation departments (PIDs), but they do not receive adequate funds; because of poor O&M, the expected benefits of drainage could not be achieved. The authors suggested a strategy for sustainability of irrigated agriculture based on water-conservation measures, rehabilitation and extension of surface-drainage systems, implementation of subsurface drainage where needed and studies to improve system management. They noted NDP efforts to promote farmers' participation in drainage, but observed a serious lack of understanding at decision-making level of what it takes to involve farmers, especially in planning, implementing and maintaning drainage systems.

International literature review

Pearce (2000) gave an overview of the role of drainage in development from a United Kingdom perspective, noting that too much productive land has already been lost, a trend that needs to be halted. Priority investment is needed for sustainability of agriculture in tropical areas. Investment in drainage programmes will be an effective way to make progress towards 2015 poverty alleviation targets.

Zimmer (2000) reviewed drainage in western Europe, stating that trends in drainage construction have changed with the achievement of food self-sufficiency and increasing environmental concerns. Construction of subsurface drainage systems is usually decided and paid for by individual farmers or landowner's associations. Maintenance of drainage systems is the responsibility of individual farmers at field level and of associations ruled by elected boards at catchment level. Field drainage has long been subsidized by the governments at federal, state and regional levels, typically at between 10 percent and 60 percent of total investment. The major role of agriculture is now changing, following the achievement of food self-sufficiency to land preservation, rural development and environmental protection, requiring important changes in drainage design and management.

Abdullah (2000) studied drainage development in the humid tropical regions of south and southeast Asia, focusing particularly on the Malaysian experience and highlighting rainfall-induced drainage problems such as crop productivity and yield affected by seasonal variations in rainfall. Implementation of agricultural drainage projects is seen as one of the strategies to eradicate poverty. Various categories of soils with associated problems have been identified, such as peat soils, acid sulphate soils, saline soils and bris and tin tailing soils. Prime importance is given to water management and international collaboration in research and agrotechnology.

Abdul-Dayam (2000) discussed drainage experiences in arid and semi-arid regions, highlighting drainage needs to control waterlogging and salinity. Drainage development in arid and semi-arid regions lags far behind the development of irrigation and that irrigated agriculture is thus at high risk of losing productive lands to waterlogging and salinization. Future drainage needs were identified in terms of policy, drainage institutions, cost recovery, users' participation, environmental and health considerations and research and technology development. Participatory approaches in drainage have not developed to the same level as participation in irrigation. Delayed benefits of drainage call for governments to remain in the lead in implementing new drainage systems and to recognize the importance of users' participation, especially in O&M. Developments in Pakistan were particularly highlighted. Drainage development, at least at the initial stages, needs strong government support at all levels.

Malano (2000) suggested that service-oriented management involving clear definition of standards agreed by drainage organizations and beneficiaries, well developed service agreements and comprehensive management plans is critical to satisfactory performance. Local physical, socioeconomic and environmental conditions must be taken into account. The paper highlights the cost of different levels of drainage service, taking into consideration long-term maintenance, renewal and modernization of drainage infrastructures, and accountability mechanisms. It recommends clear identification of the differences between costs and prices of service in order to make provisions to meet the shortfall in revenues.

Hooja (2000) analysed participatory irrigation and drainage in India and highlighted the "time is right" factor as a prerequisite for drainage to be accepted and implemented in the country. Socioeconomic and institutional factors are also important. The author concludes that drainage should be viewed as one important component of an integrated multi-disciplinary water and agriculture management strategy encompassing improved main-system management and operation, on-farm development, water-users' associations (WUAs), warabandi, improved on-farm water-application techniques, drainage (surface, subsurface, vertical and biological), agriculture and irrigation extension, training of farmers and command area development agencies, agriculture, irrigation and groundwater staff and community involvement. Effective technical, economic, participatory and administrative planning is essential for such an effort to succeed.

Singh et al. (2000) studied the socio-economic performance of subsurface drainage installed by the Rajasthan Agriculture Drainage Project (RAJAD). The social profiles of beneficiaries, farmers' participation, gender, people's organizations, economic assessment, farmers' cost-sharing capacity and provision of subsidies and installation costs for subsurface drainage were considered. The conclusions are that the project can control soil degradation, and if replicated on large scale can improve beneficiaries' social and economic status.

Solanki and Singh (2000) studied farmers' perceptions of subsurface drainage systems in the Chambal Command Area of RAJAD in India. They concluded that the government and NGOs could not convince farmers to install subsurface drainage, but political workers managed to motivate them. Most of the farmers were not interested in sharing installation and maintenance costs because they saw them as government responsibilities. A few farmers were in favour of installing and maintaining the system, however; it proved beneficial and farmers were satisfied with this technology.

Bhutta et al. (2000) studied pilot-scale participatory drainage at Bahawalnagar in the Punjab. The experience of participatory drainage project planning, construction and O&M is documented, and can help in future participatory drainage projects in Pakistan. Methodology included PRA and collaborating with NGOs to mobilize farmers and establish an FDO. A socio-economic baseline survey and action plan was agreed with the FDO to identify responsibilities, contributions, resources and finances, rights and obligations. Farmers' contributions amount to 7 percent, plus O&M responsibility. Conclusions are that pumping can be done more easily if farmers reuse drainage effluent and that farmers' participation can reduce the cost. Mobilization of farmers for participation in drainage and establishment of the FDO required considerable time. Farmers can easily provide unskilled labour but money contributions are a difficulty. Job assignments must be be spelled out clearly if an NGO is involved.

Barla and Ajmera (2000) studied the cost-sharing capacity of farmers for subsurface drainage in the Chambal Command Area of India. They conducted a survey of small, medium and large land-holding farmers, estimated average gross incomes with and without subsurface drainage and evaluated cost-sharing by the beneficiaries. The cost is estimated at Rs34 250/ha, and the analysis showed that if recovery of capital cost is required within five years of installation, the incremental income of small and medium farmers is barely sufficient, whereas large farmers would be able to repay the cost. The authors concluded that a subsidy of 33 to 50 percent for small farmers is justified to assist with repayments. Without a subsidy, subsurface drainage may not be acceptable to these farmers, regardless of benefits and increased income in the long term.

Sinha (2000) discussed farmers' participation in the Partapgarh sub-project of the Uttar Pradesh Sodic Land Reclamation Project in India. The project aims to develop appropriate water-management strategies, including drainage infrastructure, with farmers' participation. The survey confirmed that because FOs would not be able to sustain drainage activity alone, farmers in the pilot sub-project should be organized under canal water management, with drainage as an additional function.

McKonnen et al. (2000) studied factors affecting stakeholder participation in implementing drainage projects in Ethiopia. Stakeholders include promoters, funding agencies, implementers, beneficiaries, local residents and local administration; levels of participation vary with proximity and interest. Factors that ensure effective participation include inviting and encouraging stakeholders to enter into agreements on criteria for planning, implementation and operation. Programmes should be demand-driven. The duties and responsibilities of stakeholders should be made clear, and projects should include components for public awareness, training and information.

Joseph (2000) presented a case study demonstrating the environmental impact of participatory drainage management in Kuttanad, a coastal area of Kerala state in India. It has a minimum elevation of about 2.2 m below sea level, and paddies have to be drained by pumping. Draining is carried out with community participation at least a dozen times in a season. Farmers use high doses of fertilizers and pesticides, which ultimately reduce water quality in dry seasons. The study revealed that strong community participation exists in the area for paddy cultivation and draining. Related health and biodiversity problems must be immediately addressed for sustainable development.

Srivastava et al. (2000) studied farmers' participation in drainage works in Chambal Command Area Project in Rajasthan, where a subsurface drainage system has been installed. Farmers, who participated at all stages, were convinced through awareness campaigns, village meetings, demonstration days and visits to research sites. They provided rights of way without crop compensation, participated in restoring fields after drainage installation and contributed labour and money for drain desilting. In view of the experience of farmers' involvement in drain construction, it may be time to entrust WUAs with management of drainage systems as well as irrigation systems.

Baig (2000) reviewed the overall food and water situation in India and suggested a future vision for sustainable development with respect to irrigation and drainage development. For sustainable long term measures, development planning should be integrated with drainage requirements, taking the basin as a unit. There should be a sustainable, economical and site-specific drainage solution and participatory on-farm drainage.

Datta et al. (2000) discussed the importance of social variables in the Haryana Operational Pilot Project (HOPP) in India and ways of mobilizing rural communities for drainage by using their socio-cultural attributes, which include demography, caste, communications, infrastructure, economy, division of labour, leadership, development programmes and social issues. The authors suggested that benchmark data should be established before initiating the project and proposed to introduce saving and credit habits besides mobilizing funds for O&M.

Anand and Lal (2000) studied the farmers' participation designing subsurface drainage in HOPP. Maps of field layouts and initial design were verified on-site, discussed with farmers and modified where necessary. This interaction with end users helped to develop a sense of ownership.

Ahmad (2000) claimed that water scarcity, degradation of water quality and lack of funds to maintain and develop irrigation and drainage systems are symptoms of deeper problems of policy and institutional and market failure. Irrigation and drainage reforms should be integrated in a way that ensures that policies are technically sound, economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sustainable. Water costs and pricing should relate to both irrigation and drainage, and that water services that are not public should be transferred to user groups. Drainage user associations should be introduced to promote participation of beneficiaries in subsurface-drain O&M in coordination with WUAs. Key policies must remain to reuse drainage water, minimize drainage effluent and dispose of it outside the basin.

Hayatnagarkar and Godse (2000) highlighted India's need for information sharing and networking for research in irrigation and drainage. Through International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) and IPTRID initiatives, the Indian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage (INCID) launched the Indian Network for Research in Irrigation and Drainage (INRID) as a subsidiary of the water and power information system to disseminate information and bibliographies. They identified potential participants and published a directory of participating institutions. The authors emphasized the importance of NGO and WUA participation in the network and communication with international networks.

Tyagi (2000) analysed drainage problems in India and identified research training needs. He suggested establishing a body of trained drainage and water management specialists at state level and strengthening university drainage course curriculums. Funds should be made available for drainage and international collaboration to strengthen research and training.

RECOMMENDATIONS FROM SEMINARS AND CONFERENCES

This section highlights recommendations from seminars and conferences held in Pakistan on issues related to irrigation and drainage, and recommendations regarding institutions, farmers' participation, performance of drainage and management information systems and improvement of O&M of drainage-systems.

International Symposium on Environmental Assessment and Management of Irrigation and Drainage Projects for Sustained Agriculture Growth (October 24-28, 1993; Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering (CEWRE), Lahore; Awan and Latif, 1993)

Conclusions

Environmental impacts of irrigation and drainage projects are not well understood by engineers and scientists.

Recommendations

1. EIAs should be made; feasibility reports should contain an environmental protection plan.

2. Discharge of untreated industrial and domestic effluent into irrigation and drainage channels should be stopped; environmental protection agencies (EPAs) should enforce this strictly.

3. Public participation should be integrated with EIA procedures; an environmental protection manual should be prepared to educate the public.

4. Salt balance and its impacts on irrigation and drainage should be studied, taking into account all major sources of water and salts.

National Workshop on Drainage System Performance in the Indus Plan and Future Strategies (January 28-29, 1995; Tando Jam; DRIP, 1995)

Recommendations

1. Coordination among research, implementation and O&M agencies should be strengthened to achieve maximum output and sustainability.

2. Research organizations should be given a wider mandate for involvement in drainage projects; 5 percent of construction costs should be allocated for this purpose.

3. Tubewell drainage in saline areas should be avoided; installation of tile drainage in saline areas, with farmers' participation, is recommended.

4. Collaborative on-farm drainage at watercourse command level should be installed as a research tool to assess users' participation and develop low-cost technologies.

5. O&M of major projects such as LBOD should be based on a participatory approach.

6. Study should be made of the feasibility of extending LBOD to upper parts of the Indus plain for disposal of saline effluent.

7. Disposal networks should be constructed by the public sector, field-drainage facilities by the private sector, with subsidies.

8. Adequate funding of O&M should be guaranteed; independent agencies for O&M of drainage should be created for sustainability.

9. Training should be integrated into projects for active participation of beneficiaries.

10. Close coordination among universities, research institutions and end users is recommended.

Workshop on Groundwater and Irrigation Management Issues (April 10-11, 1996; CEWRE, Lahore; Latif, 1996)

Recommendations

1. Allocation of funds for O&M ensures good performance of projects.

2. Pilot studies of participatory approaches should be conducted with PIDs, OFWM and extension departments, universities and research centres; local leadership should be mobilized to organize farmers.

Proceedings of the National Experts Consultation on Farmers' Participation in Drainage (July 10, 1997; IWASRI/NRAP, Lahore; Knops and Siddiq, 1997)

Recommendations

1. Main drains and other infrastructure will remain government responsibilities, even if local management is entrusted to farmers.

2. Government agencies should have staff able to mobilize farmers for participation.

3. Capacity building among stakeholders is essential.

4. Communication strategies and training should be incorporated in project design.

5. Coordination of project agencies and departments is needed at all levels.

6. Communication with farmers should be two-way: farmers must be informed and listened to.

7. Communication with stakeholders should start at project formulation and continue throughout, including O&M.

8. FOs for irrigation and drainage should be autonomous and initially single-purpose.

9. NGOs can play a significant role in supporting rural communities.

10. There is a need for PIDAs and AWBs to assist FOs with technical and managerial functions.

11. OFWM should be integrated with farming communities for guidance in irrigation and drainage management.

12. OFWM should take the lead in replicating small-scale on-farm drainage.

Proceedings of the International Symposium on Water for the Twenty-first Century: Demand, Supply, Development and Socio-Environmental Issues (June 17-19, 1997; CEWRE, Lahore; Tariq and Latif, 1997)

Recommendations

1. Water quality and environmental issues relating to bodies of surface water must be considered.

2. Attention should be given to crop-yield reductions resulting from salt accumulation in rootzones.

3. Farmers' participation in irrigation and drainage activities should be developed for sustainability.

Proceedings of the Second National Experts Consultation on Farmers' Participation in Drainage (Knops et al., 1999)

Discussion of farmers' participation issues focused on four themes: communication, social organization of farmers for drainage, farmers' management of drainage and institutional issues. Key questions on each theme were identified and discussed.

Recommendations

1. Communication: clear definition of objectives, target groups and messages, friendliness, social and cultural relevance, collaboration among line agencies, capacity building, flexible approaches and interface with operating agencies and users.

2. Social organization of farmers: change in government role from provider to enabler, clear and uniform policies at implementation level regarding farmers' contributions and participatory approaches, change of staff approaches and education, sustainable FOs.

3. Management of drainage systems: change approach to farmers, training, integration with farmers capability, local technologies, assistance and advisory services for farmers from line agencies.

4. Institutions: improved communications, training and accountability, integration of farmers' needs in project design, support to FOs on legal, organizational and financial management and conflict mediation, media support and farmers' options.

National Seminar on Drainage in Pakistan (August 16-17, 2000; Mehran University of Engineering and Technology (MUET), Jamshoro)

This is the most recent national seminar on drainage sponsored by the NDP. Recommendations on O&M of drainage are:

1. FO executive bodies should contain a fair representation of small farmers holding less than 4 ha.

2. Participatory pipe-drainage programmes proposed under NDP should be implemented with the assistance of the Drainage Research Centre (DRC), FESS and IWASRI.

3. Drainage projects should only be implemented after verifying O&M requirements; O&M of existing systems should be emphasized.

4. Outfall structures and related facilities should be provided first for disposal of drainage effluent to sea.

5. Surface-drain construction should be initiated only after land acquisition.

6. Untreated municipal and industrial effluent should not be disposed of into rivers, drains, canals or lakes.

7. A continuous water-quality monitoring programme should be initiated for the Indus basin irrigation and drainage system, including rivers, canals, drains, lakes and groundwater.

8. Economic measures for minimizing drainage effluent at source should be explored.

9. Groundwater and bodies of fresh surface water should be protected from degradation and contamination from disposal of brackish effluent.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Drainage systems in Pakistan

Irrigated agriculture in Pakistan is largely confined to the Indus basin. As a result of extensive development in irrigation, the Indus basin system is one of the largest in the world. Current waterlogging and salinity problems and rising watertables are the result of persistent seepage from unlined canals in the extensive distribution system and irrigation surpluses from fields. Drainage has become essential, because the productivity of irrigated land is declining.

Few efforts were made to control waterlogging and salinity until the late 1950s; planned efforts started with the creation of WAPDA in the early 1960s. The SCARP programme was started to provide drainage in areas with high watertables to combat waterlogging and salinity. Since then, a large number of drainage projects have been constructed, using tubewells, surface drains or tile drainage individually or in combination according to circumstances. Up-to-date statistics are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Completed drainage projects, June 2000

* NFWP: Northwest Frontier Province

O&M of drainage systems

The drainage projects were constructed by WAPDA and handed over to PIDs for O&M. Although implementation and operation of large-scale drainage projects required substantial government financing, the Canal and Drainage Act and other legislation provided instruments to recover capital and O&M costs. Inadequate O&M results mainly from inadequate institutional capacity and lack of funding. The structure and rules of PIDs resist institutional changes and modern technologies and management practices, resulting in inadequate performance of PIDs and consequent deterioration in drainage systems.

There is a wide gap between funds required for O&M and funds provided; the shortfall is increasing every year. Similarly, there is insufficient recovery of O&M expenditure, because charges are not linked to O&M needs. The overall situation of O&M expenditure and cost recovery is given in Tables 2A and 2B.

Issues in O&M of drainage systems

Many issues impede effective O&M of drainage systems. The drainage sector faces serious problems:

• many run-down drainage projects need rehabilitation;

• waterlogging and salinity are increasing;

• secondary salinization is occurring in the Indus basin;

• funds for O&M of completed projects are inadequate.

Table 2A. O&M funding requirements (PRs millions)

Table 2B. O&M expenditure and recoveries (PRs millions)

¹ Includes O&M expenditure on surface irrigation and subsurface saline drainage facilities; excludes public tubewells, fresh groundwater tubewells and surface drains. Requirements are based on targets agreed with the World Bank under the ISRP-II project.

Source: World Bank, 1994.

Inadequate funding, inefficient and deferred management and low cost-recovery rates are major constraints to effective O&M. Training, capacity to respond to O&M needs, inter-agency coordination and involvement of beneficiaries are all inadequate. Other problems are farmers' unwillingness to pay O&M charges and choices of drainage technology to resolve drainage problems.

Government policies and donors' perspectives

Government policies have changed from time to time, depending upon the extent of the waterlogging and salinity problem. The main focus of water-sector investments was drainage to control waterlogging and salinity and increase agricultural production. Initially, under the SCARP programme, the main interest was tubewell development to improve drainage and irrigation-water supplies to increase cropping intensities. Surface drainage was installed to evacuate saline drainage effluent. Following subsequent policy changes, subsurface pipe drainage projects and interceptor drains were installed. The current shift in policy is towards participatory drainage and phasing-out of tubewells under the SCARP transition programme and replacement with community tubewells.

Current government policies are in line with donors' perspectives: development of strategies for irrigation and drainage to:

• enable legislation on water rights, quality, markets and institutions;

• implementing pilot projects at canal command level, including setting up public utilities and developing users' organizations;

• organizing and developing provincial water authorities and strengthening federal agencies to carry out their functions in irrigation and drainage.

The current objectives of government policies are to:

• make effective use of surface and groundwater to increase production per unit;

• increase equitable and dependable distribution of water;

• close the gap between O&M costs and revenues;

• increase the role of the private sector in development and O&M of water-sector infrastructure;

• pilot tests of FOs.

There will be a focus on strengthening and restructuring water-sector institutions to meet foreseeable challenges through PIDAs and the NDP.

The NDP

The NDP was begun to overcome drainage problems and restore the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. The major objectives are to alleviate waterlogging and salinity and improve the efficiency and sustainability of drainage systems through institutional reforms and research programmes. The NDP has four main components: sector planning and research, institutional reforms, drainage investments and programme coordination and supervision.

A number of policy, planning and research studies have been identified; some have been started and others are at the stage of awarding contracts. Institutional reforms include establishment of PIDAs, AWBs and FOs, which will ultimately take over the management of irrigation and drainage systems. This component includes institutional reform of the WAPDA water wing. The largest programme component is investment, with 90 percent of NDP funds. The programme aims to rehabilitate and improve existing drainage systems and construct new drainage facilities. So far, more than 160 investment sub-projects are either in preparation or being implemented.

Programme coordination and supervision is being carried out by NDP/WAPDA. The main executing agencies are WAPDA, PIDAs, the Punjab Agriculture Department (PAD), FATA, AJKIDA and AWBs and FOs. Several national and international research and supporting agencies are involved, including IWASRI, ILRI and IWMI. NDP coordination cells are established at national and provincial level to ensure efficient implementation of the programme.

The NDP is facing constraints arising from preparation of the Resettlement Action Plan, delays in establishing FOs, prioritization of desilting works over mainstream drainage components, allocation of funds for irrigation instead of drainage and preparation of projects.

The NDP is working on the Inter-Provincial Drainage Accord to prepare the way for implementation of a national surface-drainage system for the entire Indus basin to carry saline drainage effluent to sea.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A critical review of national and international literature has been made. Special emphasis is given to the latest information from seminars, workshops and conferences held in Pakistan, where experience with O&M of drainage systems was discussed. The recommendations are categorized as institutional factors for effective O&M, farmers participation in O&M, management information systems for improving O&M and assessment of drainage-system performance.

Institutional factors for effective O&M of drainage

1. EPAs should strictly enforce regulations against discharging untreated domestic and industrial effluent into irrigation and drainage channels.

2. Research organizations should be given a wider mandate for involvement in drainage projects; at least 5 percent of construction costs should be allocated for research.

3. Coordination and communication among research organizations, universities, executing and O&M agencies should be strengthened.

4. Tubewell drainage in saline areas should be avoided to minimize disposal problems; tile drainage is recommended, with farmers' participation on a cost-sharing basis.

5. Study should be made of the feasibility of extending LBOD to upper parts of the Indus plain.

6. Main/disposal drainage networks should be constructed by the public sector; field drainage facilities should be the responsibility of the private sector, with subsidies.

7. Adequate O&M funding should be provided; an independent O&M agency should be created to make drainage systems sustainable.

8. There should be an adequate legal framework for FOs, involving PIDAs and AWBs and consultation with key stakeholders.

9. Farmers' perceptions and needs should be integrated into project design.

10. Institutional support should be provided for FOs on legal and organizational matters, financial management and conflict mediation.

11. Clear, consistent policies on contributions, farmers' participation and participatory approaches should be adopted at project implementation.

12. The Government's role should change from service provider to enabler.

13. Sustainability of FOs should be ensured.

14. Drainage projects should be implemented only after ensuring O&M; emphasis should be given to O&M of existing systems.

15. Surface-drain construction should be initiated only after land acquisition.

16. Economic measures for minimizing drainage needs at source should be explored.

Farmers' participation in O&M of drainage

1. Collaborative on-farm drainage programmes should be initiated on a watercourse-command basis as pilot research to assess users' participation and develop low-cost drainage technologies for replicability.

2. O&M of large projects such as LBOD should be participatory, involving beneficiaries and agencies.

3. Capacity building, communication strategies and training should be part of reclamation projects to enable beneficiaries' participation.

4. Pilot studies of participatory approaches should be made in collaboration with line agencies, universities and research centres; local leadership should be mobilized to organize farmers.

5. Government agencies should have staff able to mobilize farmers for participation.

6. FOs should be autonomous.

7. NGOs can provide support to rural communities.

8. FOs should be free to seek services and support from the Government or the private sector.

9. Farmers' participation calls for changes of attitude to farmers, training and local technologies.

10. Executive bodies of FOs should contain a fair representation of small farmers.

11. The participatory pipe-drainage programme proposed in the NDP should be implemented with assistance from DRC, FESS and IWASRI.\

Assessing performance of drainage systems

Drainage systems in Pakistan include tubewells, interceptor and subsurface pipe drainage. Recommendations related to all these systems are given below:

1. O&M is a key problem; farmers' participation is essential for surface drains.

2. A bi-monthly walk-through survey should be made to assess surface-drain maintenance requirements.

3. Surface drains should be regularly desilted and vegetation removed.

4. Excavated material should not be thrown over banks.

5. Plantation along banks should be promoted.

6. Smaller tubewells should be installed, with community participation, in fresh groundwater areas.

7. Tile drainage should be installed in saline groundwater areas on a cost-sharing; farmers should have full responsibility for O&M.

8. Disposal drains should be constructed by the public sector for disposal of saline effluent to sea.

9. Government-operated tile-drainage systems performed poorly because of inadequate management and funding constraints.

10. Tile drainage is an effective drainage alternative.

11. Collaborative on-farm drainage should be promoted.

12. Farmers should be given loan facilities to build local capacity for collaborative drainage.

13. Subsurface drainage is more effective where gravity drainage is possible.

14. Farmers are willing to pump if drainage water can be used for irrigation.

15. Maintenance of surface drains should be given priority.

16. Interceptors drains are not a feasible option.

17. Tubewells control watertables more effectively than tile drains in the event of heavy recharge.

18. Salts are accumulating in soils in fresh groundwater areas where tubewell effluent is used for irrigation.

19. Sustainability of SCARPs and tile-drainage projects is endangered by operational and financial difficulties.

20. Urgent action is needed to ensure efficient O&M of saline groundwater wells, tile drains and surface drains.

Management-information systems for improving O&M of drainage systems

1. There should be detailed monitoring and evaluation and an EIA for each drainage project; an environmental protection manual should be prepared.

2. A study should be made of the salt balance and its impact on agriculture, irrigation and drainage in the Indus basin, taking all sources of salts and water into account.

3. Government agencies should give technical and managerial guidance on drainage issues to farming communities.

4. Drainage needs may be reduced by using groundwater models to identify priority areas.

5. Information, research results and best practices regarding irrigation and drainage O&M should be disseminated through networking.

6. PIDAs should allocate resources to promote networking in irrigation and drainage.

7. A national irrigation and drainage network and database should be established; FOs, NGOs, WUAs and government agencies should be encouraged to interact with international agencies such as IPTRID.

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