Ms. Marion KARMANN
Institut für Forstbenutzung & Arbeiutswissenschaft, FREIBURG
Germany
Summary
Problem addressed, research question/hypothesis and objective of research:
Within African dry lands the increasing displacement of Miombo woodlands is a special problem. The yield of traditional management of these ecosystems (frequent burning and shifting) is not longer sufficient to cover the needs for food supply and cash crop of the growing rural population.
The study is based on the controversial assumption that comprehensive woodland management with agroforestry systems, including timber as well as non-timber product utilisation, will positively influence the economic and social situation of the population, and thereby contribute to a higher valuation of these resources by the inhabitants themselves. The know-how about the multiple use of Miombo woodlands is a basis for further development of proper resource utilisation systems. These systems should not only guarantee the capability of the woodlands to fulfil the subsistence needs of local households, but also an ability to generate income through marketing of products from the woodlands. The use of bark from Miombo species will be given as an example for NTFP utilization.
The main objective of a study in Handeni District, North Eastern Tanzania was to improve the understanding about the situation of Miombo utilisation in the research area through descriptive analyses. Derived objective was to describe the potential development of the region for fulfilment of subsistence needs, income generation and ergonomic aspects such as labour organisation and qualification.
The investigation was focused on the inhabitants of four villages from two different ecological zones of the Miombo woodlands. Information related to the utilisation of forest-resources, especially the potential use of NTFP, based on the knowledge and experiences of local people and the local experts, was collected through individual interviews and group discussions as well as field observations and key interviews within and outside the research area. Most of the people in these villages belong to the Zigua-and Nguu-tribes. Both tribes basically depend on small-scale agriculture. Moreover, Maasai - a semi-nomadic cattle rearing tribe -live in this area at times. Because life style and diet of Zigua / Nguu are basically different from that of Maasai, different knowledge about useful NTFP on Miombo woodlands was to be expected.
The utilization of bark from Miombo tree species shows, as an example, how the amount and techniques of use of the same product differ between men and women and between people of different ethnic groups.
Methodology and workplan
To get access to the traditional knowledge about woodland utilisation, tools of PRA were used to record the actually used NWFP and also the way of harvesting and use of these products, their contribution to subsistence and their economic means. The following research steps lead to the main objective:
Results and conclusions and their relevance for development
All three tribes consider woodlands first of all as a resource for agriculture and cattle grazing. Barks together with honey, mushrooms, other wild foods were identified as most promising NWFP in the region for subsistence households and income generation. In the research area the marketing of woodland products, also of NWFP, fundamentally can be considered as an incentive for the conservation of the woodlands. But today the marketing of forest products is already problematic, expanding the markets would become even more risky because of uncertain conditions of delivery and purchasing.
The example of bark and fibres shows the varieties of use for one product (e.g. medicine, food component, construction material, arts and crafts commodities, as a substitute for a range of products) and the technologies of harvesting (manual or use of tools like knife, axe, machete, or ladders and other) and the consequences for marketing and for the ecosystem, depending on the person harvesting the product. The acceptance levels for accelerating the utilisation and marketing of NWFP vary between and within communities. For subsistence economies a strengthened use of NWFP can be recommended in each case, except for bark splitting. On the contrary, strengthening commercialisation is only with caution recommended because of the high risks. The establishment of collaborative processing and marketing can favour the marketing possibilities of all product samples.
Key words: Miombo, bark and fibres, NWFP/NTFP, Social Forestry; Zigua, Nguu, Maasai.
Background of the study:
Miombo woodlands cover about 48 percent of Tanzania's land surface and are a settlement area for small-scale farmers and cattle-breeders. Although the population is sparse, the area covered by Miombo is decreasing rapidly. In many regions dominated by Miombo, deforestation is mainly caused by small scale farming together with the increasing activities of professional charcoal miners and the establishment of plantations (teak, tobacco, sisal, cotton and others), settlement areas or hydrology engineering projects. In the research area, Handeni, however, the degradation mainly results from forest fires connected with shifting cultivation, hunting and other factors.
This study is based on the controversial assumption that comprehensive woodland management with agroforestry systems, including timber as well as non timber products utilisation, will positively influence the economic and social situation of the population, and thereby contribute to a higher valuation of these resources by the inhabitants themselves.
Knowledge of the possible uses of Miombo woodlands is necessary for further development of appropriate resource utilisation systems. These systems must not only guarantee the capability of the woodlands to fulfil the subsistence needs of the local households, but also an ability to generate income through marketing of products from the woodlands.
Methods:
Based on this assumption the principal objective of the study is to reach a better understanding about the utilisation of Miombo in the research area through descriptive analysis. A derived objective is to describe the potential development of the region to meet the subsistence needs, for income generation, and aspects such as labour organisation and training.
The following research steps lead to the main objective:
The investigation was focused on the inhabitants of four villages from two different ecological zones of the Miombo woodlands. Information related to the utilisation of forest-resources, especially the potential use of NTFP, based on the knowledge and experiences of local people and the local experts, was collected through individual interviews and group discussions as well as field observations and key interviews within and outside the research area.
People and environment:
The villages of KangŶata, Kwamagome, Kwediboma and Mafisa are not easily accessible. They are located in the Handeni District in the Tanga Region of Tanzania. Most of the people in these villages belong to the Zigua-and Nguu-tribes.
Both tribes basically depend on small-scale agriculture (with corn and beans as the main crops) for subsistence needs. Outside the habitats of the Tsetse fly they keep cattle and goats. Moreover, Maasai - a semi-nomadic cattle rearing tribe - live in this area at times. They depend on milk and other cattle products. Because life style and diet of Zigua / Nguu are basically different from that of Maasai, different knowledge about useful NTFP on Miombo woodlands was to be expected. All three tribes however consider woodlands first of all as a resource for agriculture and cattle grazing.
In fact, life at the subsistence level, and even survival in the woodlands, is only possible through utilisation of a diversity of products from the woodlands. Firewood is the only source of energy in the rural regions. For houses, huts and enclosures not only timber and poles from woodlands are used, but also branches for wall and roof constructions. Bark serves as a connecting element, grass is required for roofing. Wood and bark are processed to make furniture and simple transport vehicles. Wildlife and edible mushrooms offer an important source of protein rich nourishment, particularly where cattle husbandry is not possible (e.g. within the habitat area of the Tsetse fly). Honey from wild bees or from bee keeping is, among other things, an important basic material for brewing liquor and plays a major role in traditional culture. During extreme hunger periods, by which the rural region is haunted again and again, food from wild plants often provides a last chance for survival. Medicinal plants may be the only medicines available where there are no hospitals due to financial or technical reasons. Furthermore, the medicinal plants are important for health care of the livestock.
Main use of NTFP:
During the study, four products or product lines from the woodland were identified jointly with the participants. These products are used by different sections of the population, and are seen as being suitable for sustainable use and possible marketing. Currently the utilisation of these products is limited and does not exceed the biological potential or meet the market demands.
The example of bark: Bark is used in large amounts as a construction material. Bark from selected tree species and bole forms is used for different purposes. Main uses are bark strings for construction and as ropes, smaller pieces for different household purposes and large pieces for containers. Houses constructed with bark connections can last for 8 years. De-barking of strings and smaller pieces can be practised without severe damage to the tree. Women from all tribes collect bark, Maasai men prefer to buy it rather than harvest it as Nguu and Zigua men do. In all villages Zigua, Nguu as well as Maasai favour bark use of the following tree species:
| Genus species | Family | Common name by tribe |
| Julbernadia globiflora | (Caes.) | (Mhangala, Mtondoro, zig.) |
| Brachystegia spiciformis | (Caes.) | (Miombo zig.; Olseleyayi, maas.) |
| Brachystegia microphylla | (Caes.) | (Mseni, zig.; Msane, Nguu; Olkirepori) |
If these trees are no longer available in the surrounding area, the following species are chosen:
| Genus species | Family | Common name by tribe |
| Dombeya shupangae | (Sterc.) | (Mluati, zig., Nguu; Emuluati, maas.), |
| Acacia nigrescens | (Mim.) | (Mkambara, Makambala, zig., Nguu) |
| Grewia mollis | (Tiliac.) | (Mkole, zig., Esiteti/Siteti, maas.) |
| Dombeya rotrundifolia | (Sterc.) | (Msagusa, zig.) |
| Obetia pinnatifida | (Urtic.) | (Endameju, maas.) |
| Sansevieria sp. | (Draca.) | (Galama, ngu.; Oludupai/Oldurai, maas.) |
| Agava sisalana | (Agav.) | (Katani, Mkonge swa,) |
| Terminalia catappa | (Combr.) | (Mkungu, zig., swa.) |
| Leuceana leucocephala | (Mim.) | (Lucinia, zig., Mlusina, swa.) |
| Ficus scassellattii | (Mora.) | (Mchocho, Kivuguti, zig; Oloteti, maas.) |
Men traditionally do the harvesting of the large pieces of bark used for containers or used as doors like boards. In the rainy season they select old Julbernardia or Brachystegia trees with straight bowls and few branches and use the long knifes (panga) to cut the shape of the demanded piece and tear it off while splitting it slowly from the stem. For this work they often use ladders to reach the heights.
Smaller pieces of bark and strings are harvested traditionally by women and children. They do it occasionally during other work like collecting food plants, just when they need bark and find a suitable plant. They use bark for example to roll rings to carry baskets on their heads. Mainly women know the names of trees less often used for these and other special purposes. Grewia e.g. is used for very soft strings. Women and children often use no tools or only small knifes to tear off long bark stripes together with a branch from the tree. Sometimes they use the long panga to cut larger pieces of bark to be used as seats, lids for pots and other household items.
Bark from different species and parts are used for several medicinal purposes by all tribes, by men and women, both for humans and livestock. Several possibilities to use bark are practised in different cultures but not now practised by Maasai or Zigua/Nguu people, such as bark clothes and paper making, although probably appropriate species (Antiaris ssp,; Grewia mollis; Obetia pinnatifida; Leuceana leucocephala; Terminalia ssp.; Dombeya ssp.) are available. Bark extracts were used by Maasai to prepare leather. Barks for strings normally get no special chemical treatment like soaking.
Bark strings are locally marketed in small quantities. Potential larger markets for bark are limited, since cheaper substitute materials are available in towns. Production of arts and crafts commodities like hand made paper and bark clothes from bark fibres might have a niche market. With appropriate guidelines in this job, men and women can generate income without much investment. A larger market for bark products, however, could lead to an increase in demand and destructive bark utilisation. Several authors have calculated the damages of miombo woodlands due to bark harvesting. Recommendations for bark use can only be expressed in the framework of the utilisation of the whole tree.
Honey is mainly used for subsistence consumption, generally in fermented form as a local beer. If properly stored, honey can be an important food during hunger periods. Honey can be collected in two ways: through an environmentally sound technique in the form of bee-keeping in hives or using destructive techniques in the form of honey hunting. Honey trade can be profitable for all members of the family as well as for the entire community. The harvesting and processing of honey and by-products can create jobs and income. Men traditionally and currently carry out bee-keeping and honey marketing; they also get the earnings. In comparison with honey hunting, the revenue from bee-keeping is higher, with a small capital outlay required. The higher profits of bee keeping might encourage people to use resources in an environmentally friendly manner. First of all through the establishment of bee-keeping co-operatives women could also be involved in the process, which would give them the possibility of earning income.
Honey can be marketed locally and regionally. The entrance of Miombo honey in national and foreign markets is also possible, as examples of different neighbour countries show. A strengthened demand for honey and therefore a more intensified skilled bee-keeping, would not have any negative consequences for ecological functions.
Food from wild trees and bushes is used mainly during extreme dry seasons or to prepare certain local meals as an additional food. The collection of wild vegetables and fruits is done by women and children, without any cultural or technical conflict with the cultivation of agricultural crops or other household activities. Seeds of wild vegetables are cultivated to a limited extent around the courtyard and on the field. There is only a slight monetary value on the market for these products, therefore they are rarely sold and are available to fulfil the rural population's own needs. This is different from agricultural products (e.g. corn, beans, fruit and eggs) which are sold occasionally, even before the producer's own needs are satisfied, to meet financial requirements.
Hombo - a pulverised mixture of various aromatic herb leaves of different plant species -, presents a special case. It is storable for a long time and counts among the specialities of the region. Because of the abundance of useful species for Hombo, their use does not lead to a threat for any individual species. The marketing of Hombo can be expanded to a limited extent in local and regional markets, because the processing of the raw material involves no financial risk and the product is easily transported and not perishable. Women invest some extra time in the production of Hombo, therefore they could be the major beneficiaries. The profit margin is relatively low, because the product is only a locally demanded speciality, which can be replaced by other food ingredients.
Furthermore several different edible parts of plants could be preserved and then be stored through appropriate techniques. These would be useful as a food reserve or emergency food during hunger periods or for direct marketing. In order to get a higher profit, co-operatives for production and marketing should be established, through which experience and skills can be shared.
Edible mushrooms are represented on a broad spectrum in Miombo woodlands. The local people consume mushrooms only to a limited extent. People clearly show different personal preferences in quantities and species to be consumed. In the region surrounding the research area, dried mushrooms are infrequently marketed. A sustainable harvest of edible mushrooms under proper management is a possibility. In several Miombo countries, the enrichment of diet with mushrooms, and generating income through strengthening trade with mushroom products, are recognised as a good chance for the economic development of the rural and urban regions. The professional trade presents difficulties caused by the seasonality of mushroom fruiting; this problem can be alleviated to a limited extent through the application of appropriate preservation techniques. Other problems are the weak demand of the markets and the bottlenecks in work capacity. This is because during the fruiting season women are highly involved in agricultural activities. Recently, both women and men participate in collecting mushrooms. An expanded trade in mushrooms can only be recommended in specific cases, but an enrichment of diet with fungi is highly recommended. Comprehensive information about the proper preparation of edible species and about competent preservation is urgently needed; such information should be prepared by ecotrophologists in co-operation with the local specialists - the female users.
Results:
Research results from the participating observation and the estimation of the local experts indicated some discrepancies between the extent of knowledge of the rural population about the potential values of the forest and its products and the extent of the actual use of the forest resources, especially for the selected products. Even though there is a large demand for income sources, the major part of NTFP serves to cover the household needs. The marketing of these products must be analysed separately and correctly, although market expansion for several products is possible and these products are not harvested by destructive techniques.
In the research area the marketing of woodland products, also of NTFP, fundamentally can be considered as an incentive for the conservation of the woodlands; this frequently became clear during interviews and discussions. Likewise the decline of woodlands is identified as a cause of scarcities, which must be balanced through financial investment. Up to the present in rural areas there has been little marketing of products of the forest, mainly because of the poor infrastructure and lack of knowledge or special methods of post harvest management. As the marketing of forest products is already problematic, expanding the markets would become even more risky because of uncertain conditions of delivery and purchasing.
The acceptance levels for accelerating propagation of utilisation and marketing of NTFP vary between and within communities. It will only be convincing, if it takes place in connection with comprehensive introduction, training, demonstration and monitoring by local experts, and if corresponding pilot-projects are largely successful. For subsistence economies a strengthened use of NTFP can be recommended in each case, except for bark splitting. On the contrary, strengthening commercialisation is only cautiously recommended because of the high risks. The establishment of collaborative processing and marketing would favour the commercial possibilities of all product samples.
The essence of this study is the increment of knowledge and information about the actual utilisation of Miombo woodland and their social and ecological consequences. A specific research procedure to achieve detailed information about the research area was developed based on regionally and socially specific questions and set up following experiences during the preliminary research.
Due to the data collection method used, interesting discussions took place in the villages concerning the rank of the current use, the possibilities and perspectives as well as an effective sustainable woodland management. These discussions are an important step towards the increasing appreciation of the resources of the woodlands, as this investigation intended.
The recommendations derived from the knowledge about the possibilities and boundaries of an increase of the direct use of individual products from the woodland for the inhabitants bolster generally held ideas about integrated agroforestry management, therefore a consistent implementation is needed.
In general the recommendation is for environmentally sound utilisation of NTFP, with the primary aim of fulfilling the subsistence needs of the household, and a subsidiary aim of accelerating the commercial use of NTFP. Finally, a new system capable of achieving sustainable management of woodlands should be developed based on new theory and knowledge, coupled with results of integrated research (e.g. on yield regulation, marketing and ethnology.) Implementation of the system might positively change the economic and social condition of its inhabitants and people living in comparable ecosystems.
Technical terms used:
NWFP: Non Wood Forest Products: “NWFP are goods of biological origin, other than wood, derived from forests, other wooded lands and trees outside forests” (FAO/ICRAF 1996).
NTFP: Non Timber Forest Products (includes energy wood).
Miombo: Miombo comprises those ecosystems in the seasonal tropics dominated by trees of the closely related genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia and Isoberlinia (subfamily Caesalpinioideae, family Fabaceae - the legumes). Miombo woodland is the dominant vegetation type of the Central African plateau (Tanzania, D.R.Congo, Zambia, Malawi, Angola, Zimbabwe and Mozambique). Functionally similar ecosystems with Isoberlinia often dominant, but lacking Brachystegia and Julbernardia, occur in the Guinea savannas of West Africa. About 40 Mio people depend on Miombo woodlands directly, plus 15 Mio people indirectly on firewood. Human activities are pivotal in the dynamics of miombo. (Miombo Network; Campbell. Miombo).
Selection of References:
CAMPBELL, Bruce (Ed.): The Miombo in Transition: Woodlands and Welfare. Center for International Forestry Research. Bogor, Indonesia.
Commonwealth Science Council / FAO 1993: Non Wood Forest Products - Proceedings of a Regional Expert Consultation. 17.–22.10.1993, Arusha, Tanzania; Commonwealth Science Council / FAO / Min. of Tourism, Natural Resources & Environment, Tanzania.
DeBEER, Jenne H. & McDERMOTT, M.J. 1989: The Economic Value of Non-timber Forest Products in Southeast Asia. Netherlands committee for IUCN, Amsterdam.
DESANKER, Paul V.: The Miombo Network. See: http:// miombo.gecp.virginia.edu/cd/MiomboCD. html
KARMANN, Marion 1998: Untersuchungen zur nachhaltigen Miombowald-Nutzung am Beispiel von vier Dörfern im Handeni-Distrikt, Tansania. (Investigations about sustainable Miombo woodland utilisation - example of four villages in the Handeni, Tanzania. (In German, english summary) IV, 302 S. III., Kt.; (dt.) Freiburg, Univ., Diss., 1998
KARMANN, Marion 1999: Die Panga: Einsatz eines Vielzweck-Werkzeugs zur Holzernte in Tanzania aus forstlich-ethnologischer Sicht. Beschreibung des im ruralen Ostafrika gebrõuchlichsten Werkzeugs. Beitrag zur 1. Zusammenkunft der Sektion “Forsttechnik” des Verbandes Deutscher Forstlicher Versuchsanstalten vom 22. bis 24. Mõrz 1999 in Freiburg.
MUSHOVE, P. T.; SHUMBA, E. M. & MATOSE, F.: Sustainable management of indigenous forests in the dry tropics. Proceedings, Int. Conference; Kadoma, Zimbabwe, May 28.-June, 1.; Zimbabwe Forestry Commission & SAREC-SIDA, 238 p.
MWIHOMEKE, Steven T. & MABULA, Charles K. 1994: An ethnobotanical survey for Mafisa, Gombero, Kwamagome and KangŶata Pilot Villages, Handeni D. Report for HIAP; TAFORI.
LEAKEY, R.R.B., TEMU, A.B.; MELNYK, Mary; VANTOMME, P. (Eds.) 1996: Domestication and Commercialisation of Non Timber Forest Products in Agroforestry Systems. Non-Wood Forest Products Vol. 9, FAO, Rome 1996.
ICRAF (Ed.) 1994: Regional conference on indigenous fruit trees of the miombo ecozone of Southern Africa, Mangochi, Malawi, January 23–27 1994, Proceedings. ICRAF, Nairobi.
SLU/FAO Forest, Trees & People Programme, Newsletter. http:// www.trees.slu.se.
Mme Marion KARMANN
Institut für Forstbenutzung & Arbeitswissenschaft, FRIBOURG
Allemagne
RÉSUMÉ
Question traitée, recherche, hypothèse et objectif de la recherche :
Dans les terres sèches d'Afrique, le déplacement de plus en plus important des forêts claires de miombo représente un problème particulier. Le rendement des écosystèmes exploités selon les méthodes traditionnelles (rotation et brûlis fréquents), n'est plus suffisant pour couvrir les besoins en produits alimentaires et en cultures marchandes d'une population rurale toujours plus nombreuse.
L'étude repose sur l'hypothèse, controversée, qu'un aménagement des terres boisées intégrées avec des systèmes d'agroforesterie, y compris l'utilisation pour la production de bois et de produits autres que le bois, aura un effet positif sur la situation économique et sociale de la population et devrait faire que les habitants eux-mêmes attachent un plus grand prix à ces ressources. La connaissance des usages multiples des forêts claires de miombo est à la base de l'élaboration de systèmes bien conçus d'utilisation des ressources. Les systèmes devraient non seulement garantir la capacité des forêts d'assurer la subsistance des communautés locales, mais aussi permettre de générer des revenus par la vente des produits. L'utilisation de l'écorce de l'essence miombo sera donnée en exemple d'utilisation de produits forestiers autres que le bois.
Le principal objectif de l'étude menée dans le district de Handeni, dans le nord-est de la Tanzanie, était de bien comprendre l'état de l'utilisation du miombo, par des analyses descriptives. À titre secondaire, il s'agissait de décrire l'évolution potentielle de la région si les besoins en matière de subsistance et de génération de revenus étaient satisfaits et les aspects ergonomiques, comme l'organisation du travail, et les qualifications requises.
L'enquête a porté sur les habitants de quatre villages de deux sites écologiques différents de forêts de miombo. Les informations sur l'utilisation des ressources forestières, en particulier sur l'utilisation potentielle de produits forestiers autres que le bois, fondées sur les connaissances et l'expérience des villageois et des experts locaux, ont été recueillies en interrogant individuellement les villageois et en procédant à des discussions de groupe ainsi qu'à des observations sur le terrain et à des interviews dans la zone sur laquelle portait la recherche et à l'extérieur. La plupart des personnes interrogées dans ces villages appartiennent aux tribus Zigua et Nguu, qui vivent principalement d'une petite agriculture. De plus, les Massaïs, une tribu d'éleveurs semi-nomades, vivent de temps en temps dans la région. Étant donné que le mode de vie et le régime alimentaire des Ziguas et des Nguus est foncièrement différent de celui des Massaïs, on s'attendait à ce que chacun ait une idée différente des produits forestiers utiles qu'ils peuvent trouver dans les forêts de miombo.
L'utilisation de l'écorce des essences de miombo illustre les différences dans le degré d'utilisation du même produit et dans les techniques employées, entre les hommes et les femmes et entre des groupes ethniques différents.
Méthodologie et plan de travail
Afin d'avoir accès aux connaissances traditionnelles sur l'utilisation des forêts claires, on a appliqué les instruments de PRA pour dresser la liste des produits forestiers autres que le bois récoltés et effectivement utilisés et pour recenser les façons dont ils sont récoltés et utilisés, leur contribution à la subsistance et à la situation économique des communautés. Les étapes de recherche ci-après ont permis d'atteindre le principal objectif:
Évaluation du rôle de l'utilisation de la forêt en général et en particulier du rôle des produits autres que le bois dans un mode de subsistance à prédominance agricole;
Identification du rôle actuel de certains produits forestiers autres que le bois présents dans les forèts claires de miombo, compte tenu des aspects écologiques, économiques et socioculturels de l'occupation des sols.
Description et évaluation des possibilités et des limites de la diversification de la gamme de produits et intensification de l'utilisation directe des arbres et arbustes des forêts de miombo par les populations, compte tenu de la capacité limite de l'écosystème.
Résultats et conclusions de l'étude et utilité pour le développement
Les trois tribus voient avant tout dans les terres boisées une ressource pour l'agriculture et le pâturage du bétail. Les écorces, ainsi que le miel, les champignons et d'autres produits sauvages pouvant être consommés, ont été considérés comme les produits forestiers autres que le bois les plus prometteurs dans la région, du point de vue de la subsistance et de la création de revenus. Dans la région sur laquelle a porté la recherche, la commercialisation de produits provenant des forêts, ce qui comprend les produits autres que le bois, peut être considérée fondamentalement comme une incitation à la préservation des forêts. Aujourd'hui toutefois, la commercialisation de produits forestiers pose déjà un problème et il sera encore plus risqué de développer les marchés en raison des conditions aléatoires d'approvisionnement et d'achat.
L'exemple de l'écorce et des fibres montre la diversité des utilisations possibles pour un même produit (par exemple, médicaments, aliments, matériaux de construction, fabrication de produits artisanaux, produits de substitution) et des techniques de récolte (à la main ou à l'aide d'outils - couteaux, haches, machettes, emploi d'échelles, etc.) et les incidences pour la commercialisation et pour l'écosystème selon la personne qui récolte le produit. Les seuils limites acceptables pour accélérer le développement de l'utilisation et de la commercialisation de produits forestiers autres que le bois varient entre les communautés et à l'intérieur d'une même communauté. Pour les économies de subsistance, une intensification de l'utilisation de produits peut être recommandée pour chaque cas, sauf pour l'écorçage. En revanche, l'intensification de la commercialisation ne peut être recommandée qu'avec prudence, parce qu'elle est trop aléatoire. La mise en place de systèmes coopératifs de transformation et de commercialisation peut favoriser la commercialisation de tous les échantillons de produits.
Mots clefs: miombo, écorces et fibres, produits forestiers autres que le bois, foresterie sociale; Ziguas, Nguus, Massaïs.
