AUSTRALIA

Bioprospectors seek treasure in Australian forests

Fortune-hunting scientists are scouring vast tracts of Australia's tropical rain forests for plants to produce new antibiotics and other drugs which could be worth billions of dollars. Like the gold rush of 150 years ago that lured thousands of hopeful treasure seekers, "bioprospectors" and global drug giants have staked claims to areas of forest hoping to tap jungles that harbour diverse and unique plant life. The yield so far from Australia's northern rain forests, mainly in Queensland and Western Australia, is several new compounds for antibiotics, new pesticides which are close to commercial production and a pill that could prevent prostate cancer. Scientists caution that it takes 15 years and a huge investment to bring a new pharmaceutical product to market, and only one in a thousand discoveries makes it. Agrochemicals and dietary products are quicker to market, and even they offer pay-dirt worth hundreds of millions.

Bioprospectors range from scientists with licence claims, through to large numbers of "illegal" hopefuls. Multinational companies will not deal with unlicensed groups. As with prospecting claims, access to rain forests is the must-have asset for bioprospectors, especially those who want to raise money from stock exchange listings.

Cairns-based EcoBiotics, now raising $A3 million (US$1.7 million) in working capital, has exclusive access to large tracts of Queensland state rain forest through the Australian Rainforest Foundation and private holders. It is also negotiating for access to Queensland rain forest under state control and has exclusive access to about 172 000 ha of some of the last rain forest in the Solomon Islands to the north of Australia.

Australian science group BioProspect already holds agreements with the Queensland government for access to plants, soil, insects, marine organisms and animals in state-owned areas, as well as a collection licence for Western Australia. This does not give it a monopoly over particular plants, but is the first step to eventual patents on chemical discoveries in plants. The plants found to yield valuable chemicals are the most closely guarded secrets of Australia's bioprospectors and are the lucrative intellectual property of the forest hunters.

The Queensland tropical rain forest is unique because of the very old geology of the area, which produces 15 different forest types, while in general the Amazon basin has about five different forest types. Australian rain forests also have more tree species than the whole of North America and Europe. The fight for survival by large numbers of organisms produced novel chemicals and survival solutions, making Australian forests among the world's most productive. Australia is also the only country in the world which combines large rain forests with a developed economy, an established legal system and high-level medical and general scientific research.

Targeting plants which it believes are likely to produce payoffs from gaps in the pharmaceutical and agrochemical markets, EcoBiotics says it is applying for patents for four new antibiotic chemical compounds, and is working on others to combat intestinal parasites and bacteria. BioProspect has a major natural insecticide close to commercial production, has just patented a product for termite control and is close to launching dietary and health products in the United States. (Source: Extracted from [BIO-IPR] Resource pointer, 26 November 2002 http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?mpl=story&u= /nm/20021107/lf_nm/science_australia_antibiotics_dc_1.)

BANGLADESH

Rattan, a climbing palm belonging to the Palmae family, is popular and widely used for furniture making both in Bangladesh and abroad. Nowadays, furniture made from cane is a mark of aristocracy, especially to the urban dwellers of Bangladesh.

Cane used to be abundant in the Indian subcontinent, especially in Assam and Bengal. However, as a result of population pressure, fragile socio-economic conditions and overexploitation, production of cane is now declining at an alarming rate. Consequently, cane furniture industries are facing acute problems, especially in Bangladesh, owing to the scanty and uncertain supply of raw materials.

In Bangladesh the rattan resource in forest areas is decreasing since no scientific management strategies have been adopted, only indiscriminate harvesting. In recent years the local supply has become so insignificant that the rattan industries have to depend mainly on the import of raw materials. However, raw material supply is not always regular, which has adversely affected the quality and sometimes the price of the end product.

Since rattan production is also decreasing in other countries, such as India, Myanmar, Thailand, the Philippines and Malaysia, their attention is now diverted to the end product, rather than export. Some countries may even put an embargo on the export of raw canes. This situation will create uncertainty for the prestigious cane industries of Bangladesh, as they are now mostly dependent on the import of raw materials.

The extension of cane cultivation to save these industries is therefore urgently needed. Only an integrated effort by governmental and non-governmental organizations and individuals to cultivate cane on a large scale may successfully halt this alarming situation.

Eight to ten species of rattan grow in different areas of Bangladesh, a few species of which are of commercial value. A priority list of these commercial rattans is shown in the Table below.

Cultivation techniques for rattan or cane developed in the Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, Chittagong may be utilized for the large-scale cultivation of the species. If a sustained supply of quality raw materials can be ensured, perhaps one day the rattan-based furniture industries of the country may become a potential foreign exchange-earning enterprise, which will assist the development of the country.

For more information, please contact:

A.Z.M. Manzoor Rashid, Lecturer, Department of Forestry, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet-3114, Bangladesh.
E-mail:[email protected]

BOLIVIA

Dinámicas de la economía extractiva en la Amazonía boliviana

Son escasos los trabajos que analizan la dinámica económica de la economía extractiva que se desarrolló en la Amazonía boliviana desde fines del siglo pasado hasta el presente. Un trabajo de indiscutible valor para ayudar a entender la evolución de la economía amazónica del norte boliviano es la tesis de doctorado de Dietmar Stoian, Variaciones y dinámicas en las economías extractivas: los vínculos urbano-rurales del uso de recursos forestales no madereros en la Amazonía boliviana, defendida en la Universidad de Friburgo, Alemania, en 2000 (en inglés). Esta investigación fue realizada en el marco de un acuerdo de colaboración entre el proyecto PROMAB y el Centro de Investigación Forestal Internacional (CIFOR).

Este trabajo realiza un recorrido por los distintos ciclos de la economía extractiva identificando las condiciones que dieron lugar a la emergencia, a fines del siglo pasado, de la economía gomera y la posterior transición de tres ciclos gomeros hasta mediados de la década de los 90, cuando se producen importantes cambios en la economía regional impulsados por el rápido desarrollo de procesos extractivos de castaña, palmito y madera, y la expansión de la base industrial para el procesamiento de esos productos. Esa transición de la economía extractiva regional está acompañada simultáneamente por la diferenciación de los asentamientos rurales, crecientes procesos de urbanización y la expansión de la frontera agrícola. Condicionado por esos procesos se produce un intenso cambio en la reestructuración de las diferentes estrategias de subsistencia de los hogares como resultado de una mayor articulación entre los espacios urbano y rural.

El autor alerta que pese a los cambios en la economía de los productos no madereros a lo largo del tiempo, tal economía ha demostrado una gran capacidad de adaptación a esos cambios. En ese marco, el trabajo considera necesario explorar cuáles son los factores que garantizan un cierto grado de estabilidad de la economía de productos no madereros y cuáles de esos factores podrían ser controlados al nivel regional.

Por un lado, los productos no madereros son parte de los sistemas de subsistencia de las poblaciones rurales y periurbanas que combinan agricultura y extractivismo, lo que les permite articular actividades de subsistencia con otras orientadas a la generación de ingresos monetarios. Factores que pueden ayudar a reforzar la importancia de los productos no madereros en esas estrategias son la seguridad de tenencia junto con una más equitativa distribución de beneficios para las poblaciones. Por otro lado, se indica que algunos factores que pueden poner en riesgo la importancia de este sistema en las estrategias de vida de la población así como la estabilidad de la economía extractiva en su conjunto, son la volatilidad de los mercados, las relaciones laborales de explotación así como la sobreexplotación de la base de recursos naturales.

Para obtener una copia electrónica de este documento puede ponerse en contacto con Dietmar Stoian a:[email protected] 

(Fuente: Lista Bosques Bolivia-[email protected].)

BRAZIL

Draft guidelines for the certification of forest management for NWFP in the Atlantic forest of Brazil (in Portuguese)

Since 2001, the project Sustainability and Forest Certification in the Atlantic Forest has been elaborating and testing guidelines for the certification of sustainable forest management of the Atlantic forest in Brazil. The project is implemented by an association of local non-governmental organizations, with technical support from the Forest Stewardship Council.

The NWFPs which are important in the area and which are considered for the purpose of the guidelines are: piacava fibres (Attalea funifera), palmito (Euterpe edulis) and erve maté (Ilex paraguariensis ). The project has now produced version 4.2 of its draft guidelines for the certification of forest management for NWFP in the Atlantic forest, which will now be submitted to the Brazilian Council of Forest Management.

For more information, please contact:

Walter Suiter Filho, Executive Secretary, CBMF-FSC-Brasil, SHIS EQ QL 06 Conj-E, Brasilia, DF 71620-430, Brazil.
Fax: +55 61 3647474;
e-mail:[email protected];
www.fsc.org.br

Brazilian fruits: guarana

Researchers at ten institutions in northern Brazil have begun to create a DNA map of one of the most important species in Amazonia. They aim to discover the gene responsible for protecting guarana from diseases and pests. The trade in guarana is worth $R 100 million per year in Brazil.

The fruit, which was discovered by the Indians, will be studied by the Amazonian Network of Genome Research, which forms part of the Brazilian Genome Project. The genetic mapping of one of the most important species of guarana, Paullinia cupana, begins this week. Brazil is the only producer of guarana in the world, producing 5 000 tonnes per year. It could produce much more but scientists need to find new methods of combating diseases, which devastated plantations ten years ago. (Source: Amazon News, 24 October 2002.)

Brazilian fruits: camu-camu

Although still relatively unknown to the general public in Brazil, the camu-camu (Mycriaria dubia ), a native fruit found in the Brazilian and Peruvian Amazonia, is attracting interest from researchers. The cherry-sized dark-red fruit is an important source of vitamin C. It has 100 times more vitamin C than oranges and four times more than acerola. It also contains high levels of antioxidants and potassium. The fruit is found throughout Pará, Amazonas, Rondônia, Roraima, Maranhão and parts of Tocantins, and is also known by other names: caçari, in Amazonas; araçá-d´água and araçá-azedo in Rondonia; and crista de galo in Maranhão.

The camu-camu has an enormous economic potential. Researchers from the State University of Campinas (UNICAMP) are working on improving methods of extracting the juice.

Researchers at the National Institute of Amazonia Research (INPA) are carrying out field research on the viability of cultivating the camu-camu, as the species has never been domesticated. The natural occurrence of the fruit on the banks of river inlets makes harvesting a difficult and time-consuming process. Researchers are trying to adapt the camu-camu tree to upland areas and initial results are encouraging.

Brazil needs to expand the production of camu-camu in order to access the international market. Pará already exports to Japan and the United States, where the product is marketed in tablet form as "Camu-Plus". (Source: Amazon News, 31 October 2002.)

Soap made in Maranhão achieves success in the United States

In hand-made packaging, the bars of soap made from babaçu oil hide one of Maranhão's greatest success stories. They are produced in a tiny factory by the women of Ludovico, a town located 350 km from the capital São Luís. The small company opened its doors in 1996 with grants from European non-governmental organizations and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The production of this ecologically correct product has increased the income of the local population threefold. Before the company was created, local people lived precariously, trading babaçu for rice and beans. The company uses babaçu nuts that have fallen on the ground. A new municipal law passed in 1996 gave them the right to collect the nuts regardless of who owns the land on which they are found. The soap factory has the capacity to produce 12 000 bars per year and now exports 10 000 bars to a Chicago-based firm.

The company is planning to develop other products for export, including sweets and organic crystallized fruits. (Source: Amazon News , 13 January 2003.)

Extractive reserves to have sustainable management plans

By the end of this year, 11 of Brazil's 30 extractive reserves will have operational sustainable management plans. This means that these sustainable-use conservation areas, with a total area of 5 million hectares, will have a document which defines priorities for exploiting natural resources. The reserves which will have management plans are: Alto Tarauacá, Cazumbá-Iracema and Chico Mendes (Acre); Jutaí and Médio Juruá (Amazonas); Barreiro das Antas, Lago do Cuniã and Rio Ouro Preto (Rondônia); Rio Cajari (Amapa); Tapajós-Arapiuns and Soure (Pará).

The plans will permit residents to manage timber and wild animals in the reserves for the first time. The reserves already produce rubber, nuts, palm hearts, vegetable essences, oils, honey, fish and fibres. The management plans will guarantee the sustainable use of natural resources, helping to preserve the forest for future generations.

The extractivists have their rights to natural resources guaranteed by law and receive financial assistance to reform their houses and purchase equipment. The management plans will be elaborated with support from IBAMA (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis). Local residents create a symbiotic relationship with the forest which guarantees the survival of both.

In Brazil, there are currently 30 extractive reserves, 23 of which are located in Amazonia, with a total area of 5 million hectares. (Source: Amazon News , 6 February 2003.)

CAMEROUN

Dans le cadre de la «revue du secteur rural», menée au Cameroun sous la coordination de la Banque mondiale, une étude a été élaborée en 2002 sur la commercialisation de quatre produits forestiers non ligneux dans la zone forestière du Cameroun, par des chercheurs du Centre pour la recherche forestière internationale (CIFOR, Cameroun), du Programme de l'Afrique centrale pour l'environnement (CARPE) et du jardin botanique de Limbé.

Les produits forestiers non ligneux (PFNL) étudiés sont: Gnetum sp., Ricinodendron heudelotii, Irvingia sp. et Prunus africana . Le rapport de cette étude décrit les deux premiers PFNL en français et les deux derniers en anglais.

En milieu rural, les produits forestiers non ligneux sont à privilégier pour une mise en œuvre de nouvelles stratégies visant la découverte de moyens de lutte contre la pauvreté. Dans ce processus, les produits traditionnellement utilisés par les populations des zones rurales pour leur alimentation et santé sont privilégiés.

Les feuilles du Gnetum génèrent des revenus substantiels aux ménages des zones rurales. La production potentielle de cette liane n'a pas encore été estimée puisqu'aucun inventaire n'a été réalisé au Cameroun. Le Gnetum est produit tout au long de l'année en raison de sa forte capacité d'adaptation à la saison sèche. Il est présent aussi bien sur les marchés nationaux, régionaux qu'internationaux. Le volume total de vente sur les sept marchés commercialisant le Gnetum au Cameroun est passé de 44 427 tonnes en 1997, à 25 254 tonnes en 1998. Le sud-ouest du pays totalise à lui seul un volume commercial de 44 234,89 tonnes de Gnetum en 1997. De tous ces marchés, Idenau est celui qui enregistre les flux les plus importants avec 44 200 tonnes en 1997 et 25 157 tonnes en 1998 avec une marge hebdomadaire par commerçant de 104 575 francs CFA. La France et la Belgique importent environ 600 tonnes de Gnetum par an de l'Afrique centrale; cinquante pour cent proviennent du Cameroun. L'étude a révélé qu'en termes de rapports d'équité entre les producteurs et les commerçants, le prix de vente du Gnetum au niveau du producteur représente 42 pour cent du prix de vente du produit au consommateur. Par conséquent, le paysan pourrait améliorer son niveau de vie sur la base de l'exploitation du Gnetum, surtout si la filière était assainie. La première bataille doit être menée contre les contrôles abusifs qui rançonnent les commerçants, alourdissant ainsi les coûts d'exportation du produit. Il est aussi souhaitable que la législation en matière d'exploitation des PFNL soit allégée pour permettre à un plus grand nombre d'habitants des zones rurales d'accéder à un titre d'exploitation.

La graine du Ricinodendron heudelotii, communément appelée Njansang, Ezezang ou Essang, est un PFNL commercialisé dans les marchés nationaux et internationaux. Au Cameroun, les plus grands marchés de Ricinodendron heudelotii en termes d'offre et de demande sont les marchés du Mfoundi et de New Bell, approvisionnés en grande partie par le marché de Sa'a et de ses environs. La valeur totale de vente du Ricinodendron heudelotii dans les sept marchés suivis par le CIFOR (Sa'a, Mbalmayo, Ekondo-Titi, Mfoundi, Abong-Mbang, Limbé, New Bell) est passée de 227 344 290 francs CFA en 1997, à 323 691 865 francs CFA en 1998. Cette augmentation témoigne de l'importance économique de la ressource et révèle la nécessité d'améliorer sa production. Cela contribuerait à augmenter les quantités, ventes, revenus et bénéfices des commerçants et producteurs et pourrait également stabiliser l'offre et pallier aux aléas naturels tels que le vieillissement et le repos végétatif des arbres. Par ailleurs, la graine de Ricinodendron heudelotii est constituée à plus de 50 pour cent de matières grasses. Elle est donc une source de protéines importante. La valorisation d'une huile végétale à base de graines de Ricinodendron heudelotii est un secteur à explorer et développer pour lutter contre la pauvreté, la misère et la famine au Cameroun.

CANADA

Property rights in the sustainable management of non-timber forest products in British Columbia

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is a term used to describe more than 200 species of forest resources, other than timber, harvested for commercial, personal and traditional purposes in British Columbia, Canada. The report "Property rights in the sustainable management of non-timber forest products" provides the institutional context to move the discussion of managing NTFPs in British Columbia to the development stage. NTFPs can be characterized as common pool resources (CPRs) and as such are inherently difficult to manage from a typical state-based regulatory approach. While a great deal of literature has been written on CPRs, little of that literature focuses on NTFPs. This report examines the literature regarding the management of CPRs, the role property rights play in the stewardship of forest resources, and presents a legal review of the existing structure of property rights and resource management institutions in British Columbia.

The report concludes that, given the complex ecological, social and economic characteristics which define NTFPs, a single management approach will not provide an effective, efficient and equitable management regime for NTFPs. After examining various management models (ranging from state to common property and private approaches) and operational constraints, the report finds that, in principle, government agencies should maintain a prescriptive role, but minimize any operational role. The report recommends that a mix of management systems be used, drawing from the strengths of each in appropriate circumstances. Given that there are no active models specifically designed to manage NTFPs in British Columbia, the report recommends that a pilot project be initiated to test and monitor a variety of approaches. If the report's recommendations are accepted, the pilot will provide further opportunities for research into how property rights can be used to overcome CPR management issues as they pertain to NTFPs. (To view an electronic copy of the report go to: www.for.gov.bc.ca/HET/Index.htm)

For more information, please contact:

Mr Sinclair J. Tedder, Economics and Trade Branch, Ministry of Forests, Government of British Colombia, PO Box 9514, Stn Prov. Govt, Victoria V8W9C2, Canada.
Fax: +1 250 3875050;
e-mail:[email protected]

Bighorn concern

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are mounting a campaign to resist moves to weaken the protected area status of the Bighorn Wildland in western Alberta, Canada. This area is wanted by industry for petroleum exploration and logging but NGOs consider it one of the last remaining intact wilderness areas in the region and are seeking to expand the protected area to include the boreal forests of the Bighorn foothills. (For more information, visit:www.wildcanada.net/new _site/action_centres/bighorn/bighorn.asp) (Source: taiga-news, Issue 38, Winter 2002.)

Non-timber forest products at UBC Malcolm Knapp Research Forest

The Malcolm Knapp Research Forest (MKRF) of the University of British Columbia (UBC) is developing a strategic plan to implement NTFP projects in its 5 000 ha of forest in Maple Ridge, British Columbia. During the first phase of the project, Katja Eisbrenner, a master's student from Germany, is investigating the capabilities and opportunities of different NTFPs at MKRF with an emphasis on the current market situation and a broad-scale NTFP inventory.

During a visit to Port McNeill in July 2002, Ionut Aron (Research Coordinator at MKRF) and Eisbrenner met team members of the North Vancouver Island Demonstration Project to discuss such topics as NTFP inventory, sustainable harvesting, current market development and project implementation.

It was interesting to see that although the location, size and local markets are different for the two projects the main questions remain the same (e.g. How many plants or mushrooms can be harvested sustainably?).

Given these similarities the information gained through the discussion was important for further project planning at the MKRF. (For further information on the MKRF project, please contact:[email protected]or visit:www.island.net/~ntfp) (Source: beneath the Trees, October 2002, Diane Carley[email protected])

NTFPs: economic development while sustaining our northern forests

A fact sheet "Non-Timber Forest Products: Economic Development While Sustaining Our Northern Forests" has been produced by the Saskatchewan Environmental Society

Northern Saskatchewan is going through a profound and important period of change.

First Nations, Metis, non-aboriginal residents, forest and mining companies and different levels of government are attempting to balance values that often conflict, while mapping out their economic futures. The timber-based forest industry is cyclical, often facing economic instability and there are well-documented environmental concerns about the widespread clear-cutting of our forests. Mechanization of forestry means fewer jobs as more trees are cut down. More and more of the mills and manufacturing plants are located in larger centres outside the forest, leaving only seasonal jobs for forest communities.

Now, more than ever, it is time to consider seriously generating forest-based economic development in northern areas that provides long-term economic, community and environmental sustainability. Currently in Saskatchewan, the forestry industry is limited to relatively few timber-based primary products. By diversifying the economy in the northern forests, northern Saskatchewan can better achieve sustainable economic development.

The importance of the harvest of non-timber forest products and the creation of value-added products to economic diversification is evident. The gathering of non-timber forest products has cultural and spiritual values and connections to the forest that cannot be excluded from forest policy.

For Aboriginal people, these values are part of the roots of not only a stable community, but of a culture. Historically, forestry development has taken place on traditional Aboriginal land without Aboriginal involvement. The forestry industry has been dominated by large, multinational, non-Aboriginal-owned companies. The National Aboriginal Forestry Association (NAFA) has found that while 80 percent of Aboriginal communities in Canada are in forested areas, few forest-based businesses are owned by Aboriginal people. NAFA has also concluded that there are many obstacles for Aboriginal people becoming involved in the forestry industry, which include: institutional, cultural and economic barriers. (The full pdf version of the fact sheet is available on the Web-www.lights.com/ses/non-timber.html.) (Source: Taiga Rescue Network.)

COSTA RICA

Seven outstanding community initiatives were selected for recognition with the Equator Prize 2002. These communities received the prizes and international recognition at an awards ceremony held on 30 August 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa. Drawn from a pool of more than 420 total nominations and 27 remarkable finalists, these communities represent outstanding achievements in reducing poverty and conserving and sustainably using biodiversity.

Among the winners was the Talamanca Initiative in Costa Rica, in recognition of an outstanding community initiative associated with a World Heritage Site. A collaborative partnership of three community-focused organizations - Asociación ANAI, APPTA, and CBTC - the Talamanca Initiative has worked since 1983 to integrate biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development in the Talamanca region of Costa Rica. The initiative's biodiversity conservation efforts include the establishment of the Gandoca-Manzanillo National Wildlife Refuge, a last sanctuary for the endangered manatee, and the development of Central America's only permanent raptor migration monitoring programme. To encourage sustainable socio-economic development, the initiative has promoted crop diversification and organic agriculture, with APPTA's processing system becoming the largest volume producer and exporter of organic products in Central America.

The initiative has also run a Regional Training Center since 1991, and has helped establish 13 local ecotourism ventures.

As an example of the gains that have been made through the initiative's work, the income in villages has risen by up to sixfold and communities have been able to engage in sustainable income-generating pursuits that also work to protect their natural environment. (Source: www.undp.org/equatorinitiative/ secondary/awards.htm)

GHANA

Bushmeat hunting in Ghana

An American-based environmental group claims that hunting wild animals in Ghana has become a serious problem. Conservation International reports that more than 30 percent of wild animal meat supplied to local markets in Ghana contains dangerous chemicals. This is creating serious health and environmental risks in the country. Conservation International says that hunters use extreme methods to kill wild animals, including poison, forest fires and guns. These methods are dangerous for humans, wildlife and the environment. The country now suffers from a lack of wildlife because so many animals have been killed.

The crisis was the subject of a two-day conference in Accra in August 2002. More than 200 participants attended, including government officials, non-governmental organizations, tribal leaders and representatives of the animal meat trade. Their goal was to find ways to limit the amount of bushmeat eaten by Ghanaians and to create other economic possibilities. Currently, the country's animal meat trade is a US$350 million industry.

Officials released an action plan at the close of the Accra conference. It calls on the Ghanaian Government to examine and improve its wildlife laws. It also urges a ban on the use of extreme hunting methods and a halt to wildlife exports. The action plan also calls for stronger government supervision of the bushmeat industry to protect public health and the dying out of rare animals.

In addition to health and environmental concerns created by this crisis, officials say that Ghanaian culture could also be affected. According to Okyeame Ampadu-Agyei, the head of Conservation International in Ghana, most ethnic groups in the country believe the animals being hunted are linked to the people's ancestors. Local tribes consider the animals to be signs of their history and family traditions. Mr Ampadu-Agyei considers that Ghanaian culture and history are in danger. In the past, local rulers helped protect the country's wild animals by enforcing traditional rules and customs. He added that if Ghana is not careful, all its wildlife will disappear and nothing will be left to show the nation's children. (Source: Green Nature Web site:http://greennature.com/article1788.html)

Most preferred bushmeat

During recent surveys in Ghana, of the 11 wild animals listed in terms of bushmeat preference, the grasscutter (Thryonomis swinderamus ) was the most preferred, accounting for 65.1 percent of the total preference. This was confirmed by the fact that it was the most sought after and consumed bushmeat in the restaurants and chop bars throughout Ghana. It is also the most abundant in all the markets surveyed. It remains the most important bushmeat species throughout West Africa in terms of volume of trade and preference and is also an indication of an overdependence of consumers on a single species. Such overdependencies probably resulted in the overexploitation of this species as some of the traders had reported that much smaller sizes are now being hunted and sold, as compared with previous years. Even though the species breeds prolifically and is reported to be a destructive farm pest, the current rate of exploitation could be more than the reproductive capacity of the populations in the wild could sustain.

The high dependence of consumers on this single species provides justification for the promotion of the grasscutter domestication programme. This is because there is currently adequate demand for the meat of this species and any investment is most likely to pay off readily and contribute enormously to reducing the high market demand on other wild animal species. The preference of grasscutter is followed by Maxwell's duiker (Cephalophus maxwellii) (19.9 percent of total preference).

It has been observed that most exploited species were those considered to cause damage to agricultural areas. In fact, all the 11 preferred species, except for the pangolin (Manis sp .), were farm pests eating maize, cassava and cocoyam among other crops. Altogether, they constituted more than 80 percent of all the bushmeat sold in the markets and restaurants.

Survey results showed that primates were not a favoured species for human consumption since traditionally people do not prefer them as a protein source. Therefore, the apparent disappearance of the primates in their natural habitats, especially the Miss Waldron's Red Colobus (Procolobus badius waldronii ), could not be attributed to bushmeat consumption alone, but to other causal factors such as habitat destruction and changes in ecological conditions. (For the full story, please see:http://allafrica.com/stories/200211100069.html) (Source: Extracted from Public Agenda (Accra), Ghana, 7 November 2002.)

GUATEMALA

INFORMAYA is a group of professionals of Maya origin, whose activities concern the development and provision of information and communication technologies to reduce poverty and to protect the environment in Guatemala. INFORMAYA is currently preparing a project on the sustainable management of NWFPs.

The goal of this project is to establish a source of knowledge about the current and potential use of Guatemala's NWFPs, especially the economic, ecological and social importance of dye-producing NWFPs historically used by Maya communities in the production of textiles. This information would be relevant for those communities involved in the production of textiles and would also help to increase the importance of managing NWFPs for the promotion of development and the management of forest resources for biodiversity conservation.

Guatemala is world-renowed for the colour, quality and abundance of its weavings, as is shown by the continued daily use of the regional indigenous costumes. To produce these extraordinary textiles, traditional technologies such as hand-loom, operated only by women, and the foot-loom, operated by men, are used. Currently these looms are also used to produce decorative household articles such as tablecloths, placemats, rugs and blankets, as well as clothing designed for export.

A Handbook of Natural Dyes of Guatemala will be one of the project's outputs.

For more information, please contact:
Héctor Tuy, Natural Resources - Environment - Rural Development,
7a Avenida 4-02, zona 2,
Solola, Guatemala.
E-mail:[email protected]

INDIA

Applied Environmental Research Foundation

The Applied Environmental Research Foundation (AERF) is a non-governmental organization which was founded in 1994 by research scientists from various fields. AERF believes that environmental conservation and sustainable development will be achieved only through specific research, dissemination of information, awareness generation and, most important, people's participation. The organization has initiated a range of research cum implementation projects, covering traditional conservation systems such as sacred groves, studies of shifting cultivation practices, use of indigenous knowledge in natural resource management and agrobiodiversity conservation research.

Future projects include:

• action research programme to establish an effective network of existing sacred groves for the conservation of biodiversity;
• study on status and trade of some valuable non-timber forest products/plants from the Northwestern Ghats;
• training workshops to generate awareness about indigenous knowledge and biodiversity conservation among the Konyak tribal communities from Mon District, Nagaland, India.

For more information, please contact:

Dr Archana Godbole/Jayant Sarnaik, Applied Environmental Research Foundation, G-2, Hill View, 46/4, Erandadvane, near Hero Honda Showroom, Paud Road, Pune 411038, India.
Fax: +91 020 5463722;
e-mail:[email protected]

Scientific harvesting of kullu (Sterculia urens) gum

Gum karaya (Sterculia urens), popularly known as kullu in Madhya Pradesh, is one of the large number of valuable NTFPs found in abundance in the dry deciduous forests of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. In response to disease or injury to its trunk, the tree exudes a transparent and viscous gum, called katila or kullu, which is widely used in the pharmaceutical, food and paint industries.

The gum tappers among the forest-dependent population aim to extract the maximum quantity of katila from kullu trees existing naturally in their neighbouring forests. However, the traditional method of gum tapping from kullu is destructive as well as wasteful. It involves inflicting deep and wide wounds by random axe-strikes on the kullu tree trunk. This method not only inflicts irreparable damage (often a deadly blow) to the kullu trees , the gum extracted in this manner is also coloured and impure, thus, fetching a very low price in both national and international markets.

Recognizing the importance of local awareness generation and skill building for the sustainable and non-destructive harvest of kullu gum, the newly established International Centre for Community Forestry (ICCF) at the Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal organized field-level training in scientific gum harvesting techniques in Sheopur Forest Division of Madhya Pradesh, from 3 to 9 April 2002. This field-level training was intended for the gum collectors as well as the frontline staff of the Sheopur Forest Department. A total of 132 people, including 110 gum collectors from ten different villages and 22 Forest Department staff members were trained in the theory and practice of non-destructive kullu gum harvesting during the six-day course.

Many issues related to the management of NTFPs in general and gum karaya in particular came up for discussion during the course of this training. Forest Department staff shared with the trainers the major constraints to effective forest protection and community-based NTFP management in the area.

It would be necessary to follow up this training with a series of motivational and monitoring visits to the target villages to promote the adoption of scientific gum tapping techniques by the kullu gum collectors. At present, there is no material incentive for the collectors to practice the improved technique, other than the possibility of extracting valuable and Grade I gum from the existing kullu trees throughout their life span. (Contributed by: Bharati Joshi.)

For further details of this training and/or information on ICCF, please contact:

Dr Prodyut Bhattacharya, International Centre for Community Forestry (ICCF), Indian Institute of Forest Management, Nehru Nagar, PO Box 357, Bhopal 462003, Madhya Pradesh, India.
E-mail:[email protected]

[Please see under News and Notes for more information on gums and resins.]

Ex situ conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in India with special reference to Madhya Pradesh, India

A recent paper embodies the recent trends in ex situ cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) as an alternative to biodiversity conservation and as an additional source of income with special reference to Madhya Pradesh, India. Efforts have been made to highlight the problems encountered in the cultivation of these plants for necessary policy considerations if this emerging sector is to become a financially rewarding and ecologically sustainable one.

The study was sponsored by the Madhya Pradesh Minor Forest Produce Federation as an activity to promote the cultivation of MAPs.

For more information, please contact the authors:

Dr A.K. Bhattacharya, IFS, Associate Professor, or Regina Hansda, Senior Project Research Associate, Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal 462003, India.
Fax: +91 755 772878;
e-mail:[email protected]-or-[email protected]

Indian villagers to take charge of forests under World Bank programme

The World Bank has launched a programme that seeks to put villagers in some of the poorest areas of southern India in charge of tropical forests where they forage for fuel and food. The Washington, DC-based Bank said that a US$108 million credit programme would encourage tribal groups, migrant grazers and landless communities to take on primary responsibility for managing forests in parts of the state of Andhra Pradesh.

The project, to be implemented in 14 of the state's poorest districts and overseen by the local forestry department, follows a similar programme, launched by the Bank in 1994, which brought Andhra Pradesh officials and forest communities together to manage woodlands. That joint project, which ended in 2000, drew criticism from environmental and conservation campaigners over the stake held by forest communities in relation to officials from the forestry department. The villagers received less than 50 percent of revenues from bamboo trees and tendu leaves (used to make tobacco rolls), despite being promised an equal share from non-timber products.

The six-year project, initiated in 2002, will give villagers more income than they received under the previous programme because it will also include a share of revenue from timber sales. It will start by laying the groundwork for local people to get involved in the management of the four million hectares of forestland through a series of training sessions with villagers, non-governmental organizations and state officials.

The Bank hopes that by giving local communities the knowledge and skills to manage the forests, by maintaining healthy trees and combating illegal practices, such as logging for fuelwood, the programme will not only increase the wealth of local people, but also help to conserve the rich plant and animal life in the areas. Forest officials will supervise the work of the villagers, ensuring that the forests are preserved, the produce marketed and accounts maintained. A series of village committees will eventually be set up to take over sales of forest products and accountancy work. (Source: Extracted from RECOFTC E-letter No. 2002.15 of 31 July 2002.)

Profitable cultivation of Phyllanthus emblica

In 1994, Mr Rajendra established Nivee Gardens Nursery in Palladam, Tamil Nadu, an arid region of South India. Over the course of eight years, Nivee Gardens Nursery has become a significant supplier of various fruit and medicinal tree saplings and crops. This nursery currently cultivatesPhyllanthus emblica, Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica, Psidium guajava, Coco nucifera and Manilkaraachras on its 15 acres [6.08 ha], and employs 75 people.

Nivee Gardens Nursery uses innovative grafting techniques and intercropping systems to produce quality products and generate economic profit. It is estimated that after four years, Phyllanthus emblica can generate an average annual profit of Rs 95 000 (approximately US$1 975) per acre [approximately US$800/ha].

Through Nivee Gardens Nursery, Mr Rajendra's objective is to promote dryland development through cultivation of non-timber forest products and other fruit-trees, adopt the latest technology in the market, create national and international awareness of medicinal plant cultivation, and become a global player in the supply of various medicinal herbs and other natural products. (Contributed by: Diji Chandrasekharan, Cornell University, USA e-mail:[email protected].)

For further information, please contact:

Mr E. Kathirvel, Nivee Gardens Nursery, Annanagar, Trichy Road, Palladam, Coimbatore, 641 664 Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail:[email protected]

Cultivation and marketing of medicinal plants

The medicinal plants sector has traditionally occupied an important position in the sociocultural, spiritual and medical arena of rural and tribal lives in India.

The global context suggests several tremendous opportunities in both medical material and expertise for India, a country unrivalled in terms of diversity of medicinal systems and practices, in addition to being a major storehouse of biological diversity with two of the 14 megabiodiversity areas of the world located within its borders. Moreover, medicinal plants are one of the most important components of the non-wood forest products sector, which supplies more than 80 percent of India's net forest annual export earnings.

The nature and dynamics of the domestic trade of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) involves central and regional markets through a number of private dealers and agencies, government or government-controlled corporations and cooperatives all having upstream linkages with numerous local and "road-head" markets, which in turn have myriad intermediaries, small shopkeepers and agents feeding them with primary supplies.

The goal of a recent study was to test the feasibility of introducing medicinal plant cultivation and marketing as a livelihood for farmers in the proposed area. The farmers have a limited set of agricultural skills and are unable to take risks.

The study emphasized the collection of quantitative and qualitative information with the aim of meeting the set of objectives. In order to view the whole picture, institutes working in the field were visited and a literature review was carried out and primary data collected from traditional farmers as well as people in the trade and cultivation of MAPs. Financial and statistical tools were employed to draw conclusions from the data obtained.

On the basis of the crops suggested by experts, certain crops were identified and from them eight MAPs were shortlisted for their technical suitability. These were compared with the traditional crops, and the cultivation of MAPs was found to be a profitable preposition. Applying three criteria, i.e. economic feasibility, market feasibility and environment/resource management feasibility, four medicinal plants were selected to be grown in the proposed area: ashwagandha, senna, isabgol and lemon grass. These plants can effectively utilize waste and fallow lands and can become the source of additional livelihoods. (Source: Extracted from the Executive Summary of Feasibility study for cultivation and marketing of medicinal plants as livelihood for farmers in Harda and Dewas districts of Madhya Pradesh, India, by A.K. Bhattacharya, Kunal Shekhar and Yogesh Kumar.)

For the outcome and recommendations of the study, or for more information, please contact:

Dr A.K. Bhattacharya, IFS, Associate Professor, Indian Institute Forest Management, Nehru Nagar, PO Box 357, Bhopal 462003, India.
Fax: +91 755 772878;
e-mail:[email protected]-or-[email protected]

INDONESIA

The alternative approach of community forest management

The non-governmental organization Down to Earth has recently concluded a special report entitled Forests, people and rights, which provides very detailed analytical information on the forest situation in Indonesia. The following paragraphs have been extracted from the chapter "Community forest management: the way forward".

According to the study, forest people have been regarded by Indonesia's powerful wood industry and successive governments in Jakarta as an obstacle to the profitable exploitation of the forests and their skills and knowledge were unrecognized, until very recently.

However, community forest management provides an alternative approach which puts forest people at the centre of decision-making and sees them, not as a problem to be dealt with, but as a key part of the solution.

In Indonesia, the community forestry movement starts from the premise that the domination of the state, the centralized nature of forest management and the state's refusal to recognize adat (indigenous) rights are the major causes of deforestation and forest degradation.

Community-based natural resource management seeks to guarantee access and control over forest resources for people living in and around forests who depend on them for their economic, social, cultural and spiritual well-being. Forests should be managed to provide intergenerational security and increase the likelihood of sustainability. This is based on three principles:

• The rights and responsibilities over forest resources must be clear, secure and permanent.
• The forests must be properly managed so that there is a flow of benefits and added value.
• Forest resources must be transferred in good condition to ensure their future viability.

Communities wanting to retain, construct or develop community-based management schemes face major challenges: the wider political and economic imperatives of international financial institutions which prioritize revenues from timber; central government policies entrenched in the past; rampant corruption, etc.

Forest people face internal challenges too. Decision-making within traditional indigenous communities may be hierarchical. Women, the poorest members of the community - particularly the landless or low status families - and seasonal forest users may not have a voice in how resources are apportioned. And they also undergo changes: people who practised subsistence forest farming and had little need for cash even a generation ago now want money to pay for clothing, medical care, outboard motors for canoes (and diesel for them), school uniforms and books. Transport and accommodation costs incurred during visits to lobby local and central government officials are becoming a common budget item for forest people.

The forests on which these traditional lifestyles depend have also changed. Large tracts of forest formerly reserved intact as insurance for hard times or as a legacy for future generations have been at best logged over and at worst cleared for plantations. The valuable resins, rattans and forest fruits which used to be traded are becoming scarcer, as are the medicinal plants used by shamans for traditional healing. As the forests disappear, so do the skills and knowledge of indigenous communities.

Indigenous communities are not the only ones living in and around what remains of Indonesia's forests. Migrants from other areas, even other islands - peasant farmers dispossessed by plantations and urbanization, transmigrants and miners - are all laying claim to these lands and resources. Some may have lived there for several generations. Negotiations between all these groups must take place to avoid conflict.

Indonesia's forest people are well aware of the need to adapt their institutions to a changing world and are discussing such issues as identity, sovereignty and legal representation both within their own communities and with others. They are using new opportunities provided by the regional and national indigenous people's alliances (AMA and AMAN) to move these debates forward.

Civil society organizations and a growing number of funding agencies in Indonesia and abroad recognize that consistent support for forest people to develop their own strong, dynamic, inclusive and democratic organizations is vital in order to gain wider support for community-based forest management and effect a shift away from "the timber-mining" regime that has proved to be so disastrous until now. (Article extracted from: Forests, people and rights, by Liz Chidley, edited by Carolyn Marr. Down to Earth, International Campaign for Ecological Justice in Indonesia, Special Report, June 2002-http://dte.gn.apc.org/srfin.htm) (Source: WRM Bulletin, No. 60 in RECOFTC E-letter No. 2002.15, 31 July 2002.)

Orang Rimba: habitat and resources management for the Kubu in Sumatra

The "Habitat and Resources Management for the Kubu" project is a cooperation between WARSI (Conservation Information Forum), OD (Operasjon Dagsverk, Norway) and RFN (Rainforest Foundation, Norway). The activities of the project support habitat and resources management for the Orang Rimba (Kubu), an indigenous people in Jambi province.

The total number of Orang Rimba (the name means "people of the forest") recorded is more than 2 500 individuals, most of whom live in the forest. Here, the Orang Rimba have developed a traditional system of forest resources management, based on enrichment and selective enhancement of many tree and plant species. They generally collect non-wood forest products, hunt and practise swidden cultivation.

The entire region in which the Orang Rimba are found was until recently covered by lowland tropical forest. Most of the people still occupy the remaining forested areas; however, they are now increasingly marginalized because of large-scale forest clearance, especially for oil-palm plantations. Resettlement efforts by the government are not compatible with the livelihood pattern of the Orang Rimba, and most of those who take part in resettlement projects leave the settlement once free food and other handouts are ended.

The Orang Rimba need security of access to land and forest resources. Development activities that ignore this requirement are meaningless.

For more information, please contact:

WARSI Head Office, Jl. Teuku Umar No. 24, Bangko, PO Box 28/BKO, 37312 Jambi, Indonesia.
Fax: +62 746 322178;
www.warsi.or.id/

Forest people's welfare in decline owing to deforestation

The Orang Rimba depend fully on the forests inside the Bukit Dua Belas National Park (TNBD); there are more than 20 groups, each comprising between 20 and 40 members. Accompanied by some of his family members, Tumenggung Tarib (Tumenggung is a title of the chief of a group of Orang Rimba) takes care of the group's farm where they grow cassava, their favourite staple food. They gather food from forests, can identify hundreds of kinds of plants and animals and know how to hunt wild animals.

The Orang Rimba respect life: this is reflected in their customs. A woman must give birth to her baby in a certain location in the forest, which is blessed by the gods. The selection of the location is made by the group shaman, who is also responsible for leading any ritual held by the group. Orang Terang (villagers) are prohibited from attending any of the rituals, Tumenggung Tarib said. Should one of the family members die, the group will "melangun", or move to other locations in the forest. The more important the social position of the deceased, the farther away they move. Unfortunately, they cannot continue to live the nomadic lifestyle and move as far away as they need. Deforestation has decreased the 60 500 ha of the TNBD size significantly, which reportedly has lost 30 percent of its areas.

According to anthropologist Robert Aritonang of WARSI, a non-governmental organization (NGO) managing forests and its indigenous people, deforestation in the area started in the 1980s. At the time, the government cleared thousands of hectares of forests within months for transmigration sites.

The Orang Rimba chose to go farther inside the forest although they were disappointed by the reduction of their homeland. But, the deforestation did not stop here. Currently, illegal logging continuously reduces their forests. The Orang Rimba occasionally go to nearby villages to sell rattan or to buy cigarettes, coffee, sugar, biscuits or clothes.

Aritonang asserted that the Orang Rimba must be prepared to start a new way of life because of the alarming level of deforestation in the national park. The World Bank has predicted that the forests in Sumatra island will vanish by 2005.

Despite knowing that their forests will possibly be gone in the near future, the Orang Rimba still expect to continue to live in their own way; those who have continuously made contact with villagers prefer to live in the forests. "I know how Orang Terang live. Villages are too noisy and I am unable to breathe. The forest is my home. Here, it is quiet and I can breathe fresh air," said Tumenggung Tarib, who had visited Jakarta to receive an award from Kehati, an environment NGO.

Orang Rimba, sidelined for years by the government, have voiced their simple yet important hope: to keep their forests green. They are a minority but they do not deserve to be forgotten. (Source: The Jakarta Post, 19 November 2002.)

The Indonesian Nature Conservation newsLetter

The Indonesian Nature Conservation newsLetter (INCL) is a non-profit Internet e-mail list. Messages appear in digest format and are sent out once a week in both English and Bahasa Indonesia (English and Bahasa Indonesia editions differ and are not just translations). There are about 1 500 members. (Further information may be found on the Web-www.pili.or.id or-www.nature-conservation.or.id/)

To join, please send an e-mail to:

Muchamad Muchtar-[email protected] or
Ed Colijn-[email protected].

Non-timber forest products and trade in eastern Borneo

In a recent article Non-timber forest products and trade in eastern Borneo, by B. Sellato, a broad range of non-timber forest products of plant and animal origin collected from the Borneo rain forest and subsequently traded are presented. These products include resins, latex, rattans and bird's-nests. A recent article discussed their local and regional uses and whether they are or have been targeted for local or international markets. The author also presents - for the northern part of the Indonesian province of East Kalimantan - a history of trade in these products based on various written sources (Dutch colonial archives, official Indonesian statistics, local scholarly texts) and oral sources (interviews with nomadic Punan people, Dayak swidden farmers, Malays in the coastal ports, Chinese and Arab traders, intermediaries disseminating inland products on international markets). This historical reconstruction suggests that, despite the fact that some of these products have been traded on world markets for almost two millennia, their systematic and unsustainable exploitation only began in the seventeenth century.

Since then, the products have been extracted along a front that has gradually progressed from the coastal regions via the rivers towards interior parts of the island. This exploitation ended in the 1990s, with almost complete depletion of these resources. The local forest communities (Dayak and Punan) are neither wise conservationists nor primitive destroyers of the forest, but simply economic stakeholders. Their sensible, pragmatic strategies have enabled their long-term survival in local forests under any circumstances with respect to world market demand. (Source: Bois et forêts des tropiques, 271(1), 2002.)

KENYA

Plants for Life

The Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) was established in June 1986 in order to undertake forestry research and development on behalf of the government. It has a clear mission to carry out user-oriented multidisciplinary research to generate technologies and disseminate them to enhance development, management and conservation of forests, trees and allied resources in order to contribute to improving the welfare of the people of Kenya. KEFRI's research and development activities are implemented through four core research programmes: Farm Forestry, Natural Forests, Dryland Forestry and Forest Plantations.

Falling under the Dryland Forestry programme is the Non-wood Forest Product subprogramme whose priority research areas include gathering information to improve the utilization of non-wood forest resources as well as documenting the indigenous knowledge attached to them. These resources include food plants, gums and resins, tans and dyes, essential oils, fibres and medicinal extracts - products representing renewable resources that could be sustainably exploited for profit and still conserve most of the biological diversity and ecosystem functions of the forests. Medicinal and wild food plants are important non-wood forest products in improving people's food security and health conditions.

In 1990, a project was initiated under the Non-wood Forest Products subprogramme for the purpose of conducting field research on nutritional (fruits, vegetables, etc.) and medicinal plants in relation to their status and conservation perspectives. Dealing with food and medicinal plants, the essence of life, the project was named Plants for Life. Its objectives are gathering information to improve the conservation, sustainable utilization and development of these resources.

In order to promote the results of its objectives, Plants for Life has initiated several extension and promotional activities. These involve setting up demonstration botanic gardens on the farms of selected model traditional medical practitioners, supplying seeds and seedlings of medicinal and nutritional (fruits) plants to herbalists and small-scale farmers and assisting them to start their own medicinal plant groves. Local communities are thus directly involved in the Plants for Life database, first as sources of information on medicinal and nutritional resources and later as conservators and promoters of the same in their communities.

The Plants for Life project undertakes the following activities:

• ethnobotanical surveys in order to reveal medicinal and nutritional plants used by the local communities, mode of harvesting and any other relevant information;
• scientific identification and classification of medicinal and nutritional plants accompanied by a preserved herbarium voucher specimen;
• raising seedlings of the popular and more frequently used species and developing suitable propagation techniques for the rare and difficult ones;
• establishing a demonstration botanical herbal garden at KEFRI headquarters, Muguga and plant groves at different ecological zones (Gede, Ramogi, Kibwezi, Kitui);
• supplying seedlings and seeds and nursery equipment to selected traditional medical practitioners/ herbalists and interested small-scale farmers and assisting them to establish their own herbal gardens/groves on their own farms;
• building up a database with the necessary basic information required for the conservation, sustainable use and management of medicinal and nutritional plants.

Systematic ethnobotanical surveys on the indigenous medicinal and food plants have been conducted in Siaya, Kitui and Kajiado districts. Hot-spot surveys to capture important information have also been conducted in South Nyanza, Machakos, Kakamega, Isiolo and Baringo districts. At the present stage, the Plants for Life database has documented information on 960 medicinal and nutritional species.

A total of 14 traditional medical practitioners and interested small-scale farmers collaborating with Plants for Life have benefited from the project by establishing their own medicinal plant groves on their farms.

The future of herbal medicine and its practice in Kenya will depend on the successful introduction of medicinal plants into the prevailing agriculture and agroforestry systems. To save medicinal plants for sustainable use, non-destructive harvesting methods need to be devised. In particular, research should be directed at the efficacy of leaves or fruits in cases where roots and barks are used. Trade in medicinal plants should always be subject to a permit for specified variable quantities. (Source: Medicinal plants: the role of the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Plants for Life projects in conservation, management and development, cited in the Phytomedica List, 25 September 2002.)

For more information, please contact:

Kenya Forestry Research Institute, PO Box 20142, Nairobi, Kenya.
Fax: +254 154 32844;
e-mail:[email protected]

Elders to protect Arabuko-Sokoke Forest

Village elders in Malindi and Kilifi districts have formed an association to prevent the destruction of the world-famous Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. Elders from the two districts resolved to form the association as a matter of urgency as the forest was facing extinction. (For more information, please see: http://allafrica.com/stories/ 200211080095.html) (Source: The East African Standard (Nairobi), Kenya, 7 November 2002.)

MALI

Groups use - and conserve - forest bounty

Communities in the Kita district in southwestern Mali are selling wood, honey and other products from local forests to increase their earnings while improving forest management to ensure that future generations can enjoy the bounty.

A project supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has helped set up more than 90 rural groups to manage marketing of wood from the forests. The groups cooperate closely with the Ministry of Rural Development on the sustainable use of forest products. These efforts have helped put more than 110 000 ha of forest under management and set up seven protected forest areas. The project also aided 15 villages in setting up land management plans.

The International Labour Organization is a partner in the initiative, along with the Ministry of Rural Development. The Governments of Mali and Norway and UNDP have provided US$1.7 million for the project, which began four years ago.

Through the initiative, more than 100 women's organizations earn money by producing soap and charcoal, beekeeping, farming, and marketing shea nuts which are used to make shea butter, a cosmetic product. The proceeds have helped finance schools and health centres and provided resources for the savings and credit association that supports the activities of the forest management federation and women's organizations.

The project supports these activities through training - conducted in Bambara, the local language - in management, forestry, sustainable charcoal production and soap making. The project has also provided training for elected officials from local communities and the district in public administration to promote decentralization and natural resources management. (Source: UNDP Newsfront, 24 April 2002.)

MÉXICO

El mercado de plantas medicinales en México: situación actual y perspectivas de desarrollo

En México se tiene estimado que existen cerca 30 000 especies de plantas de las cuales en 1997 el Instituto Nacional Indigenista documentó 3 000 con usos medicinales, esto es el 10 por ciento del total de la riqueza florística del país.

Estudios realizados por Betancourt y Gutiérrez reportan que de manera cotidiana se comercializan frescas o deshidratadas cerca de 250 especies provenientes principalmente de las zonas centro y sur del país.

Actualmente ninguno de las grandes empresas mayoristas del país maneja la totalidad de estas especies, algunas incluso se dedican principalmente a comercializar plantas nacionales y otras tienen preferencia por las especies extranjeras.

Este trabajo tiene como antecedente inmediato al proyecto de Mercados verdes herbolarios, que fue apoyado en 1999 por el Fondo de América del Norte para la Cooperación Ambiental (FANCA) y que tuvo como objetivo principal llevar a cabo la capacitación de campesinos, principalmente mujeres, de la región centro-sur de México en cuanto a la conservación, uso, manejo sustentable, cultivo orgánico, procesamiento y comercio justo de plantas medicinales.

En México, a excepción del valioso trabajo realizado entre 1987 y 1995 por Paul Hersch Martínez (1996) sobre la extracción no planificada y el mercadeo de la flora medicinal silvestre en el sudoeste del Estado de Puebla, son relativamente escasas las investigaciones que incorporan elementos de comercialización de los recursos herbolarios y de sus productos derivados.

La recolección y venta de plantas medicinales en México comparte características socioeconómicas, culturales y ambientales con lo que sucede en otros países latinoamericanos:

• los patrones de consumo de acuerdo con la farmacoterapia dominante;
• el consumo no industrial del recurso principalmente en comunidades rurales e indígenas;
• el excesivo intermediarismo en la comercialización de las plantas medicinales y sus productos derivados;
• los recolectores son principalmente mujeres campesinas de zonas marginadas;
• el incremento sustantivo de la recolección en la época de estiaje por ser una de las pocas actividades económicas que permite ingresos a la familia;
• más del 90 por ciento de las plantas medicinales que se consumen provienen de poblaciones silvestres sin algún tipo de manejo sustentable;
• los principales actores sociales que intervienen en la cadena de comercialización son: el recolector, el acopiador local, el acopiador regional, el mayorista y el detallista;
• la recolección excesiva de algunas especies con alta demanda comercial ha provocado una fuerte disminución de sus poblaciones llegando incluso a considerarse como amenazadas y en peligro de extinción;
• la carencia de un programa nacional de plantas medicinales que integre efectivamente los distintos aspectos relacionados con estos recursos: etnobotánica, botánica, ecología, fitoquímica, farmacología, toxicología, cultivo, procesamiento, control de calidad, establecimiento de microempresas, comercialización y promoción;
• el incremento en la adulteración o sustitución de plantas completas o de sus partes así como de sus productos fitofarmacéuticos.

Este trabajo, como se mencionó al inicio, comenzó en 1999 como parte del Programa Nacional de Plantas Medicinales (PRONAPLAMED) que llevan a cabo los miembros de la Red Mexicana de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas S.C.L. (REDMEXPLAM), en la que participan campesinos, recolectores, médicos tradicionales, amas de casa, estudiantes, industrializadores, promotores y comercializadores principalmente del centro y sur del país.

Es importante señalar que el procesamiento de las especies nativas la realizan principalmente empresarios mexicanos; las transnacionales procesan y comercializan preferentemente especies exóticas. Las empresas mexicanas atienden generalmente enfermedades comunes de la mayoría de la población, mientras que las empresas extranjeras atienden principalmente enfermedades frecuentes en la clase media y zonas urbanas.

El consumo de plantas medicinales en comunidades indígenas y personas de niveles socioeconómicos bajos se ha mantenido a pesar de persecuciones, hostigamientos, prohibiciones y desinterés de los distintos niveles del gobierno.

A la fecha lo que más interesa a las empresas extranjeras es adquirir en el país la materia prima vegetal, poniendo generalmente obstáculos para la introducción de productos herbolarios mexicanos ya elaborados. Los productos fitofarmacéuticos nacionales tienen muchas barreras para su comercialización fuera del país tanto por el proteccionismo local como por la poca competitividad y la carencia de estímulos financieros gubernamentales.

Especies de procedencia nacional de particular interés fuera del país en estos momentos son las siguientes: Damiana de California (Turnera diffusa var. aphrodisiaca), Cuachalalate (Amphypteringium adstringens), Zarzaparrilla (Smilax spp.), Zacatechichi (Calea zacatechichi), Hierba de la pastora (Salvia divinorum), Raíz de Jalapa (Ipomoea purga), Árnica mexicana (Heterotheca inuloides), Flor de tila, tila estrella (Tillia, Ternstroemia), Flores de Azahar (Citrus spp.), Valeriana mexicana (Valeriana edulis ssp. procera), Flores de manzanilla (Matricaria recurita), Albahaca (Ocimum basilicum) y Orégano mexicano (Lippia graveolens).

Los países actualmente con mayor demanda de materias primas y extractos de plantas medicinales nacionales que BANCOMEXT y REDMEXPLAM tienen registrados son: Alemania, Estados Unidos (mercado hispano), España, Francia, el Japón, Holanda, Suiza e Italia.

Las principales plantas medicinales que se importan en grandes volúmenes a nuestro país a través de agentes extranjeros y empresas nacionales son: Anís estrella (Illicium verum), Hoja sen (Senna angustifolia), Boldo (Peumus boldus), Algas pardas (Fucus vesiculosus), Fenogreco, alholva (Trigonella foenum-graecum), Ginko (Ginkgo biloba), Ginseng (Panax spp.) y Equinacea (Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia).

Los países más importantes de donde provienen estas importaciones son: China, Alemania, Viet Nam, Chile, Guatemala y Estados Unidos.

Factores importantes que determinan el incremento del consumo interno de plantas medicinales, aromáticas y sus derivados:

• crisis socioeconómica;
• crisis del sector salud: deterioro de la calidad de los servicios médicos;
• búsqueda de la automedicación;
• movimientos sociales por el «regreso a la naturaleza»;
• incremento desmesurado de los precios de medicamentos de patente;
• desconfianza de sectores de la población por los medicamentos alopáticos.

Algunas características del mercado nacional de plantas medicinales, aromáticas y sus productos derivados:

• la situación marginal de los recolectores de plantas medicinales en la cadena de comercialización de plantas medicinales;
• el empresario mayorista y minorista tiene una alta tasa de ganancia;
• las plantas medicinales que se cultivan son principalmente especies exóticas, tales como manzanilla, hierbabuena, té limón, tomillo, albahaca, romero, etc.; y se emplean generalmente como suplementos alimenticios o bebidas, como condimento y en menor medida como medicinales;
• más del 85 por ciento de las especies que se comercializan en México provienen de la recolección silvestre, sin contar con programas de manejo y sin ningún control o seguimiento de las dependencias gubernamentales responsables;
• las instituciones de los gobiernos federales no cuentan con la mínima información sobre la recolección silvestre de plantas medicinales;
• el predominio de la recolección sobre el cultivo es expresión de la marginación o el desprecio que se ha tenido de la medicina tradicional y específicamente de la herbolaria;
• la procedencia de materias primas de la recolección silvestre no necesariamente corresponde a precios bajos para el consumidor pero conlleva, entre otras cosas, mayor heterogeneidad y disponibilidad, y peligro de adulteraciones, contaminaciones y baja calidad;
• el incremento en la demanda de plantas medicinales provoca entre otras cosas la pérdida del manejo sustentable tradicional que hacían los médicos tradicionales, los recolectores y comunidades indígenas. Para la nueva generación de recolectores y/o cultivadores no importan la hora del día, la época del año, las partes usadas, la forma de secado, las técnicas de recolección, la conservación de individuos y poblaciones, etc.;
• la actividad de recolección involucra a toda la familia pero principalmente a mujeres y niños;
• el 75 por ciento de las plantas medicinales que se comercializan en México provienen de comunidades indígenas y rurales de la región centro-sur;
• la adulteración o sustitución de las materias primas se ha incrementado debido a los precios altos de algunas especies, el incremento de la demanda y la escasez o disminución de poblaciones silvestres, etc.

Especies nativas que se exportan en grandes cantidades, principalmente a Europa y América del Norte, para adulterar especies locales con alta demanda internacional:
Especie original	Especie con la que se adultera
Arnica montana	Heterotheca inuloides
Valeriana officinalis	Valeriana edulis ssp. procera

Para más información, dirigirse a:

Miguel Ángel Gutiérrez Domínguez y Yolanda Betancourt Aguilar, Jardín Botánico Universitario, Secretaría de Investigación Científica, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Red Mexicana de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas S.C.L., Apartado Postal 332, C.P. 90000 Tlaxcala, Tlax, México.
Correo electrónico:[email protected];
www.geocities.com/redmexicana

MYANMAR

NWFPs in Paukkhaung Model Forest

The forests of Myanmar are rich in a wide range of NWFPs. It is well accepted that NWFPs, if sustainably managed, are important potential sources of revenue. About 75 percent of the total population in rural areas depend on forests to meet their social and economic needs. Most of the NWFPs are essential for domestic consumption as well as for cash income. As the population increases, so does the demand for NWFPs. The western parts of the Bago Yoma forests lying in Paukkhaung Model Forest are abundant in NWFPs, which fall into six categories:

• fibre products, including bamboo, grasses and plant fibres;
• food products, including bamboo shoots, mushrooms and Zizyphus jujuba. Wild honey is seasonally collected for household use;
• medicinal and cosmetic products;
• extractive products: the most common oleoresin is found in thitsi (Melanorrhoea usitata), the product from which is used for caulking boats, as a non-fouling paint, as a coating upon surfaces to be gilded and, predominantly, for Burmese lacquer work;
• animal products other than food, including honey and beeswax, and pwenyet a dammar [resin] made by a small stingless bee (Melipona sp.) which is collected and used for caulking boats;
• miscellaneous products: leaves and thatch used for roofing and walls of buildings, and various kinds of orchids.

(Source: Model Forest Approach News, April 2002.)

For more information, please contact:

Regional Model Forest Project (GCP/RAS/177/JPN), FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok, Thailand.
Fax: +66 2 6974445;
e-mail:[email protected]

NAMIBIA

Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC)

IRDNC is a Namibian non-governmental organization which seeks to link conservation and the sustainable use of wildlife and other natural resources to the social and economic development of rural communities in Namibia. It operates as a field-based project-implementing agency in the Kunene and Caprivi regions. It also undertakes non-profit socio-ecological consultancies throughout southern Africa.

Wildlife has always been one of Africa's most valuable natural resources. In the past, both wild animals and wild plants made a significant contribution to the traditional economies of indigenous African people and played an important part in their cultural heritage.

The enforcement of élitist and protectionist nature conservation policies during the colonial era resulted in the alienation of most African people from wildlife and often created hostility towards the conservation authorities. Eurocentric education and values, which until recently did not recognize wild animals as a valuable economic resource, also contributed to a general belief that wildlife conservation was in opposition to rural development in communal areas.

In spite of this, wildlife-based enterprises have become major generators of foreign exchange in many African countries by annually attracting large numbers of tourists wishing to hunt big game or simply see wild animals in their natural habitats. However, because of past discriminatory legislation and practices, the rural people who live with the wild animals on communal land have received little or no direct benefit from the tourists who visit their areas.

IRDNC therefore believes that nature conservation and tourism policies, legislation and practices must be democratized to ensure a future for wild animals both outside and inside proclaimed national parks and game reserves. Environmental awareness and the importance of wildlife conservation are an essential part of all Namibians' education. Communal area residents have the capacity to participate actively in wildlife conservation and the ecotourism industry. If rural communities share in the management of their wildlife resources and gain direct financial benefits from ecotourism and sport hunting, Namibia's communal areas can become important tourist destinations and make a major contribution to the country's economic development.

IRDNC's goal is sustainable social, economic and ecological development in communal areas of Namibia.

For more information, please contact:

IRDNC, Box 9681, Windhoek, Namibia.
Fax: +264 61 228530.

NEPAL

Small grants make big gains for local culture and environment

Two small-scale projects, one to protect a forest with temple ruins and the other to enable solar energy use, are making a big impact in Nepal. Both rely on community action and are supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Global Environment Facility (GEF) Small Grants Programme, which provides up to US$50 000 for projects which conserve local biodiversity and improve livelihoods.

In Kankrebihar in Surkhet district in western Nepal, villagers protect unusual temple ruins and conserve the surrounding forest, home to many animal and plant species. The initiative, begun two years ago, helped set up 17 community organizations to mobilize resources for conservation and development activities. According to the UNDP, the project has helped bring the magnificent ruins and the need to preserve them to national attention. They are unique in Nepal and, if well restored, could become an important tourist site.

The community groups prepare their own plans and decide what activities are needed for their conservation and development projects. Local organizations now protect 167 ha of forest and have established a museum devoted to Tharu culture, the heritage of one of Nepal's largest ethnic groups.

There are 18 projects supported by the UNDP GEF Small Grants Programme under way in different areas of Nepal, demonstrating how communities can find a balance between economic development and environmental conservation. (Source: Newsfront, 27 November 2002.)

Nepalese Forester e-group

The Nepalese Forester e-group is run on a voluntary basis for discussion and information sharing on various issues concerning the forestry sector of Nepal. (To subscribe to the group send a blank message to:[email protected])

NIGERIA

Forest insects and food importance in Owo, Ondo State

In Nigeria and many other tropical countries protein energy malnutrition is endemic owing to a deficiency in the diet. The low-income rural dwellers who constitute the majority of the people in particular are at risk. This includes the people of Owo in Owo Local Government Area (LGA).

Insects and their uses in Owo Local Government Area
Local name(OWO)	Common name	Scientific name	Habitats	Edible part	Uses
Ugo	Palm weevil	Rhyncoporus phonenicis	Oil and coconut palm	Adult	Food (snacks)
Ufau	Palm worm	Rhyncoporus phonenicis	Oil and coconut palm stem (dead)	Larvae	Food (snacks)
Oguduma	Night beetle	Dynastes	Forest soils hercules	Adult	Food (snacks)
Oyin	Honey bee	Apis mellifera	Forest trees	Beeswax	Food (snacks) medicines
Olu osunsun	Queen termite spp.	Macroterines termitarium	Dead wood grubs	Adult	Food (snacks), medicines
Osunsun	Winged termite	Macroterines spp.	Termitarium	Adul t	Food (snacks), medicines
Iwunku	Caterpillar worm	Marca testulatis	Trees, e.g obeche	Larvae	Food and cloth weaving
Akuta or elete	Grasshopper	Zonocerus variegates	Forest lands/ farms	Adult	Food and medicines
Ure	Cricket	Gryllotalpa africana	Soils, burrows	Adult	Food or medicines

                                         (Source: Field surveys.)

The problem of food inadequacy and nutrition imbalance in Nigeria, especially in Owo LGA, is not the dearth of food resources but that of the use and appreciation of food diversities provided by nature. The colonial influence and unstable government policies have contributed to the narrowing of the food resources base of the nation to a few grains, maize, beans, cassava and yams.

However, for centuries the people of Owo in Ondo State have depended on forest insects to supply part of the animal proteins essential to maintain a balanced diet. Insects are a group of non-conventional sources of cheap protein. The population of insects has been estimated at between 2 million and 80 million worldwide out of which 2 000 have been recorded as edible in Nigeria where there are about

20 000 species of insects. The insects used as traditional food and sources of protein in Owo are summarized in the Table below, which is based on a survey carried out in February 2001 in the study area.

This report has shown that beyond timber, the forest provides non-timber products essential for human survival. It is suggested that forest policies in Ondo State and Nigeria should be holistic enough to cater for all forest resources, both timber and non-timber, especially edible forest insects.

For more information, please contact:

M.F. Adekunle (Lecturer/Researcher) or S.A. Oluwalana (Associate Professor), Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Agriculture, PMB 2240, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
E-mail:[email protected]

Borno signs agreement with the Sudan on gum arabic

The Borno State government (Nigeria) has signed a partnership agreement with the Republic of the Sudan, as part of the efforts to boost gum arabic production. Borno State governor, Alhaji Mala Kachallah, said that the state government has set aside N 20 million for the project, adding that the plantation will cover an area of 48 km2 in all the 27 local government areas. In addition, he revealed that the state will distribute standard gum arabic seedlings to farmers in all the producing areas of the state at no cost.

Kachallah explained that the venture demonstrated the government's intention to be the best gum arabic seedling producer in the world; to date, the state was only second to the Sudan in the production of gum arabic seedlings. Under the ongoing plan, the governor explained, about 34 million seedlings would be raised and distributed annually until the target of 40 million seedlings was realized.

In the first phase of the programme, about 8 km2 of land would be cultivated. The programme aimed at creating job opportunities for the unemployed youth, and the gum arabic plantation would help in the fight against desertification, because its roots would stabilize the soil. (http://allafrica.com/stories/200211110862.html) (Source: Daily Trust (Abuja), Nigeria, 11 November 2002.)

Gum arabic

JIGAWA Gum Arabic Processing Company has raised one million gum arabic seedlings as part of its long-term development plan. Its general manager, Alhaji Hamza Turabu, said that the seedlings were obtained from five nurseries located at Maigama, Sule Tankarkat, Garki, Dansobe and Andaza. Two other nurseries, he said, would be opened at Balango and Kirikasanma. With appropriate backing from the state government, the company had the potential to raise new plantations amounting to 1 000 ha per year. The company, which started operations in January 2002, was already involved in the management of the 750 ha of gum arabic in the state.

Turabu said some 170 tonnes of the commodity, valued at N 17 million, had been sold to companies in the United States since the start of company operations. JIGAWA would install machinery for the gum arabic laboratory at Maigatari by the end of December "to ensure the processing of Grade 1 gum arabic required in the international market", he said. The company, in conjunction with experts from the United States, had trained 60 gum arabic farmers on modern techniques of managing gum arabic plantations and marketing options available in the international market.

A mass mobilization campaign had commenced to sensitize farmers to embrace the project "because of its high economic value". Gum arabic attracts N 100 000/t in the market and each tree has a maturation period of five years. It can be exploited thereafter for up to 25 years. Turabu advised the federal and state governments to focus on the planting of gum arabic to check erosion and desertification.
(http://allafrica.com/stories/200211270016.html) (Source: Vanguard (Lagos), Nigeria, 26 November 2002.)

PORTUGAL

Botanical Museum - Instituto Politécnico de Beja/Escola Superior Agrária de Beja (Portugal)

The Botanical Museum is located at Escola Superior Agrária/Instituto Politécnico de Beja (Portugal), a polytechnic institution devoted to research and teaching. It organizes temporary exhibitions of items from the collections of economic botany of the Department of Environmental Sciences. These collections began to be assembled in 1996 and since then they have been enriched with items donated by private enterprises and collected in fieldwork.

The department's staff has given several lectures and short courses on economic botany and has opened a museum to maintain a display of exotic and local items, thus raising public awareness of the conservation of traditional plant crafts and knowledge.

The museum displays the items and organizes the collections using modern techniques, but its basic philosophy takes its inspiration from the Museum of Economic Botany which opened in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, United Kingdom, in 1847, for economic and educational purposes.

Since 1998 several economic botany courses have been held in Escola Superior Agrária de Beja, allowing the local community to interact with the museum collections and information. The museum has organized three thematic exhibitions: Vegetable Gums and Resins (1999); Aromatic and Medicinal Plants in Ancient Egypt (2000); and Discreet Treasures (2002), and promotes ethnobotany research with undergraduate students from local schools.

The collections contain about 1 700 items (2002), from raw materials to manufactured objects. They include very fine samples of exotic spices, plant fibres, plant dyes, gums and resins, medicinal and aromatic plants, among many other categories. (Contributed by: Luís Mendonça de Carvalho and Francisca Maria Fernandes.)

For more information, please contact:

Luís Mendonça de Carvalho, Escola Superior Agrária de Beja; or Francisca Maria Fernandes, Escola Superior de Educação de Beja, Campus do Instituto Politécnico de Beja, Museu Botânico, Rua Pedro Soares, 7800 Beja, Portugal.
Fax: +351 284 388207;
e-mail:[email protected];
www.esab.ipbeja.pt/museu/index.htm

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Forest Club of Russian non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

The Russian NGOs' Forest Club is an informal working group consisting of representatives from the largest NGOs working actively for Russian forest conservation. The club also publishes a Forest Bulletin, copies of which are available on their Web site:www.forest.ru/eng/bulletin/.

Vast, wild forests in the Russian Far East protected in historic conservation measure

In a historic conservation measure, six areas of wild forestland in the Russian Far East totalling 690 000 ha were designated as protected areas in June 2002. These areas are now off-limits to all major industrial activity, with some of the land designated as "areas of traditional use" for the indigenous Evenk people. All of the protected areas are located in the vast Amur River watershed in the Russian Far East. The area hosts some of the most pristine forests and watersheds in the world.

It was the culmination of years of advocacy by the local organization Amur Socio-Ecological Union (SEU), with assistance from the non-profit organization Pacific Environment, which is based in Oakland, United States, as well as the Russian Far East branch of the World Wide Fund for Nature. Of the six areas, five are wildlife refuges that allow a limited amount of human influence while protecting large habitat areas for flora and fauna. One area was designated a natural monument, which protects a particular species in a small area. In this case, the natural monument protects Siberian pine forests. This designation is the single largest in the history of the Amur region and one of the largest in the world. Local activists claim this designation is the culmination of two hard years of expeditions, mapping, public education and advocacy.

The Amur river begins in the Russian Far East, flows along the Russian/Chinese border, then through the Russian Far East, and empties into the Sea of Okhotsk. Flowing over 2 700 miles, it is considered one of the world's ten great rivers. It winds unencumbered by dams through a wide diversity of landscape, including desert, steppe and temperate forests. The Amur region in the Russian Far East is home to a wealth of the Russian Federation's biodiversity. (Source: RECOFTC E-letter 2002.13, 1 July 2002.)

SOUTH AFRICA

The first legal harvesters of protected medicinal plants

There has been considerable growth in the medicinal plant industry in South Africa over the past few years. Large urban markets (e.g. Durban and Johannesburg) have developed for trade in traditionally used medicinal plants and products. This shift from subsistence use to commercial trade of medicinal plants has led to an increased intensity and frequency of medicinal plant harvesting from wild habitats. Cultivation of medicinal plants is minimal in South Africa. Consequently, certain popularly traded species have become overexploited and are now rare or extinct in the wild (e.g. Siphonochilus aethiopicus, Warburgia salutaris). This has resulted in the forced use of alternative species and a geographical shift in the harvesting pressure to previously unexploited areas.

The barks of many different forest and woodland tree species are used, although a relatively small number are in high demand and intensively used. Intense and frequent harvesting of bark from species with a high market demand often results in ring-barking of trees. The trees subsequently die, and the species become rarer over time. This practice is obviously unsustainable and will almost certainly result in the extinction of many forest and woodland tree species. As a result, many of them have become protected under the laws governing the harvesting of medicinal and other plant material in KwaZulu-Natal. These are contained in Chapter 8 of the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Act [No. 9 of 1997].

In order to address the growing need for natural forest areas to provide socio-economic benefits to surrounding communities, new national legislation (National Forest Act No. 84 of 1998) has directed the management of these areas towards a participatory approach. The "Commercial Products from the Wild Project" set the basis for a participatory forest management system in uMzimkulu district by establishing a bark harvesters' association (Sizamimphilo). This association is a legal entity that can interact with the state forestry department responsible for the management of the forests in the area. Several institutional options were considered before an association was selected as the appropriate legal vehicle. The administrative requirements of trusts and cooperatives were found to be too onerous for the harvesters, most of whom only have basic literacy and educational backgrounds.

A core group of bark harvesters from uMzimkulu district selling their products in Durban herb market were approached at the market end to help to solve the problem of uncontrolled bark harvesting. The harvesters were largely willing to participate in discussions around a solution. This was because the harvesters, mostly women living in uMzimkulu district, depend almost entirely on bark harvesting and trade to sustain their livelihoods. The harvesters were aware that their operations were illegal but, given that they did not have access to other economic opportunities, they continued to struggle against this conflicting and risky system of earning a living. They were therefore open to any solution that would resolve this conflict and allow them to earn a living legally. The primary challenge faced by the core group of harvesters from uMzimkulu district was to recruit a critical mass of harvesters from the area to join in discussions, because an exercise in participatory sustainable resource utilization required that the majority of harvesters, traders and suppliers from the target district be involved in a joint natural resource management system.

In all meetings, state resource managers (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry [DWAF]) were present to provide for open discussions on mutual problems, to shorten administrative procedures and to empower both groups to come to a common understanding of the problems involved. A first joint meeting was held at Durban herb market to clarify the intentions and objectives. A second meeting was held at the Nzimankulu forest to identify and discuss the problems in the forest, to discuss alternatives and better harvesting techniques, and to assist the harvesters to form an association through which an agreement could be negotiated with DWAF. Additional follow-up meetings were held, both at the market and in the forest, to maintain regular communication.

With the assistance of an external facilitator, a medicinal plant harvesters' association, Sizamimphilo Association, was eventually formalized and a constitution developed. The members of Sizamimphilo participated directly in drafting the constitution. The association agreed on the following rules for sustainable resource use:

• Sustainable resource harvesting practices to be implemented in the forests should contribute to the recovery and conservation of the forests.
• Bark harvesters should be able to continue with harvesting the bark resources with improved operating conditions, reduced effort and costs, minimized resource harvesting impacts, and better opportunities for the development of viable, productive small businesses.
• Rules for controlling resource harvesting must be simple, practical and easy to manage, and cause minimal interference with effective harvesting.
• A constructive, collaborative relationship between DWAF (resource managers) and the association (legal commercial bark harvesters) should facilitate:

i) effective and sustainable bark harvesting; and ii) the elimination of undesirable, destructive, and illegal commercial bark harvesting from the forests.

On 30 May 2002, DWAF issued the General Licence under sections 7, 15 and 23 of the National Forests Act [No. 84 of 1998] to the Sizamimphilo Association, for the harvesting of bark under the guidance of the management plan for natural forests in uMzimkulu district. The management plan provides guidelines for resource harvesting, planting for alternative resources and monitoring of resource use impacts, and stipulates the arrangements between DWAF and the association.

Interestingly, harvesters from other districts have now joined the association, and an allied association has been established in Pietermaritzburg. (Source: Nicci Diederichs, Coert Geldenhuys and Dominic Mitchell, Science in Africa Web site: www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2002/november/bark.htm)

SPAIN

Economic study on the pine nut sector in Spain

The stone pine, Pinus pinea, is a forest species of considerable interest in Spain owing to its ability to adapt, its ecological and protection functions and its economic importance. It covers more than 390 000 ha and is distributed mainly from the central plateaus to the southern and eastern coast of Spain. This interest, formerly based on timber exploitation, is directed nowadays towards its most valuable product: the pine nut. The pine nut is a dry fruit with a variety of uses, as a culinary condiment, in pastries and sweets and as part of traditional recipes. Although its consumption is not extensive, it is an important ingredient in certain Mediterranean regions, and because of its variety of uses it reaches high prices in the market. However, there seems to be a total lack of information on this sector, despite its considerable economic benefits and the fact that it generates employment for about 150 000 people in Spain. Exploitation is carried out in an unprofessional and disorganized way. The control of volumes of the species gathered is poor and the statistical data of the administration hardly ever coincide with those offered by companies. Moreover, these companies are extremely reluctant to communicate or even to associate with each other. In most cases, there is a scarcity of professional ability to provide statistics on volumes produced and marketed, destination markets, etc.

Harvesting is generally carried out from the ground, picking up the pine cones or detaching them from the tree with the help of sharp tools. Only in some regions is it common to climb the trees to do this. The pine cones are stored and dried either in the sun or in stoves. The former is the most common and economical, but it forces the drying process to be concentrated over a shorter time. Stove drying permits production in a continuous way, although the risk of damaging the pine nuts inside the cone is much greater.

Afterwards, the pine nuts obtained are processed to extract the white kernel from its casing. This is cleaned (separated from the shell debris), classified and packed. It is then either sent direct to the final consumers, or for processing in the manufacture of products containing this ingredient. This whole process is carried out in different ways according to the region where it takes place.

Exploitation is underregulated and sometimes chaotic and would require more attention to compliance with normative regulations, remuneration by contract, etc. Some companies are still trying to decide whether to rush into the professional level that some of the bigger companies in the dried fruit sector have acquired over the years through experience, or whether to remain as family-type small companies. These are comfortable and flexible, but not very practical when competing with the big companies that intervene with more and more force in the sector. The white pine kernel is also seen to have a substantial internal market, in which the processing companies and distributors absorb the whole product, but it is the external market which provides the major part of the benefits. However, this valuable market is in danger if the Spanish producers are not able to optimize their resources and improve the market structure, as well as to negotiate its promotion, against the periodic appearance of new international competitors.

In conclusion, it is clear that the sector should opt finally for transparency and make significant structural and, particularly, conceptual changes in order to continue providing important benefits to the forest and rural sector. (Source: Pinenut in Spain, by D. Jesús Barranco Reyes and D. Sigfredo Fco. Ortuño Pérez, Department of Forestry Economics, Technical University Madrid, Spain. Contributed by Prof. José L. de Pedro, E.T.S. de Ingenieros de Montes, Madrid, Spain.)

For more information, please contact:

Prof. Sigfredo Ortuño, E.T.Superior de Ingenieros de Montes, C/Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
Fax: +34 543 9557;
e-mail:[email protected]

UGANDA

On the verge of silken riches

According to Uganda Export Promotion Board (UEPB), trade officer Othieno Odoi, Uganda has the potential of being one of the leading producers of silk yarn in the world. He said that UEPB, under the strategic government intervention programme, realized that textiles was one of the issues being earmarked. That is why they have undertaken the silk subsector with a view to completing the textile sector in order to compete in the United States initiative African Growth Opportunity Act.

Uganda is not meeting the demand in foreign markets, especially in Egypt, which needs at least 500 tonnes per month. Instead, Uganda can only supply 200 tonnes every month. Othieno said that Uganda has the silk yarns in abundance and the favourable climate which enables faster growth of the mulberry trees which support the production of silk yarns. "Following the national stakeholders workshop for silk farmers, which we held at Kanungu, we decided on an action plan among farmers to make sure that we meet the production levels required," he stated. In order to boost farmers, UEPB distributed silk planting materials in western Uganda as part of their ground work. Following the high demand for silk in foreign markets, it will help farmers increase their incomes by an average of U Sh 150 000 per month.

In the rural areas 0.1 ha of mulberry trees can earn a farmer a good capital within 21 to 23 days. The harvest period of the silk cocoons, which farmers eventually sell, can fetch U Sh 2 800 per kilogram compared with other crops.

(For the full story see:http://allafrica.com/stories/200212120565.html) (Source: New Vision (Kampala), 12 December 2002.)

Developing niche markets

Uganda has the potential to produce for niche markets. Spices such as cardamom grow well in Uganda; ecotourism is still underdeveloped. A bark-cloth project in Rakai is in touch with Western fashion houses. Uganda's economic future will depend a lot on whether it can identify and exploit areas where there is a comparative advantage. (For the full story see:http://allafrica.com/stories/200211280347.html) (Source: Extracted from New Vision (Kampala), Uganda, 28 November 2002.)

The Netherlands spark off moringa bid

Professor Richard Kasawuli of the National Agriculture Research Organisation, Kawanda has said that, according to the Uganda Export Promotion Board, the Netherlands want 10 tonnes of moringa from Uganda per month, and that they would pay US$40 per kg of moringa. At the moment, because of very little production, moringa is consumed locally at U Sh 30 000/kg. The small trees are the source of ben nut oil. The roots of a newly planted moringa tree can be harvested after ten years. (For the full story see:http://allafrica.com/stories/200301240235.html) (Source: New Vision (Kampala), 24 January 2003.)

UKRAINE

NWFPs of Transcarpathia

In 2001, Transcarpathia exported 2 134.3 tonnes of mushrooms and forest berries to the value of US$2.8 million. The value of the timber industry's output was US$10.9 million, while its exports amounted to US$1.7 million. Therefore, the value of the exported mushrooms and berries is 1.6 times higher than that of timber and forms 15.6 percent of the timber industry's output. In spite of this, the supply of these NWFPs comes from non-state enterprises, even though this kind of state enterprise activity is one of the most profitable.

NWFPs are also an important source of income for Transcarpathians, especially for those living in mountain districts, where the unemployment and wage levels are lower than the regional average. For example, in Mizhgirja district, an experienced mushroom gatherer earns up to 100 and more hryvnias per day (the average monthly wage is 170 hryvnias).

The total production value of mushrooms and berries was US$40 400; the budget income (payments for the right to purvey local forest resources) was US$152 000. (Contributed by: George Kushnir-[email protected])

UNITED KINGDOM

First group certification and unique non-timber certification awarded in the United Kingdom

The world's first group chain-of-custody certificate and a unique non-timber chain-of-custody certificate were awarded recently in the United Kingdom by SGS Qualifor. Forest Enterprise, a United Kingdom firm that manages deer populations on forestland in accordance with certification requirements, received chain-of-custody certification for its production of venison, a non-timber forest product. Forest Enterprise intends to market venison from these deer populations with the Forest Stewardship Council label indicating its origin in certified well-managed forest. (Source: Forest Stewardship Council News and Notes, April 2002.)

UNITED STATES

World's first green-certified maple syrup

Merck Forest is the world's first producer of maple syrup that is certified as sustainably produced by the SmartWood Program of the Rainforest Alliance (accredited by the Forest Stewardship Council). Auditors carefully examine their forest and its management to ensure that their maple products and their timber products are made in a way that is safe and sustainable to their forest. (Source: Rainforest Alliance-[email protected], 9 December 2002.)

ZIMBABWE

Wildlife producer communities

Wildlife producer communities under Campfire earned US$22 million last year, providing attractive financial returns for rural communities. Nearly 90 percent of the income generated by Campfire was derived from sport hunting, which has become one of the fastest growing tourism products. Sport hunting alone earned Zimbabwe nearly US$70 million in 2001 and prospects for the 2002 hunting season, which began in May, are brighter. Zimbabwe has about 150 registered safari operators and some of them operate in Campfire areas.

Although competition was high with South Africa, Namibia and Botswana and, to a lesser extent, with Zambia, Mozambique and the United Republic of Tanzania, Zimbabwe's success lay in the good quality of trophies, reputable hunting operations and access to a variety of hunting areas from state land, private land to Campfire concessions.

The head of Campfire, Mr Charles Jonga, said that the project's wildlife districts exceeded US$2 million annually and that, unlike many other developments or biodiversity conservation initiatives, Campfire had been underpinned by a viable and growing market for its products. The growth of the trophy-hunting sector within Zimbabwe provides a robust indicator for the global market. (Source: The Herald, Harare, 15 June 2002-http://allafrica.com/stories/200206170655.html)

Medicinal plants and traditional medicines in Zimbabwe

In Zimbabwe, people take some of their illnesses to modern medical practitioners and others to traditional healers. In some cases, the same illness is referred at different stages and sometimes simultaneously to both types of practitioners. Sex, economic status and the level of education of the patient do not appear to be important factors in the choice of therapy.

Cooperation between the traditional and modern medical practitioners is encouraged. Although the state is officially concerned only with the modern health sector, it has allowed the traditional sector to develop on its own without too much government control. Traditional healers were given, through their association, ZINATHA, and the Medical Council, the main power in the selection and control of their activities. This has been made possible by the Traditional Medical Practitioners Act passed by parliament in 1981. The act established a council known as the Traditional Medical Practitioners Council. The council is mainly concerned with issuing licences, and the supervision, control and promotion of the practice of traditional practitioners and research. Traditional healers represent a separate school of thought, a science that needs the recognition and the resources to develop itself. More than 500 different types of plants are used by traditional healers for medicinal purposes.

In 1994, ZINATHA randomly collected more than 200 plant medicines and asked modern medical scientists at the Zimbabwe Regional Drug Control Laboratory to test them. About 95 percent of these medicines proved to be good medicines. The Zimbabwe Regional Drug Control Laboratory is a joint project of the World Health Organization and the Ministry of Health, Zimbabwe. HIV/AIDS clinical trials that were monitored by medical scientists and physicians from the Ministry of Health were carried out in 1993/94. The trials were not conducted in order to find a cure for AIDS, but to find out the extent to which some traditional medicines can remove or reverse AIDS symptoms.

The trials showed that some traditional remedies can remove or reverse AIDS symptoms. ZINATHA took another step forwards. Several plant medicines used to reverse AIDS symptoms were collected, extracted and analysed with the assistance of modern research organizations. The extraction and purification of active agents were carried out at the University of Zimbabwe, while screening was done outside Zimbabwe. The next stage involved the identification and isolation of pure compounds from some of the plants shown to have very active principles against HIV/AIDS. This has already been done. A patent has been applied for - and granted - for their first most promising compound.

The first patent is jointly owned by ZINATHA and the University of Zimbabwe. Both organizations stand to benefit through a share of payable royalties if the drug reaches the marketplace.

Many traditional healers have successful professional secrets that they do not wish to relinquish. They have worked out some strategies aimed at protecting their knowledge and resources, one way being to refuse to be interviewed, particularly by research workers, or to assist them in any way. Under pressure some of them agree to be interviewed but give wrong information; they lie. Traditional healers can only pass on their secrets freely to scientists and members of the public once there is profit from their inventions. Patenting is one important mechanism for the protection of traditional knowledge and practices.

In collaborative research, ZINATHA, because of the exploitation that often takes place, insists on the need for proper, transparent and honest collaboration between healers and scientists. Ways of preventing exploitation of traditional healers by scientists, universities and pharmaceutical companies have been worked out. These include the need to involve traditional healers in research design, its execution and evaluation and the need to acknowledge the contribution of healers in those studies published with their assistance. Such recommendations have, however, often met with scant response.

Because of the growing demand for traditional medicines, ZINATHA has formed a company registered as ZINATHA Enterprises (Pvt) Ltd, which is now processing and distributing those traditional medicines in great demand. Any traditional healer can purchase shares in the company. The increasing demand for plant medicines has come at a time when some medicinal plants are becoming difficult to find in some parts of the country largely because of population pressure. ZINATHA launched it own tree planting programme in 1986 and a few local government authorities donated land for this purpose. The central government is willing to sell large parcels of land for this purpose but ZINATHA does not have funds for this at present. There has never been any budgetary provision for the promotion of traditional medicine as a system of health care in its own right. Huge amounts of funds are allocated to the Ministry of Health and other ministries and departments for the promotion of modern Western medicine alone. (Source: Phytomedica list, 25 August 2002.)

For more information, please contact:

Prof. G. Chavunduka, President, Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association (ZINATHA), 40 The Chase, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe.
www.enda.sn/africaso.org/zinatha.html