1. Historical background of forest plantation development

1.1. Historical resume

Forest plantations are not new in concept and practice for Malaysia. However, interest in forest plantations lacked the required impetus in the distant past. It has vacillated quite a bit, influenced on one side from fear of impending timber deficits in the future and poor results from planting trials. Up until the 1970s, Malaysia was endowed with vast areas of natural forest. Under such superfluity it was considered unnecessary and unnatural to convert natural forest into unstable monocultures.

A brief history of forest plantation trials can be found elsewhere (Appanah and Weinland 1993, Wyatt-Smith 1963). The most notable events in the history of plantation forestry in the country, especially in Peninsular Malaysia are summarised in Table 1. The situation in Sabah and Sarawak are more straightforward, and less illustrative to the changing tides in forest management that Malaysia underwent. Therefore, this chapter will mainly highlight the events on Peninsular Malaysia, and draw on the principal events in plantation development in Sabah and Sarawak

Like with the management of natural forests, plantation trials were first begun in P. Malaysia, and then subsequently in Sabah and Sarawak. Records of planting forest species date back as far as 1880, when concern for loss of desired species was expressed (Hill 1900). There was concern over the rapid destruction of the taban forests and it was also becoming increasingly difficult to obtain railway sleepers. This was the gutta percha era when the nyatoh taban (Palaquium gutta) trees were heavily felled for gutta percha which fetched a very high price. Interest in plantations of gutta taban caught on. Wildings were collected and planted in regular plantations. At Ayer Kroh, Malacca, 500 gutta percha plants were planted (Hill 1900). A scheme for planting hardwood trees in Sungai Buloh Forest Reserve was also initiated. All mature timber were removed and the hardwood species were line planted. About this time rubber production became the new excitement. In 1901, 180 acres of regular plantations of rambong (Ficus elastica) and para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) were started in Pondok Tanjong, Perak.

Besides planting of heavy hardwoods, afforesting mining land and BRIS soils and reforesting forest lands were also of high priority. In 1898, the areas around Pekeliling (Circular Road), Kuala Lumpur, were planted with species such as Casuarina equisetifolia, Eugenia grandis, Dryobalanops aromatica, Swietenia macrophylla, Hevea brasiliensis and Fagraea fragrans. For example, the clumps of trees of C. equisetifolia and F. fragrans found on the Selangor Golf Course in Kuala Lumpur are remnants of plantings done between 1896 and 1901. Forest planting was limited to trials of extremely valuable exotics such as Eusideroxylon zwageri and Hevea brasiliensis, and local timbr species such as C. equisetifolia, F. fragrans, Intsia palembanica and Palaquium gutta.

After a while all these planting fell out of favour. Plastics replaced gutta percha. Rubber planting was taken up increasingly by private planters. The reforestation work, experimental in nature, did not perform well and the results were considered not commensurate with the expenditure. Nevertheless, some planting trials persisted here and there. Plantings of Intsia palembanica and Neobalonocarpus hemeii were continued. Besides these, species trial with teak was also reported. They were first planted by rubber planter in Langkawi Island (Annual Report 1903).

Table 1 Summary of the most notable events in the history of plantation forestry in Peninsular Malaysia

These were the main developments and by the end of 1912 there were 922 acres of regular plantations and 4,828 acres were line planted under shade. By that stage results from improved felling in natural forests were available. These suggested that it was still better to improve the crop in the natural forest than establish regular plantations (Annual Report 1912). As a result, no further increase in plantations occurred and in the Annual Report (1920) it was noted that the area of regular plantations stood at 869 acres.

The Forest Department did most of the plantings but the records were meagre. Initially exotics were tried but subsequently local species were tested in the belief that they gave better growth. Foxworthy (1930) recorded that some 130 species were tested in all, but a high proportion of them yielded poor results. Overall, the plantings were haphazard, initiated by individuals, and scattered throughout the country. Many of the trials were lost when the officers got transferred. This was dubbed the “plant and forget” era (Oliphant 1932).

These disappointing results led to a major development in forestry in Malaysia. It was decided that a central permanent experimental station should be set up in Kepong. It was recommended that further planting should be initiated only after the species and methods have been tested in Kepong. The experimental plantations were started in Kepong in 1927. While more species were added to the trials in Kepong, much of it remained experimental. The emphasis was mainly on high quality timber species which have a long rotation. These would yield definitive results only in the decades after 1970. In the early 1930s, the position on planting did not shift as the researchers were not in favour of planting.

Despite the reservation on planting occasional experimental trials were conducted. In 1931, high elevation plantations were begun in Mentigi, Cameron Highlands to test out exotics (Annual Report 1933). In 1936 large scale planting experiments were carried out in Rantau Panjang and Bukit Sungai Puteh Forest Reserves, Selangor. In 1937, trials were begun to establish commercial pole crops on denuded areas in Selangor and on the poor BRIS land in Kelantan. The latter were totally unsuccessful. During the Japanese Occupation (1942 - 1945) many areas in Forest Reserves were cleared for farming. After the war there were some efforts to line-plant these areas. Taungya system was also tried. Progress was made but the survival rate was very poor. In the early 1950s, extensive plantations were established in devastated areas in Malacca, Selangor and Perak. The experimental teak plantations in north-west Malaysia were stepped up to test provenances from Java and Thailand (Wyatt-Smith 1961). This was also the period when many exotics were tried on an experimental plantation scale to gauge the costs. The species included some of the fast growing species like pines, yemane, and eucalypts. The pines and eucalypts were planted in the hills and lowlands. The pines were also tried on lalang infested areas and tin tailings.

In the early 1960s work still continued on trials of more pine species, especially the ones from Central America. Selection of elite trees of pines and their vegetative propagation were initiated. Another significant development then was a plan to set up a pulp and paper mill in Peninsular Malaysia. This resulted in a large programme for the pilot plantation of quick growing industrial species, carried out with UNDP assistance. Several species of pines and other conifers were grown on a pilot scale for pulp production. Plantations were started in several states, including the setting up of seed orchards. The early results appeared promising with Pinus caribaea and P. merkusii which had increments of above 21 m³/ha/year. Their pulping properties were found to be suitable for paper manufacture. But before the viability of such plantations could be ascertained the planned paper mill was scuttled. Thereafter interest in raising plantations for pulp production diminished as well.

In the early 1960s, following sweeping changes to land-use policy, forestry became confined to poorer soils and in the hills. With these poorer forests the old management systems were revised and planting was taken as an option to remedy logged sites which were poor in regeneration. The Forestry Departments embarked on Enrichment Planting under the Intensive Forest Management Scheme (Ismail 1964). Planting with potted seedlings and wildings of mainly indigenous species was carried out in several states, especially Selangor, Perak and Kedah. Such plantings dominated the Departments’ activities for most of the 1970s. The results were however dismal despite the high costs (Tang and Wadley 1976). Survival was moderate to low. Growth was good provided the canopy was kept open for a relatively long period. The species used were not necessarily the best for the purpose. Thereafter enthusiasm for expensive enrichment planting faded and is now employed to a minor degree only, to improve highly degraded sites.

As the 1980s approached most of the State Forests were converted and forest resources were limited to the Permanent Reserves only. These were much poorer in stocking. But meanwhile the industries had been developed for a much higher capacity than the natural forests would be able to sustain. This led to speculations that there will be a timber shortage in the future (Chong 1979). This led the Forestry Department to consider planting general utility timber under the ‘Compensatory Plantation Project’. The compensatory plantation was to cover 188,200 ha by the year 1995 and was supported by an Asian Development Bank loan. The plantations were planned to produce general utility timber of small saw log dimensions for the domestic market in 15 year rotations. For the purpose, quick growing tropical hardwoods such as Acacia mangium, Gmelina aroborea, Paraserianthes falcataria and Eucalyptus camaldulensis were identified. However, due to difficulty in procuring planting material, the majority of the areas were planted with mainly Acacia mangium because seed was easily available. The species has not proven to hold its initial expectations. Growth has remained below expectations, and many of the trees appeared to be susceptible to heart rot damage in some sites (Hashim et al. 1990). Overall, its performance for sawlog production remained dismal (Weinland and Zuhaidi 1990). As a consequence, additional planting of the species for sawlog production has been halted since 1992. But plans for planting the species for pulp production are being pursued on a big scale with development of one pulp and paper mill in Sabah and additional ones planned in Sarawak and P. Malaysia.

At present the Forest Department is looking for alternative species for forest plantations. Since the mid-1980s rubber wood has become an important source of timber for furniture production. At present the source of rubber wood is mainly from replanting schemes. But the species has also been planted on a trial basis exclusively for timber production only.

Besides rubber wood, other promising candidates have also been tried out on larger scale. This includes teak (Tectona grandis) and sentang (Azadirachta excelsa). Teak was confined to the drier north-west of P. Malaysia before. But nowadays, it is being planted on a small scale in the wetter southern sites as well. Teak seems to grow just as well, the only drawback being the absence of close growth rings and therefore veneer quality may not be obtainable. The other species that has brought some excitement in the plantation scenery is sentang. This too has shown good growth rates in the early years and is mostly free of pests. The plantings have to mature somewhat before their true value can be ascertained. A few other species that are also being considered for planting at the moment include Khaya ivorensis and K. senegalensis, and to a lesser extent Swietenia macrophylla. Some of the dipterocarp species also appear to be good and are being investigated as potential candidates. The reason for the new spate of interest in planting timber species is partly because of the rising labour costs in the country. As a consequence many rubber and other cash crop plantation owners are looking for alternative and less labour demanding crops. Timber trees fit that label neatly.

For Sabah and Sarawak the gestation period between research to policy and implementation was usually shorter, taking off from experiences in P. Malaysia. The path to implementation was therefore less convoluted and more or less direct. In Sabah plantations were not considered important in its early forestry history although there were some attempts to test out a few species on an experimental basis. In the 1970s the planners concluded that more should be done for forestry development. Unlike with P. Malaysia, Sabah still lacks the momentum to develop its economy based on the industrial sector.

Forestry remains in the forefront of its economic activity and the planners realized something must be done if the State is to maintain its timber productivity. Moreover forestry appealed to the State as it provides the kind of rural development which is more appealing to the people, considering their lifestyle. SAFODA, the State’s Statutory Bodies spearheaded the reforestation program in Sabah. Thereafter, relatively rapid progress was made and by 1995 almost a 100,000 ha of plantations have been developed mostly through some of the statutory bodies responsible for rural development and reforestation (Anuar 1996). Both fast growing hardwoods and high quality timbers have been planted. Rattan (Calamus manan) has also been planted as an additional crop. Besides these developments a paper mill was set up in the 1980s and large areas are being planted up with fast growing pulp species.

In Sarawak too, there never was an urgency to go into plantations, considering the large areas of natural productive forest in the State. Nonetheless, there was some concern regarding the large areas of forest land that have become degraded as a result of shifting agriculture. In this regard some experimental trials were started in the early part of the century, especially with species that had agroforestry potential (Fahlman 1975, Lee and Lai 1981). In the mid-1960s there were some attempts to test the potential of pines for reforestation purposes. In the 1970s, fast growing exotics were investigated (Kendawang 1996). Also included were some long rotation species which yield high quality timber. But all said, there have been relatively few plantations in Sarawak although the position is likely to change very rapidly from now on.

1.2. Government policy

Forest plantations have long been recognized as an essential part of the strategic development plan for the suitable management of forest resources in Malaysia. This strategy dates back to the beginning of the century when efforts were made to test out both indigenous and exotic species in the country.

The Government is cognizant of the international debate on tropical rainforests and the concerns over their rapid degradation and loss. Malaysia’s rainforests are among the most bio-diverse forests worldwide and therefore their management is critical for the conservation of a vast number of plant and animal species. Hence, sustainable forest management has become the ‘buzz’ word for forest management. Under the Seventh Malaysia Plan, the Government has clearly expressed its commitment to protect the environment and ecological services by adhering to the principles of sustainable management. This would require that the annual felling rate is reduced by at least 12% over the 5 year period.

Malaysia is currently producing about 35 million m³ of sawlogs annually. With implementation of sustainable practices the sawlog production is expected to decline to about 27 million m³ by the year 2000. This is much below the total installed processing capacity. As the timber industry is already having difficulty sourcing timber the decline in production would affect the downstream timber industry considerably. New sources of wood like rubber plantations would assist marginally but most of its wood would be mainly used up for furniture production, and the need for pulp, utility timber and high quality timber would always remain unfulfilled unless appropriate measures are taken.

To make up for the impending deficit in timber production, plantations are to be developed. Besides plantations degraded forest land would be reforested and under-stocked forests would be line planted. There is an estimated 153,900 ha of degraded forest land in the country. The species to be planted would be of three different classes.

1.2.1. Wood for pulp and paper production

One pulp and paper mill is already in operation in Sabah (SFI), but it hardly meets the local demand for paper, and none for newsprint. Additional mills are being planned. For pulp production Acacia mangium has been identified as the principal species. Another species would be Paraserianthes falcataria. These would be planted in large-sized plantations so sufficient amount of pulp is produced in one site in short rotations of about 6 - 8 years. Such schemes would be developed in State lands.

1.2.2. General utility timber

There is a huge demand for general utility timber for industrial purposes. They go into cores of plywood and make up the major constituent of fibreboard, particleboard, interior construction wood, and other low grade use. Several species have been identified for this purpose and include Shorea spp. (Light Red Meranti group), Hopea spp., Dryobalanops spp., Endospermum malaccense, Hevea brasiliensis etc. Many of these species would be included in reforestation and enrichment planting schemes within the Permanent Forest Estate. The species would have rotations of about 30 - 35 years.

1.2.3. High quality timber

High quality timbers are grown for veneers, panelling, furniture etc. The species identified for such needs include principally teak (Tectona grandis) and sentang (Azadirachta excelsa). Additional species include Araucaria spp., Dyera costulata, Swietenia spp., Khaya spp. etc. These would be grown both in small holdings and larger estates under full plantation conditions. Although some of the plantings would be located within the Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) most will be in the State lands and in private holdings. This is to ensure the PFEs are not converted. The rotations under full plantation conditions would be kept short, at around 15 - 20 years.

In addition, the rapid industrialization in the country has created a labour shortage. This has resulted in some agricultural sectors becoming less viable like the rubber plantations. Many small holders have neglected these plantations. Many small rubber estates are also beginning to experience labour shortage. Under these circumstances low-labour demanding forest plantations are being explored as a potential alternative to rubber and other labour demanding forms of agriculture. There are trials to plant timber-latex clones through replanting activities. These clones will be latex producers that will also maximize timber production.

In Sabah and Sarawak timber plantations are being promoted for social development as well. Large tracts of forest lands have become degraded as a result of poor shifting cultivation practices. In these remote sites traditional agricultural cash crops like oil palm and rubber are not attractive to the lifestyles of these people. In contrast timber plantations provide more attractive options.

Besides the above, fuller utilization of timber products is being promoted so there will be less pressure on the forests. Towards that, downstream processing of wood wastes into valuable products such as flake boards, particle boards and charcoal briquettes are being developed. Reduced forestry wastage and increased efficiency during processing would help ameliorate timber shortage, and also be environmentally less damaging. R&D efforts will be directed towards putting more efficiency into reducing wastage.

Malaysia aims to maintain a forest cover of at least 50% of the land area. In addition, it is committed to managing the Permanent Forest Estates on a sustainable basis. For achieving sustainability several policy options have been identified. They include Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for forestry activities, subsidies for setting up forest plantations, rehabilitation of forests, and expanding the network of protected areas to include more ecosystems and thereby protecting the huge biodiversity of the Malaysian forests.

In summary, the objectives of the plantation programme would include:

• To supplement the increasing timber requirement in Malaysia;
• To increase productivity of degraded forest lands;
• To alleviate rural poverty through implementation of social forest plantation programmes;
• To reduce excessive loss of foreign exchange by increasing production of raw material for the timber industry;
• To diversify into low-labour demanding crops timber plantations offer an excellent opportunity with the increasing shortage of labour in the country; and
• To introduce timber plantations which with their higher productivity would reduce pressure on the PFE, so the latter can be managed on a sustainable basis.