Land and water sector development in Sri Lanka - Henry Gamage

Henry Gamage, Additional Director

Ministry of Agriculture, Sri Lanka.

WATER SECTOR DEVELOPMENT

Historical perspective

Sri Lanka has one of the world's oldest civilizations based on water sector development, beginning over 2000 years ago. The ancient kings build hundreds of major reservoirs and thousands of minor reservoirs to harvest rain water and conserve water for agriculture development. Most reservoirs were located in the country's north central, northwest and northeastern dry zone regions.

Nearly 700 years ago the seat of the kingdom shifted to the central hill country because of varied foreign invasions and a malaria epidemic that let the impressive water tank systems fall into abandonment and disrepair. Restoration work on some tanks began during British rule. Restoration of the major Kalawewa reservoir with a capacity of nearly 145 million m³ was done from 1885 to 1887. Restoration work on our ancient tank systems was accelerated after independence from British rule in 1948.

Traditionally irrigation water was used to grow rice. Introduction of improved varieties accompanied by the provision of irrigation facilities helped to increase rice production since 1950. It is also observed that the average yield of rice in major irrigation schemes was far above the rainfed rice cultivation.

Large areas of well - drained land on the upper slopes of the catena became irrigable after this new development work. The lands were found to be more suitable for upland crops than rice cultivation due to high rates of infiltration and poor retention of water for flooding. Due to additional irrigation facilities available and better markets established the country showed a dramatic increase in production of other crops during the period 1970 to 1988. The import restrictions imposed on these commodities helped farmers get a good price for their products. With the liberalization of trade policies in the 1980s, there was a downward trend in OFC production but rice remained a major source of income for the farmers.

Irrigation systems management

Irrigation systems commanding more than 80 ha categorized as medium or major reservoirs (80 ha - 40 000 ha) are constructed, operated and maintained by the Irrigation Department (Table 1). There are more than 300 major irrigation systems in operation at present. Several selected major irrigation systems (Table 2) are managed jointly by the Irrigation Department and the Irrigation Management Division (IMD) of the Ministry of Irrigation under the Integrated Management of Major Irrigation Settlement Schemes (INMAS) programme. Minor irrigation systems (irrigation systems commanding less than 80 ha) are constructed or renovated by the Irrigation Department but managed by the Agrarian Services Department.

According to an FAO estimate there are 7 758 village tanks. The Freedom from Hunger Campaign estimates 18 000 village tanks. Another source reports some 12 000 tanks in abandoned state while 8 500 working tanks are functioning in the dry zone. Altogether there are about 600 000 ha of irrigable land in the country under different categories: Irrigation Department. 294 640 ha of major irrigation; Mahaweli Economic Agency, 115 960 ha of major irrigation; Agrarian Services Department, minor irrigation areas of 180 000 ha. Also, see Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1

Irrigation systems under the Irrigation Department

Source: Perera, K.D.P. (1986).

Table 2

Mahaweli Economic Agency irrigation systems

Source: Mahaweli Engineering and Construction Agency, Structure Plan/MEA Statistical Division, Mahaweli Statistical Annual (Files 1988).

Farmer participation in irrigation management

In major irrigation systems field level irrigation management is done through irrigation engineers, technical assistants, work supervisors and irrigation labourers. A technical assistant is responsible for about 2 000 ha, while work supervisors and irrigation labourers are responsible for 1 000 ha and 200 ha respectively. Water distribution and allocation is determined by the farmers at the seasonal (kanna) farmers' meeting scheduled prior to every cultivation season at which officers and farmers collectively take decisions on water distribution and cultivation. In IMD schemes management of field channels is given to farmer organizations. They are allowed to collect operation and maintenance (O&M) taxes and carry out maintenance themselves. Technical officers provide necessary support. The programme is now being implemented as a pilot programme and shown some success so far.

Cost of irrigation systems

Most large - scale irrigation infrastructure development is associated with power generation. Sri Lanka has an installed capacity to generate 1 135 MW of electricity through a hydropower network of 16 hydropower stations. The water resources still available for further exploitation is diminishing and becoming more expensive. Thermal energy is now being pursued. However, there is high potential to develop rural electric generation plants making use of small stream flows and the available steep gradients.

Figure 1: Changes in irrigation investments in Sri Lanka, five-year moving averages, 1950-1986 (1986 prices)

Investment in several major irrigation works - new construction, rehabilitation and operation and maintenance from 1950 to 1988 - is given in Table 3 and Figure 1. Another estimate of the cost of rehabilitation is given in Table 4. The capital cost of some new irrigation systems is given in Table 5. The cost of providing irrigation water to the Mahaweli area, for example, is estimated at nearly US$14 000 to 25 000 per/ha. The development cost of small to medium irrigation works is relatively low compared to Mahaweli but still is considerable. However, this amount will fall when the benefits derived from power generation are deducted. Government investment from 1988 to 1992 on capital expenditure is given in Table 6. Investment for irrigation increased tremendously during the last 40 years, rising to 30 percent of public investment in 1983. From 1988 to 1992, a significant investment was made in irrigation infrastructure development. This is mainly because of the accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme. Investment in irrigation other than the Mahaweli Programme decreased by 70 percent from a high figure of Rs. 1.322 billion in 1989 to Rs. 390 million in 1992 (Table 6). Since then it has shown a downward trend but remains a significant component of government investment. At present investment in irrigation is about 10 percent of public investment.

Table 7 shows investment in village irrigation schemes from 1950 to 1982. Irrigation investment in the Public Investment Programme (PIP) is given in Table 9. Its data was reported in a study made by the IMMI, Sri Lanka, titled “Irrigation Investment Trends in Sri Lanka: New Construction and Beyond” from various information sources.

Current cost of irrigation development

Details of one project likely to be approved for implementation (now in planning) is given below to demonstrate current level of water sector development investment. The “Potential Rehabilitation of Irrigated Agriculture in the Dry and Intermediate Zones of Sri Lanka” (Main Report 2000, Nippon Koei, JICA and the Ministry of Irrigation and Power).

TABLE 3

Irrigation investment by type, government budget, total public investment, 1950 - 1988*

NOTE: (1) Five - year averages centring on years shown, except 1988, indicated in 1988 prices. Figures in parentheses are percentages; (2) Investment for constructing new systems or restoring abandoned old systems; (3) Major rehabilitation and modernization of existing systems. NA = not available.

The proposed project is still in planning and is envisaged to rehabilitate eight major reservoir schemes, eight medium reservoir schemes and 80 minor schemes comprising 18 200 ha and 25 300 farm households. The goal of the project is to improve agricultural productivity, farm income, irrigation facilities, farm roads and farming systems. The project is estimated to cost nearly Rs. 2667 million (US$37 million at US$1= Rs.71). The area of the eight major schemes is 14 167 ha, eight medium schemes at 1 519 ha and the area under minor schemes is 2 509. The estimated cost of development is US$1 370, US$1 070 and US$620 respectively, for major, medium and minor schemes. The project is expected to be implemented by the Irrigation Management Division of the Ministry of Irrigation and Power.

TABLE 4

Cost of Rehabilitation (1987 prices)

SOURCE: Ministry of Lands and Land Development.

Recovery of irrigation costs from farmers

In ancient Sri Lanka farmers paid for water received in labour services called Rajakariya. Farmers were obliged to work for the king in return for the services received to cultivate his land. The services mainly covered the supply of land and water.

TABLE 5

Capital cost of irrigation systems (1987 prices)

SOURCE: (*) Ministry of Lands and Land Development; (**) irrigation Department; (***) Atukorala & Atukorala (1990)

The British who ruled after 1815 did away with the traditional Rajakariya system. After some years, having realized the importance of the ancient system, they reintroduced it and imposed six days of annual compulsory labour for repair and upkeep of roads and irrigation works. Irrigation Ordinance No. 21 of 1867 introduced an irrigation rate to recover the cost of improving irrigation facilities. In 1984 an attempt was made to recover part of the cost - calculated as Rs. 500/ha of irrigation - from farmers who were initially were asked to pay Rs. 250/ha. It was proposed to increase the rate annually by Rs. 50/ha as it was found that the O&M fee collection was unsatisfactory.

Maintenance of large irrigation projects was a responsibility of the government using loans and funds out of national budget. Registered farmer Organizations could obtain contracts for O&M up to maximum of Rs. 250,000/-. The O&M budget has the component funds coming from State and funds from farmer contributions. It was estimated that the cost of O&M could be met with 3 - 9 percent of benefits derived of irrigation.

MAJOR WATER SECTOR PROGRAMMES

Mahaweli Ganga Development ProgrammeThe Mahaweli Ganga Development Programme was implemented directly under the Ministry of Mahaweli Development. It was planned to irrigate nearly 100 000 ha of new land and about 75 000 ha of already developed land. Five dams have been constructed as regulatory reservoirs with power generation capacity of 540 megawatts. Originally managed by the Mahaweli Development Board (MDB), since 1979 management responsibility was been with the Mahaweli Economic Agency (MEA) under the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL).

TABLE 6

Government capital expenditure 1988 - 1992

Source: National Planning Division (1988).

Several irrigation systems were included in the project, each subdivided into projects of 8 000 to 10 000 ha supervised by a resident project manager. Project managers are assisted by several deputy project managers. Projects are divided into blocks of 2 000 to 2 500 ha supervised by a block manager supported by several unit managers supervising 200 - 250 ha.

The cost of the Mahaweli Development Project was estimated at Rs. 25 billion (US$1.04 billion) compared to all other irrigation work at Rs.3.6 billion or US$128.6 million (Economic Review, 1986:3). The cost of providing irrigation water to Mahaweli Project area was Rs. 100 000/ha or US$1 775/ha (Economic Review, February 2001).

Anuradhapura Dry zone Development Project (ADZAP)

ADZAP was implemented in Anuradhapura district Sri Lanka's dry zone of Sri Lanka. Financial and technical assistance were provided by the ADB, IFAD and the Government of Sri Lanka. The project was implemented from 1981 to 1988 at a total cost estimated at Rs. 690 million (US$24 million). It focused on rehabilitating minor tanks and developing adjacent uplands, agricultural infrastructure, livestock and support services. The major objectives of the project were to increase food production and productivity, employment, improved rural income generation by optimum use and development of available resources and also to ensure equitable land and water distribution. It also aimed at improving farming systems, including integrated agriculture. About 200 minor tanks were restored, covering nearly 3 000 ha of irrigable land and about 14 000 ha of rainfed land.

Sustainability and lessons learned

A study conducted by Jayasena (1988) reported that project objectives were partially achieved. Integrated agriculture goals in the highlands did not occur, as most farmers did not live in the newly allocated lands. Limited fodder and dry season water could not sustain livestock. Shifting cultivation was eliminated and road networks were improved as lasting positive achievements, but lowland and upland development did not meet expectations. The project evaluation recommended closer cooperation and more careful planning by involved agencies in future projects. The scheme had no proper project evaluation system. Some rehabilitated tanks did not meet minimum criteria and beneficiaries were not selected systematically. Some outsiders gained land and used it improperly and there was no proper water management to make the best use of available water. Also, the project did not distribute good milk cows to the beneficiaries and failed to achieve a proper fodder development programme.

Village Irrigation Rehabilitation Project (VIRP)

A World Bank loan funded the Village Irrigation Rehabilitation Project (VIRP) covering rehabilitation of 1 200 village tanks and modernization of another 500 small tanks in 14 administrative districts. Implemented between 1980 and 1989 at a total cost of Rs.784 million or US$28 million (World Bank, 1981) at an estimated cost of Rs. 12 350 (US$441) per/ha at 1980 prices. Cost of new development was Rs. 24 700/ha (US 880/ha). The estimate for 1980 was increased to Rs.21 600 (US$771) and Rs.43 225 (US$1 554), respectively in 1987.

Benefits and lessons learned

In terms of encouraging farmer involvement in the rehabilitation and management process VIRP was not successful. However, a study conducted by the Agrarian Research and Training Institute (ARTI) has shown 63 percent of farmers reporting improved water supply after rehabilitation. It also reported that channel damaging and illegal water supply have declined significantly after implementation.

Tank Irrigation Modernization Project (TIMP)

The first major irrigation rehabilitation project in contemporary Sri Lanka, this project aimed at rehabilitating five major tanks: Mahawilachchiya (1 053 ha), Mahakanadarawa 2 429 ha), Padaviya (5 061 ha), Pawattakulam (1 781 ha) and Vavunikulam (2 429 ha). The project objective was to increase cropping intensity through timely cultivation with proper allocation and distribution of water. The project began in 1976 and was completed in 1984. It has given more emphasis to engineering aspects and less attention to institutions and agricultural extension. Its total cost in 1986 prices was Rs. 651 million (US$23 million).

TABLE 7

Capital expenditure in village (minor) irrigation schemes

Benefits and lessons learned

No definite increases to cropping intensity and rice yields were observed though it was an objective (Abeysekera, 1984). Despite improved water conditions, no systematic cropping intensity was observed by Murray, Rust and Rao (1987). The simultaneous rehabilitation of the minor tanks in the watershed area of Mahakanadarawa tank contributed to poor water availability and consequent low cropping intensity. Some of lessons learned included the need for advance planning of works, which prevented improvement of minor tanks above the catchment area. The project ought to have given more emphasis to agricultural extension and institutional strengthening.

Major Irrigation Rehabilitation Project (MIRP)

MIRP represented a continuation of the programme commenced under TIMP. Funded by USAID and IDA loans, the project aimed at improving irrigation facilities and improving agricultural production in seven major irrigation systems in the dry zone. It also aimed to introduce integrated management through rehabilitation and farmer involvement. The project dropped implementation of three systems due to civil strife in the vicinity. Overall project cost to rehabilitate the Nachchaduwa, Huruluwewa, Rajangana and Kantalai irrigation systems was nearly US$39 million. The programme also funded the Integrated Management of Major Irrigation Systems (INMAS) to ensure proper O&M of the irrigation systems and complementary programming of agricultural activities and inputs.

The project objectives have been partially achieved according to the Project Completion Report (PCR), 1994. Rehabilitation works have been carried out as planned and the INMAS concept has been made operational. It appears to have obtained nearly 80 percent of its expected paddy production of 32 400 tonnes, but its programme to popularize growing other crops ended with limited success due to farmers preference to grow paddy and the lack of extension support and credit.

Sustainability and lessons learned

The attempted operation and maintenance of irrigation systems by farmers exhibited limited success and requires technical assistance from trained ID staff. For proper O&M sustainability, farmers need to derive higher income from farming so that they could pay for maintenance. It can be achieved only if they diversify the cropping to get other field crops in their well - drained land.

TABLE 8

Operation and maintenance expenditure, irrigation management division 1987

NOTE 1: Expenses were very low due to ethnic troubles.

NOTE 2: If Trincomalee is omitted, the average cost/ha is Rs. 228

SOURCE: Irrigation Management Division, Ministry of Irrigation and Power.

The project learned an innovative concept of integrated management of irrigation systems (INMAS). Farmer organizations showed interest in managing their own irrigation systems. It was learned that organizing farmers for O&M is a slow process. Therefore, adequate long - term programmes should be introduced with built in financial and institutional capacity. The lack of attention given to agricultural extension was a good reason for not achieving targets of OFC. It is also clear that farmers alone cannot do O&M of irrigation systems. Farmers' organizations undertaking construction activities is a good concept.

LAND SECTOR DEVELOPMENT

Historical perspective

With the increasing land - man ratio the competition for land became quite acute during past 100 to 120 years. Due to this, the vast extent of forest that was formerly in existence was depleted, from a high of 88 percent in 1884 to less than 20 percent today. Loss of forest cover and encroachment of state land by the landless has led to an accelerated rate of land degradation by water erosion. Slash and burn cultivation is widespread in Sri Lanka's dry and intermediate zones. Land degradation has been a contributing factor for poverty and unemployment and a threat to food security. In order to mitigate land degradation and combat poverty country has launched several land sector development programmes.

TABLE 9

Irrigation investment in the Public Investment Programme (PIP)

SOURCE: Central Bank of Sri Lanka. Review of the Economy (various years).

There has been extensive national planning of sectoral programmes for land and watershed management. Watershed management is a prominent issue in the National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) of 1992 - 1996 and 1997 - 2001.These five - year plans are based on national priorities and on an assessment of resources availability. Components of the plan are incorporated into action plans of the implementing agencies responsible for various sectors covered.

MAJOR LAND SECTOR PROGRAMMES

Upper Watershed Management Project (UWMP)

Funded by a loan from the Asian Development Bank and government counterpart funds, the ADB foreign exchange component was US$4.9 million and the local currency component was US$11.7 million. Sri Lanka's contribution in local currency was US$6 million with additional beneficiary contribution of US$1.1 million. The total bank loan contribution was US$16.73 million (Rs. 1 223 million) and local component US$28.20 million (Rs. 2 144 million). The loan was effective from 1998 and last till 2005. The Ministry of Forestry and Environment will have overall responsibility for project implementation.

TABLE 10

Investment in land sector projects

Source: Project documents

TABLE 11

Public investment in environment related programmes

Source: NEAP 1998 - 2001

The objective of the project was sustainable management of critical watersheds, improve income of project beneficiaries and also to facilitate to develop a watershed management policy. The main concerns of the project are soil conservation, off farm conservation, establishment of peak wilderness buffer zones, sanctuary management and forest management. It also consists of training of farmers and institutional strengthening component.

The project covers three watersheds: the Uma Oya, the Upper Kalu Ganga and the Udawalawe basins. Originally planned to protect 4 500 ha, the Uma Oya basin was expanded to establish forest plantations in the upper Udawalawe watersheds and peak wilderness buffer zones in the upper Kalu Ganga area. In the Uma Oya basin, 4 500 ha will be protected and increased overall crop production on farmlands is targeted. These interventions will help to reduce the rate of sedimentation in reservoirs and will benefit 40 000 farm families and sanctuary conservation of 22 000 ha.

Upper Mahaweli Watershed Management Project (UMWP)

The Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL) implemented the UMWP with financial aid from GTZ for soil conservation and watershed management of the Upper Mahaweli watershed in coordination with other implementing agencies. Activities included promotion of SALT technology, sericulture, drafting conservation plans and promoting mixed farming of crops and livestock.

The introduction of vetiver and SALT appear to be successful in some areas. Due to poor maintenance of hedgerows many are also in neglected state. The project managed to distribute considerable planting material to large number of users and there is potential to promote vetiver in other areas if there is national - level interest.

TABLE 12

Capital expenditure of the Forest Department

Source: Forest Department

Forest Land Use Mapping Project (FORLUMP)

Implemented by the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, the Forest Land Use Mapping Project (FORLUMP) included a TA from ODA and was promoting sustainable management of the Upper Mahaweli Watershed. Its goal was to integrate watershed conservation with development activities. Land use and vegetation studies and mapping of forest areas in the upper Mahaweli watershed areas in the country using GIS technology and satellite imagery. It developed a comprehensive database including 1:10 000 scale land use maps, slope maps, erosivity and erosion hazards.

ADB funded Land Use Planning Project

Funded by the ADB to strengthen the capacity of the Land Use Policy Planning Division (LUPPD). The Land Use Planning Project is to assist carrying out its functions and land use planning in the districts.

Environment Action 1 Project (EAIP)

Initiated in 1996 with World Bank/IDA loan assistance, the Environment Action 1 Project (EA1P) was implemented by the Ministry of Forestry and Environment. Of its US$17 million investment, only US$2.37 million was allocated for the land component while the balance was for infrastructure development and Ministry of Environment and Environment Authority human resources development. The provincial council of the central province, with active participation of various other government organizations, implemented the land component. The secretary of the Ministry of Environment chairs the land component steering committee while the Chief Secretary of the province chairs the provincial steering committee. A technical committee advises on implementation of technical activities. Micro Catchment (MC) is the centrepiece of the organization structure and a microcatchment planning team headed by the area divisional secretary. An MC catalyst officer assists in organizing the farmers.

Ten pilot test sites (later reduced to nine) - ranging from 5 000 to 7 000 ha with varying gradients, rainfall and soil conditions - were selected to implement appropriate technology and treatments/farming system models. Project implementation is through an interactive planning process, in which implementing agencies work together with villagers to prepare and implement development and cropping plans.

Shared Control of Natural Resources Project (SCOR)

Shared Control of Natural Resources (SCOR) was implemented as a component of the Natural Resources and Environment Policy Project (NAREPP) funded by USAID. It was estimated to cost nearly US$7 million. The project target was US$6.5 million of USAID and US$0.5 million user grants plus a country contribution of US$0.15 million. The project began in 1994 and terminated in 1999. Implemented by the Ministry of Irrigation, Power and Energy, the participatory action research project aimed to develop and test holistic interdisciplinary approaches to integrating environmental and conservation concerns with production goals in the watershed context. The SCOR approach was tested in two pilot projects, Huruluwewa in North Central Province and Nilwala in the Southern Province. SCOR strategy was based on farmers' capacity to organize to obtain the benefit of natural resources equitably for both production and protection by implementing a selected package of practices. The SCOR strategy is based on understanding of hydrological, socio-economic and other interactions between different segments of the watershed, experience in group economics and natural resources management and tenurial security.

During its implementation the programme showed some improvement regarding farmers' management of natural resources to improve their livelihoods, but the programme failed to expand beyond its geographic limits and failed to sustain project impacts even within the project area. The concept of farmer companies introduced by the project has gained momentum in some ISMP areas. The failure of the project interventions to survive in the project area or to spread to other areas was attributed to the high level technical assistance provided, unrealistic under the normal management.

Reforestation and Watershed Management Project

Implemented by the Forest Department (FD), with USAID financial assistance, the project objective was to develop the FD institutional capacity to undertake watershed management in hilly regions and enhance timber and fuel wood production. Under this programme, the FD restored 10 000 ha of degraded land in the Upper Mahaweli Watershed. The project also covered forestry extension, forestry research, training and fire protection.

FAO Watershed Management Project

Implemented by the Department of Agriculture with the FAO assistance, the Watershed Management Project began in 1975. Several pilot study sites were used to evaluate the degree of soil erosion. The project also helped to develop human resources of the Soil and Water Research Division of the Department of Agriculture.

Private Investment in Land and Water Development

Private sector investment in water sector development is rare. Several programmes commenced in the Mahaweli System C area during the last three or four years for large scale investment in drip irrigation using Mahaweli water to grow bananas, papaws and coconuts. These programmes covered an area of about 500 ha.

Private investment in land improvement is significant in private sector tea, rubber and coconut plantations, in large plantations as well as smallholder tea and rubber plantations. Though government provides some subsidy for soil conservation, the major share of expenditures is met by the landowners themselves.

The Ceylon Tobacco Company (CTC) conducted the only significant involvement in land sector development in a project in hill country tobacco growing areas. Originally the company gave financial assistance to contract growers to establish stone walls for soil conservation. With the introduction of the Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT) about 10 years ago CTC launched a campaign to introduce SALT technology in the Uma Oya catchment and other major hill country tobacco growing areas. The company reported introducing more than 1 000 ha to the system.

A condition for the contract growers to establish SALT before tobacco planting was that the majority of farmers must adopt the system. However, due to various reasons only a few farmers established and maintained the SALT system properly and their effectiveness as soil conservation measures was unsatisfactory on many occasions due to the poor maintenance of SALT hedgerows.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Water sector

Investment for medium and minor irrigation could be more effective in achieving poverty alleviation and food security than investment for major irrigation projects. The cost of investment per unit area is much high in major irrigation projects than in minor irrigation systems. This factor cannot be ignored in decision making on water sector investment. There is an appreciable change in investment policy on irrigation. The investment in major and new projects is decreasing and rehabilitation costs have reached 25 percent in recent times.

Farmer organizations often are not properly established or effectively organized to manage irrigation systems. Transferring irrigation systems management to farmers must be done more systematically and will need to be done slowly. The farmers alone cannot satisfactorily manage irrigation systems: continuous technical support from irrigation staff is necessary.

Contracting maintenance works to farmer organizations has shown promising results. Hence, it should be further pursued.

The farmer company concept has shown some promising results, which must be strengthened in future programmes.

There is a need for state intervention in rehabilitation of village irrigation systems. Selection of tanks for rehabilitation must be through a proper watershed and water balance study. Furthermore, there is a need to have farmer involvement in decision - making and implementation.

Village community capacity must be fully exploited in village irrigation rehabilitation and management. Farmers practised an effective management of village irrigation systems by indigenous strategies that prevailed for centuries.

It may be more economical to improve and enhance the quality of existing irrigation systems than to invest on new irrigation systems. Rates of new irrigation systems is relatively much higher than rehabilitation of old irrigation systems.

A lack of investment in O&M has been responsible in the poor performance of irrigation systems. Investment in O&M has not appreciably improved despite having increase in new construction and rehabilitation costs over part four decades.

Land sector

Recommendations in the land sector include national action to:

• finalize national land use policy;
• provide economic incentives for integrated land management;
• implement regulatory measures and create research, training and awareness to arrest land degradation;
• strengthen Department of Agriculture institutional capacity to implement the Soil Conservation Act and technical assistance services;
• create a suitable environment for private sector investment in soil conservation and other longer term management measures. This is well established in plantation agriculture and tobacco farming; and
• promote tree crops such as tea, rubber, coconut and export agricultural crops to reduce pressure on natural forests and increase cover against soil erosion.

REFERENCES

Agricultural and Social Sectors Department (West), Forestry and Natural Resources Division. 1998. Upper Watershed Management Project Administration Memorandum. Colombo.

Aluvihare. P.B. and Kikuchi Masao. 1991. Irrigation investment trends in Sri Lanka: new construction and beyond, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo.

IMMI, 1989. Financing the cost of irrigation: study on irrigation systems rehabilitation and improved operations and management. Vol. 3 Activity C. Colombo.

IMMI, 1995. Shared Control of Natural Resources (SCOR) Project: Technical Proposal. Colombo.

Jayasena, W.G. 1988. The Anuradhapura dry zone agricultural project: a socio-economic study of the project beneficiaries, ARTI, Colombo.

Ministry of Mahaweli Development. 1985. Mahaweli projects and programme. Colombo.

Medagama, J. 1986. State intervention in Sri Lanka’s village irrigation rehabilitation programme, Proceedings of the seminar on public interventions in farmer managed irrigation systems. IMMI, Colombo.

Ministry of Forestry and Environment. National Environment Action Plan, 1998 - 2001 Colombo..

Nippon Koei, JICA and Sri Lanka Ministry of Irrigation and Power. 2000. Potential rehabilitation of irrigated agriculture in the dry and the intermediate zones of Sri Lanka. Main Report. Colombo.

Perera, J. 1986. Researching village irrigation system in Sri Lanka, Proceedings of the seminars on public interventions in farmer managed irrigation systems. IIMI, Colombo.

World Bank. 1996. Staff appraisal report, Sri Lanka environment action 1 project, 1996. Washington, DC.

World Bank. 1994. Sri Lanka major irrigation rehabilitation project: project completion report. Washington, DC.