U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, USA
ABSTRACT
This paper describes, in depth, 10 major fisheries, which take place in the western North Atlantic between the U.S.-Canadian border and North Carolina, which presently have or potentially could have user group allocation conflicts. Detailed data and a review of existing literature are presented for each fishery relative to the basic biology and ecology of component species as well as a description of the fishery. In addition, each fishery is reviewed in terms of present and potential user group allocation conflicts. The fisheries and their component species described include: groundfish (Atlantic cod, haddock, and pollock), summer flounder, scup, Atlantic mackerel, black sea bass, winter flounder, bluefish, weakfish, silver hake, and red hake.
RÉSUMÉ
Ce document décrit en détail 10 majeures pêcheries dont l'activité est située dans l'Ouest de l'Atlantique Nord entre la frontière américo-canadienne et la Caroline du Nord, et où la répartition des ressources entre les groupes d'utilisateurs provoque des différends ou pourrait en provoquer. Pour chaque pêcherie sont présentées des données détaillées et une revue de la littérature existante touchant les principaux traits biologiques et écologiques des espèces qui s'y trouvent, ainsi qu'une description de la pêcherie. En outre, chaque pêcherie est examinée sous l'angle des différends actuels ou potentiels résultant de la répartition des resources entre les divers groupes d'utilisateurs. Dans la description des pêcheries et de leurs espèces composantes sont inclus: poissons de fond (morue de l'Atlantique, Gadus morhua; églefin, Melanogrammus aeglefinus; et lieu noir, Pollachius virens); cardeau d'été, Paralichthys dentatus; spare doré, Stenotomus chrysops; maquereau bleu, Scomber scombrus; perche de mer, Centropristis striator; plie rouge, Pseudopleuronectes americanus; tassergal, Pomatomus saltatrix; acoupa royal, Cynoscion regalis; merlu argenté, Nerluccius bilinearis; et merluche écureuil, Urophycis chuss.
1 Sandy Hook Laboratory, Highlands, New Jersey 07732.
2 Woods Hole Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543.
INTRODUCTION
Since its enactment, the U.S. Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976 (commonly called the 200 Mile Law) has brought and will continue to bring with it the dilemma, for the first time, of general governmental responsibility for allocating the catch and effort of U.S. domestic fisheries for the purpose of conserving living marine resources. At the present time, some eight species of finfish and five species of invertebrates, which inhabit the area between the U.S.-Canadian border and North Carolina, are being managed by various allocation schemes. In addition, approximately 20 or more other species are being considered for some form of management by either the Mid-Atlantic or New England Fishery Management Councils as well as by several State-Federal management groups. It should be noted, in the U.S., management jurisdiction for species which range inside and outside of 5,5 km (3 nautical miles) of the shore is jointly shared by states and the federal government.
These management groups, having little if any background material or examples to follow, are faced with the myriad of complexities involved in the regulation of large scale domestic fisheries and the ensuing problems of allocating fishery resources to a public made up of, in almost all cases, many diverse and poorly defined harvesting elements. It should be evident that the solution to the problem is by no means as simple as allocating an unlimited resource between commercial and recreational components of a fishery. In the most simplistic of terms, each fishery must be dissected and each segment examined to determine the answers to the following questions: Who is fishing (users)? How do they make their catch (method-gear)? How much do they catch (removal)? Where do they fish (area)? And, when do they fish (seasons)? This matrix of fishery information is then weighed with existing biological and ecological information pertinent to the species, and finally, a management scheme is developed that contains equitable allocation provisions based on sound knowledge of the fish and fisheries in question. To further these goals, herein we describe 10 major fisheries, which take place in the western North Atlantic between the U.S.-Canadian border and North Carolina, which presently have or potentially could have user group allocation conflicts. Detailed data and a review of existing literature are presented for each fishery relative to the basic biology and ecology of each species as well as definition of user groups, fishing methods, catch, effort, and seasonality. In addition, each fishery is reviewed in terms of present and potential user group allocation conflicts.
The fish and fisheries described include: groundfish (Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua; haddock, Melanogrammus aeglefinus; and pollack, Pollachius virens); summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus; scup, Stenotomus chrysops; Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus; black sea bass, Centropristis striata; winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus; bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix; weakfish, Cynoscion regalis; silver hake, Merluccius bilinearis; and red hake, Urophycis chuss.
Throughout this paper references are frequently made to commercial and recreational catch statistics, with the former being based on governmental records of landings and the latter on periodical recall sampling surveys. In general, commercial statistics, when biased at all, tend to be underestimated due to failures in reporting, and recreational statistics tend to be over estimated due to the recall memory of anglers.
DESCRIPTION OF AREA
The areas between Canada and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, are herein discussed in terms of the Mid-Atlantic—Southern New England, Georges Bank, and Gulf of Maine subareas (Fig. 1). These three subdivisions will be abbreviated as MA—SNE, GB and GOM respectively throughout the remainder of the text for purposes of brevity. This subdivision is based on climatic, physiographic, and hydrographic differences as well as on distribution and abundance of species and their respective fisheries.
At Cape Hatteras the continental shelf extends seaward only 35 km, but widens to about 110 km off New Jersey and 160 km off Cape Cod. The GOM is a cold-water bight characterized by a deep central basin which is nearly sealed off from the open Atlantic by Georges and Browns banks. The seaward boundaries of these banks fall off sharply into the continental slope.
The MA—SNE (i.e., Nantucket Shoals to Cape Hatteras) shelf bottom out to the 200-m isobath is chiefly sand interspaced with large pockets of sand-gravel and sand-shell. From 200 to 2 000 m the bottom is a mixture of silt, siltysand, and clay. Beyond 2 000 m, clay predominates as the chief substrate. Surface circulation is generally southwesterly during all seasons, interrupted by coastal indrafting and some reversal of flow at the northern and southern extremes of the area. Water temperatures range from approximately 2–24°C depending upon season and depth. Salinities close to the coast are about 32 ‰, increase to 34–35 ‰ near the shelf break, and exceed 36 ‰ along the main flow lines of the Gulf Stream.
Bottom sediments in the GOM and GB areas vary from rock to silt. Sediments of the nearshore GOM are typically rock or rock-gravel. Most of the deeper central GOM sediments are some form of silt, and those of GB are chiefly sand. Circulation within the GOM is generally counterclockwise. Cold Scotian and slope waters enter through the Northeast Channel, and down through the Fundian Channel. GOM waters spill out over GB and through the Great South Channel onto Nantucket Shoals. The anticyclonic eddy over GB that develops in the spring breaks down into a westerly and southerly drift by autumn. Water temperatures in this area range from 2 to 17°C at the surface and over GB, and 4 to 9°C at 200 m in the inner GOM. Both the southern boundary of GB and deep basins of the inner GOM are influenced by the intrusion of slope waters. Average salinities vary from about 32–35 ‰. Lower salinity values are found closer to shore, but vary with depth depending upon the influence of higher salinity slope water intrusion.
Fig. 1. Western North Atlantic between Canada and North Carolina including appropriate labeling of areas and regions referred to in the text.
DESCRIPTION OF FISH AND FISHERIES
Groundfish (Atlantic Cod, Haddock and Pollock)
Background
Distribution: Cod—western North Atlantic from Cape Hatteras to Greenland; most abundant from northern Labrador to Nantucket Shoals. Haddock—North American stocks range from Grand Banks to Cape Cod, rarely to New Jersey. Pollock—western Greenland to New Jersey, occasionally to Chesapeake Bay (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Leim and Scott 1966). Movements and Migrations: Cod—move south and westerly during winter causing seasonal abundance off New York and New Jersey. Haddock—relatively stationary. Pollock—migrate from both GB and Nova Scotia waters to the southwest part of the GOM. Reproduction: All three species are basically winter-spring spawners throughout their range (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Management Units: Cod—primarily three; GOM, GB, and MA—SNE (Wise 1962; Serchuk et al. 1977). Haddock—for management purposes two; GOM and GB (Clark and Over-holtz 1979). Pollock—considered as a single stock throughout Nova Scotia and northeastern U.S. (Clark et al. 1977).
Fisheries
Commercial—Fishing for “groundfish” is primarily accomplished through the use of bottom trawls; although pollock could be pursued with pelagic trawls. In addition, all three species are subjected to inshore gill net and hook and line fisheries, which are highly competitive, in an areal sense, with trawl and other boat fisheries. With the ever increasing cost of fuel, shifts to more stationary gear (hook and line) may become more profitable due to decreased fuel consumption. Recreational—Primarily a bottom fishery from charter and party-boats during summer in the GOM and during fall and winter in the MA—SNE (Freeman and Walford 1974a, b, c).
Allocation Conflicts
To date, conflicts between recreational and commercial users have been minimal; however, recent heavy increases in the intensity of U.S. trawl and gill net fisheries have created allocation decisions and potential problems between user groups. In the GOM during the summer (northern section) and spring and fall (southern section) recreational users (i.e., private, charter and party-boats and shore fishermen) fish the same stocks in the same areas as commercial hook and line fishermen, gill netters, and trawlers. This creates potentials for conflicts between commercial and recreational fishermen as well as between commercial fishermen with fixed gear and those with mobile gear.
The pollock fisheries that are pursued in the offshore areas are in regions relatively untouched by recreational fishermen as well as by small-boat U.S. commercial fishermen. However, these fisheries could have the potential for reducing abundance prior to the movements of pollock inshore during their fall migration to a degree that may reduce the ability of U.S. coastal fishermen, both commercial and recreational, to harvest efficiently and economically if decreased abundances resulted in reduced catch-per-unit-effort. Conversely, small pollock are found in the nearshore waters of the GOM where they are fished heavily by recreational users. The continuing increase in human population pressures may also be accompanied by a greater shift to pollock as more recreational fishermen increase their fishing intensity to supplement their available food supply. It is conceivable that an increased recreational harvest of these smaller pollock could impact on the future abundance of larger fish on offshore grounds.
Haddock on GB are relatively separate from inshore stocks and therefore are not presently involved in any area conflicts. To date, only minimal recreational fishing exists on GB itself, for few recreational vessels are capable of making the long runs necessary to reach this productive area. Thus, allocation conflicts are likely to be minimal for a considerable period of time on GB. Haddock in the GOM are fished at the same time over much of the same area by all user groups and therefore have all the inherent problems associated with such a mixed-gear mixed-user fishery.
The GB stock of cod, in the broadest sense, forms the major winter source of cod in the MA—SNE area. The relative lack of cod in the more southerly part of the region in recent years (i.e., New York and New Jersey), even though cod abundance on GB has increased, has created, in the minds of some recreational fishermen the belief that it requires a very large standing stock of predominately older cod to provide enough fish moving south during the winter for profitable recreational fishing. This seasonality in distribution is to some extent an allocation problem even with the current commercial and recreational area quota system being used by the New England Fishery Management Council to manage the species. A significantly large cod harvest earlier in the year could very well result in significantly fewer cod in the southern areas and poorer recreational fishing in general.
The greatest amount of potential direct conflicts comes among otter trawlers, gill netters, and commercial hook and line fishermen as well as with recreational fishermen for use of productive space on the inshore grounds where all compete simultaneously. Recreational fishermen are concerned, particularly with cod, that heavy fishing by trawlers reduces the size and age structure in such a manner that the larger fish, those most desired by recreational fishermen, are much less available. When cod becomes just large enough to enter the trawl fisheries, but smaller than that desired by recreational fishermen, the heavy immediate demand to utilize this abundance of small fish by trawlers conflicts with the desires of the recreational fishery. On the other hand, recreational fishermen and commercial hook and line fishermen do have access to areas where the bottom is not trawlable and these areas often provide higher concentrations of large individual fish.
For cod, haddock, and pollock there is every indication that the combination of recreational and commercial exploitation is such that, if allowed unchecked, it could sufficiently reduce the resource and create a fishery extremely dependent on incoming year-classes. Potentially it could even lower spawning stock size significantly to effect long-term productivity. Historically the “groundfish” fishery has been predominantly commercial, with recreational fishing probably harvesting less than 10% of the total removals; however, in recent years, the recreational portion has reached a much higher proportion in the GOM and MA—SNE cod fisheries where the recreational harvest approached that of the commercial and in the more southerly areas undoubtedly exceeds it. Thus, allocations between user groups of both space and time under current quota forms of management are of prime management concern. Presently, conflicts within the commercial sector have placed the greatest demand on managers; however, demands by the recreational sector can be expected to increase with increased use of these resources.
Summer Flounder
Background
Distribution: Nova Scotia to Florida; center of abundance Cape Hatteras to Cape Cod (Leim and Scott 1966; Gutherz 1967). Movements and Migrations: Offshore and south during winter; inshore and north during summer. Reproduction: Spawn during fall and winter offshore south of Cape Cod (Smith 1973).
Fisheries
Commercial—Basically a trawl fishery throughout the species range with fishing following seasonal movements. The fishery, during all seasons, is a part of a mixed bottom fishery which also includes black sea bass, weakfish, and scup. Recreational—Primarily by bottom fishing with bait from shore as well as from either anchored or drifting boats. The fishery takes place during the warmer months of the year in estuarine and nearshore waters (Freeman and Walford 1974a,b,c,d; 1976a,b). Recreational catches for 1965, 1970, and 1974 were 13 400, 8 800, 15 800 tons respectively (Deuel and Clark 1968; Deuel 1973; Deuel, pers. comm.). Commercial landings are approximately the same as those landed recreationally (Chang and Pacheco 1976); however, the commercial fisheries, by concentrating their effort primarily on offshore grounds, take larger size individuals than the inshore fisheries.
Allocation Conflicts
There has already been a conflict among various user groups. The offshore by-catch of distant water fleets was vigorously opposed by both MA—SNE recreational and commercial interests. They argued that this offshore winter fishery had the potential, if great enough, to reduce inshore catches, and because it occurred at the very beginning of the year, at a time when U.S. fishery interests, particularly in the northern areas, were not harvesting the resource, could lower abundance sufficiently to affect availability during summer inshore fisheries. The current U.S. southern offshore fishery, to a degree, has the same potential impact on the nearshore fisheries, particularly if their effort increases dramatically; however, at present, effort level has not approached that of the distant water fleets.
Party-, charter- and private-boats fish in exactly the same area as smaller trawlers do during the summer and are therefore competing for the same fish. Commercial fishermen may even be able to reduce localized abundance and thus affect the catch-per-unit-effort in the recreational fishery. In the areas inside of 5.5 km, where small summer flounder are found, trawling is prohibited throughout much of the species range. Therefore, at present, the recreational fishery has the opportunity to catch younger fish prior to their recruitment to the commercial fishery and therefore may have the potential of limiting recruitment to the offshore fisheries.
Both Chang and Pacheco (1976) and Henderson (1979), based on preliminary assessments of the summer flounder resource, indicate that the combined recreational and commercial fishing mortality may be exceeding that required over the long-term to produce maximum sustainable yield. In addition, Johnson (1979) indicated that growth yields could be obtained by increasing age at first recruitment to the current fishery. These results have prompted the formation of a state-federal management group. At present, this group is defining the objectives and potential management strategies necessary to manage the species.
Scup
Background
Distribution: GOM to South Carolina; most abundant from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928; Breder 1948; Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Briggs 1958). Movements and Migrations: Move offshore in fall to their wintering grounds between southern New Jersey and Cape Hatteras; during spring they return to the area from shore to 40 m (Pearson 1932; Neville and Talbot 1964). Reproduction: Spawn between May and August, primarily during May to mid-July in estuaries, bays and inshore waters below Cape Cod (Kuntz and Radcliffe 1918; Perlmutter 1939; Merriman and Sclar 1952; Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Wheatland 1956; Herman 1958; Richards 1959; de Sylva et al. 1962; Pearcy and Richards 1962).
Fisheries
Commercial—Otter trawls primarily; fish traps, gill nets, and purse seines secondarily. The trawl fishery is primarily an offshore winter fishery operating in the MA—SNE, with a secondary, but less intense, inshore fishery in the same general area during summer. The commercial fishery in recent years has harvested less than reported historically; however, with the advent of U.S. extended jurisdiction catches have increased. Recreational—Party-and private-boat fishermen pursue scup, as part of a mixed bottom fishery, alongside of the trawlers on summer inshore grounds. Scup are also caught by shoreside and private-boat anglers inside 5,5 km where trawlers are generally prohibited (Freeman and Walford 1974a,b,c,d).
Allocation Conflicts
Historically, distant water fleets harvested scup as a by-catch in their winter fisheries for squids and hakes along the edge of the continental shelf during the late 1960's and early 1970's. U.S. fishermen, both recreational and commercial, objected vehemently to these catches on offshore wintering grounds. Thus, at present, these by-catches by non-U.S. nationals are controlled. It would be expected that if U.S. fisheries expanded into offshore regions, significant by-catches, if not directed catches of scup, would occur.
At the present time, there are no conflicts among either recreational or commercial fishermen in either the inshore or offshore fisheries. However, there is potential for such conflicts based on the possibility that effort by either the commercial offshore fishery or the combined recreational-commercial inshore fisheries or both will increase prompted by the recent appearance of relatively strong year classes (Resource Assessment Division-NEFC 1979). Based on this potential, a management plan is scheduled for development by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council in the near future.
Atlantic Mackerel
Background
Distribution: North American stocks range from Labrador and Gulf of St. Lawrence to North Carolina (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Leim and Scott 1966; Parsons 1970; Anderson 1976, 1979). Movements and Migrations: There exist separate northern and southern contingents of the species which have different migratory patterns as well as spawning times and areas (Sette 1950; Anderson and Paciorkowski 1980). Both contingents overwinter near the edge of the continental shelf between Sable Island and Cape Hatteras with the bulk of both contingents wintering from GB south. Schools of the southern contingent move inshore from mid-March to mid-April between Cape Hatteras and Delaware Bay and proceed northward joined by other schools; by June-July these fish have moved into the coastal waters of the GOM where they summer. During October this contingent leaves the GOM as they return to their offshore wintering grounds. The northern contingent moves inshore off southern New England in late May, proceeding northeasterly along the Nova Scotia coast to the Gulf of St. Lawrence by June-July where they spend the summer. They begin to leave the Gulf of St. Lawrence by September, pass through the GOM during October-December, and return to their offshore wintering grounds by December-January. Reproduction: Southern contingent—spawning occurs during late April between New Jersey and New York (Berrien 1978). Northern contingent—spawn in Gulf of St. Lawrence during June and July. Management Units: Managed as a single unit between Cape Hatteras and Newfoundland (Anderson 1979).
Fisheries
Commercial—Atlantic mackerel have been harvested since the 1600's off the coast of North America primarily by Canadian and U.S. fishermen. The peak in the fishery occurred in the late 1800's. In recent years, the mackerel catch of the U.S. and Canada has remained small, primarily a mixed catch in trawl and trap net fisheries. The distant water fleet fisheries using large pelagic trawls, fishing primarily in the wintertime, took great quantities of Atlantic mackerel during the late 1960's to mid-1970's when catches peaked at over 400 000 tons (Anderson 1979). Recreational—Anglers take Atlantic mackerel throughout the year depending on the particular stretch of coast fished; off Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware they are caught during late fall, winter and early spring; off New Jersey, New York, and west of Cape Cod during spring, early summer, and fall; north of Cape Cod they are caught during summer and early fall. They are taken during daylight hours by jigging, chumming, and trolling from boats, and by casting, jigging, and live lining from shore (Freeman and Walford 1974a,b,c,d). Saltwater angling surveys have been conducted sporadically since 1960; based on these regional and national surveys, the annual recreational catches of mackerel during 1960, 1965, 1970, 1974, and 1976 were 5 000, 8 600, 32 200, 7 600 and 4 900 tons respectively (Clark 1962; Deuel and Clark 1968; Deuel 1973; Deuel, pers. comm., Christensen et al. 1976).
Allocation Conflicts
The mackerel fishery is one in which conflicts among fishermen have been intense. At present, there are relatively few conflicts between U.S. recreational and commercial fishermen, if any. However, there were major conflicts in the past between the distant water fleets and both groups of U.S. coastal fishermen. The rapid decline of strong year classes of mackerel that entered the fishery in the late 1960's from heavy harvest in the offshore commercial winter fisheries greatly affected the inshore fishery. Inshore fisheries could have experienced extremely good fishing for a much longer period of time had not the year classes been fished down to a low level rapidly. Even at moderate harvest levels, recreational fishermen and inshore trap fishermen believe that offshore trawlers break up schools and reduce density affecting inshore fishing success. Presently, mackerel management is being developed by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council which has the objective of maintaining quality in the recreational mackerel fishery for recreational users as opposed to greatly expanding the U.S. commercial offshore fishery. Some U.S. commercial concerns, on the other hand, hope for the possibility of developing an expanded fishery for this resource.
Black Sea Bass
Background
Distribution: Atlantic coast of U.S.; commonly from Cape Cod, Massachusetts to Cape Canaveral, Florida; occasionally in the GOM, and frequently south to Miami, Florida (Miller 1959). Movements and Migrations: Migrate offshore during winter and inshore during summer with larger and older fish moving offshore into deeper water (75 to 165 m) than do smaller younger specimens (Kendall 1977). Reproduction: Spawn during spring and summer; late May off Chesapeake Bay and early summer south of Cape Cod (Kendall 1977).
Fisheries
Commercial—Primarily bottom trawls and baited wooden or wire set traps (Frame and Pearce 1973). Fishing moves with the fish, inshore during summer and offshore during winter. Fishing season for black sea bass varies considerably along the coast and with the type of gear employed. In the northern section of the MA—SNE, trawling occurs during two peak periods—March to June and September to November. In the southern section of this area, trawling is most successful from September to March but is carried on throughout the year. It should be noted, the aforementioned trawl fisheries are basically mixed ones, with black sea bass making up only a small percentage of the total catch. Traps are fished in water 20–40 m deep in the MA—SNE area from May to November. Commercial catches have ranged between 580 and 2 420 tons during the last 10 years. Recreational—They are fished as part of a mixed demersal fishery, which takes place during summer over rough and hard bottom on nearshore grounds from anchored and drifting private- and party-boats (Freeman and Walford 1974a,b,c,d). Recreational catches have dropped dramatically since 1960. Catches were 5 400, 4 170, 3 220 and 1 060 tons for 1960, 1965, 1970, and 1974 respectively (Clark 1962; Deuel and Clark 1968; Deuel 1973; Deuel, pers. comm.).
Allocation Conflicts
At present, there are no allocation conflicts between the recreational and the commercial pot and trawl fisheries. However, potential allocation problems could arise among user groups if U.S. commercial fishermen became involved in an extensive offshore mixed fishery during winter. This potential exists as indicated by the by-catch of approximately 1 050 tons of black sea bass caught during 1964 by distant water fleets fishing in the MA—SNE area. This increased offshore activity could impact the inshore fisheries by reducing availability (catch-per-unit-effort) during the warmer months of the year. An increased summer nearshore trap fishery (fixed gear) could provoke a space conflict between trawlers and hook and line fishermen as well as by immediately reducing inshore catches and potentially reducing offshore catches later on in the season. In light of these potential developments, the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council is scheduling formulation of a management plan for the species.
Winter Flounder
Background
Distribution: Southern Labrador to Georgia; common throughout GOM, on GB, and in the MA—SNE area as far south as Chesapeake Bay (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Leim and Scott 1966). Movements and Migrations: Results of tagging and meristic studies, aside from local onshore-offshore movements, have generally shown that the species is relatively stationary (Perlmutter 1947; Howe and Coates 1975). Movements appear to be related to a combination of water temperature, photoperiod, light intensity, and tidal fluctuations (Sherwood and Edwards 1901; Sullivan 1915; Huntsman and Sparks 1924; Battle 1926; Pearcy 1962a; McCrackin 1963; Beamish 1966; Hoff and Westman 1966; Olla et al. 1969; Radle 1971). Reproduction: Spawn between January and May (depending on latitude) in bays and estuaries as well as on GB (Sherwood and Edwards 1901; Breder 1924; Perlmutter 1947; Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Pearcy 1962a,b; Poole 1966; Lux et al. 1970; Fairbanks et al. 1971; Kennedy and Steele 1971).
Fisheries
Commercial—Principally otter trawling; and to a lesser degree, floating traps, pound nets, weirs, and fyke nets. In general, the fishery can be described in terms of three distinct modes of trawlers: day-trip boats (12–15 m long) that fish nearshore grounds; short-trip boats (12–15 m long) that make one to three day trips; and long-trip boats (16–26 m long) that carry three to six men and fish offshore grounds such as Nantucket Shoals or GB during three to six day trips (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). Annual U.S. landings since 1960 have varied between 6 300 and 13 800 tons. During that same period, distant water fleets caught between 15 and 10 600 tons. Recreational—Taken year around in nearshore and estuarine areas by anglers bottom fishing from shore and boats. Best fishing in the upper GOM during June-September, and during April-May and September-October in the lower GOM. In the MA—SNE area peak fishing occurs during May-November from Cape Cod to eastern Long Island, and during March-May and October-December from Long Island south to Maryland (Freeman and Walford 1974a,b,c). Based on results of angler surveys during 1965, 1970, and 1974, anglers caught 13 100, 17 000, and 8 600 tons respectively (Deuel and Clark 1968; Deuel 1973; Deuel, pers. comm.).
Allocation Conflicts
The GB winter flounder stock is fished almost entirely commercially, and, being separate from the inshore stock, it is not part of a present or potential recreational-commercial allocation conflict. However, conflicts among various categories of offshore commercial vessels are a distinct possibility with the advent of increased fishing pressure. On the other hand, there has been considerable conflict on the nearshore grounds, with winter flounder recreational interests being among those responsible for the prohibition of commercial otter trawling in many areas adjacent to the coast. There are still some potential conflicts with recreational and commercial fishermen as well as among commercial fishermen for the resources in the nearshore waters outside of the areas where trawling is prohibited. Again, with increasing pressure these conflicts may magnify. Development of a management plan for winter flounder is scheduled by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council.
Bluefish
Background
Distribution: Along the entire U.S. Atlantic seaboard, occasionally as far north as Nova Scotia (Wilk 1977). Movements and Migrations: Schools travel seasonally, generally northward in spring and summer and southward in fall and winter. Depending on the time of year, adult bluefish have been caught from the bottom water at the edge of the shelf to the shallows of coastal bays (Wilk 1977). Reproduction: Two major areas of spawning have been defined along the U.S. east coast, one offshore near the inner edge of the Gulf Stream from southern Florida to North Carolina during April and May, the other in the MA—SNE area during summer, chiefly June through August (Kendall and Walford 1979).
Fisheries
Commercial—The major commercial fisheries take place in the MA—SNE area, where fishermen use gill nets, haul seines, pound nets, hook and line, and, to a lesser degree, otter trawls, pelagic trawls, and purse seines. During the past decade, catches have averaged between 3 000 and 6 000 tons. Recreational—Bluefish are taken from boats while trolling, chumming, casting, live bait fishing, jigging, still fishing, and drift fishing, and they are caught from shore while casting and still fishing and by live bait fishing, jigging, and chumming (Freeman and Walford 1974a,b,c,d; Freeman and Walford 1976a,b). The bluefish is the most important recreational species within the region and provides both sport and food for people fishing in bays and sounds, along ocean beaches, and as far over the continental shelf as they care to go. Indeed, no other species of the Atlantic coast occurs during such a long season, over such a great distance, in such a variety of locations, or in such numbers. No other species is as important to all sorts of anglers. It is unlikely that any other species could completely replace the bluefish if it were to disappear (Wilk 1977). Recreational catches, within the scope of this paper, have ranged between 38 000 and 75 000 tons since 1970 (Clark 1962; Deuel and Clark 1968; Deuel 1973; Deuel, pers. comm.). It must be added that in excess of one million anglers annually fish for bluefish within the area.
Allocation Conflicts
At present, there are no conflicts among user groups. This is based on the fact that existing commercial fisheries are limited by their markets. Bluefish are not readily frozen and therefore can neither be stored for long periods of time nor shipped over long distances. The commercial fishery is therefore a fresh-fish fishery dictated to by localized market demand. However, there are potential allocation problems in-asmuch as recently there have been, and there continue to be, attempts to pursue and capture bluefish through the use of high-speed pelagic trawls and purse seines. These methods, accompanied by advanced freezing technology, could create both an increased domestic as well as a substantial export market. Anderson and Almeida (1979), based on the results of a preliminary assessment, indicate that bluefish are now being harvested at levels that suggest that any major increase in fishing pressure would increase removals above surplus production levels. Based on these results and owing to the importance of the species to the recreational community, the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council is attempting to formulate a fishery management plan for bluefish which has the underlying objectives of curtailing further exploitation and maintaining historical catch distribution.
Weakfish
Background
Distribution: Atlantic coast of U.S. from Florida to GOM; straying to Nova Scotia and into the Gulf of Mexico (Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928; Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Leim and Scott 1966; Weinstein and Yerger 1976; Chao 1978). Movements and Migrations: Young fish, usually <4 years old, move out of nearshore and estuarine zones and south along the coast in fall and winter and north in spring and summer. Older and larger fish, usually >4 years old, move south, but offshore, in fall probably no further than North Carolina, and then return to inshore grounds with the advent of spring warming (Pearson 1932; Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Nesbit 1954; Massmann et al. 1958; Wilk 1976, 1979; Wilk and Silverman 1976; Wilk et al. 1977). Reproduction: Spawning, hatching, and early larval development take place in the nearshore estuarine zones throughout the MA—SNE area from May to October with peak production during late April through early June (Welsh and Breder 1923; Higgins and Pearson 1928; Hilde-brand and Schroeder 1928; Parr 1933; Hilde-brand and Cable 1934; Pearson 1941; Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Daiber 1954; Nesbit 1954; Perlmutter et al. 1956; Harmic 1958; Massmann 1963a,b; Thomas 1971; Merriner 1976; Wilk 1979).
Fisheries
Commercial—Weakfish are taken principally with fish traps (pound nets), otter trawls, pelagic trawls, and gill nets, and secondarily with hook and line, haul seines, and purse seines. Generally, these fisheries can be classified as mixed opportunistic fisheries which may concentrate directly on weakfish for brief periods of time. Historically, commercial landings have fluctuated greatly; since 1960 catches have ranged between <540 to >7 100 tons with the bulk of these catches being made in the MA—SNE region. Recreational—Anglers take weakfish from boats while trolling, chumming, casting, live bait fishing, jigging, still fishing, and drift fishing, primarily during the warmer months of the year. They also take them from shore while casting, still fishing, live bait fishing, jigging, and chumming (Freeman and Walford 1974a, b,c,d; 1976a, b). Recreational landings have increased dramatically since 1965. Catches, as indicated by marine angling surveys, were 1 030, 7 100, and 9 140 tons for 1965, 1970, and 1974 respectively (Deuel and Clark 1968; Deuel 1973; Deuel, pers. comm.). Numbers of anglers participating in this fishery have increased from a little less than 200 000 in 1965 to over 500 000 in 1974 (Deuel and Clark 1968; Deuel, pers. comm.).
Allocation Conflicts
At present, weakfish are not being managed on a total range basis, with only historical, localized size limits prevailing. However, both regional and state-federal management groups appear to be interested, perhaps based on external political pressures, in attempting to manage weakfish stocks owing to recent declines in catches and the new found dependence on the species by both commercial and recreational users.
If deemed necessary, the allocation of this resource will become a major issue in the formulation and enactment of management pertinent to this species. Based on life history aspects of the species, primarily spawning habits, recreational fishermen and commercial gill netters, purse seiners, and pelagic and otter trawlers direct their fisheries to pre-spawning, spawning, and post-spawning areas (i.e., along beaches, in the mouths of inlets, and in larger estuaries) where large schools of adult weakfish congregate during late spring and early summer.
Recently, heated space conflicts have cropped up between private- and party-boat recreational fishermen and gill netters (stationary) who simultaneously exploit large concentrations of spawning fish in the shallow estuaries of the Long Island area of New York. Similar conflicts have taken place between New Jersey and Del-aware private-, party- and charter-boat fishermen and commercial pelagic trawlers and purse seiners who simultaneously fish large concentrations of spent fish which congregate in the shoal waters at the mouth of Delaware Bay during early summer.
Seasonal conflicts potentially could arise between the aforementioned spring-fall inshore fisheries and the offshore winter trawl fishery if either fishery dramatically increased effort creating a decreased availability to the other harvesting element.
Silver Hake
Background
Distribution: Eastern North America from Newfoundland south to South Carolina; most abundant between Cape Sable, Nova Scotia and southern New Jersey (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Leim and Scott 1966). Movements and Migrations: On GB and in the GOM, they migrate seasonally and generally inhabit shoal waters <90m during summer and fall and deeper offshore waters sometimes >600 m, in winter and spring. In the MA—SNE area they winter inshore and progressively move offshore and to the east during warmer months. Reproduction: Spawning occurs from May to November with peak activity in July and August in the GOM and in June and July in more southerly areas (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Sauskan and Serebryakov 1968; Fahay 1974). Management Units: Three units are defined for management purposes: GOM, GB, and MA—SNE (Anderson et al. 1980). Meristic, tagging, growth, physiological, and distribution studies appear to support this separation to some degree (Fritz 1959, 1962, 1963; Conover et al. 1961; Konstantinov and Noskov 1969; Nichy 1969).
Fisheries
Commercial—The fishery is made up of three distinct fisheries based on area, season, and fishing modes: GOM, fished primarily in the summer and early fall by small trawlers which make one to three day trips; GB, fished by large New England based trawlers which make seven- to ten-day trips during summer; and MA—SNE, fished by small boats which make short trips during spring through fall with the peak effort during the spring spawning period. In addition, there also exists a total allowable foreign allocation for silver hake. Under the present allocation scheme, foreign fishing is permitted in selected offshore areas (windows) during winter and spring. This fishery is restricted seasonally and areally to avoid direct conflicts with other fisheries such as summer flounder and scup which could be affected by large by-catches. Furthermore, the distribution of offshore lobster pots restricts open areas for foreign trawlers which employ large demersal and pelagic trawls. Recreational—The fishery is concentrated in the MA—SNE area. In terms of catch, it takes a relatively small amount compared to the combined U.S. and distant water fleet commercial fisheries. Fishing takes place during winter and spring from party- and private-boats, and in selected areas from shore. It is worth nothing that some of the long piers along the New Jersey coast are used extensively at this time of year specifically for silver hake fishing (Freeman and Walford 1974c). The importance of this recreational fishery is underrated if one only examines total catch values. In reality, the availability of silver hake to the recreational fishery occurs at a time of year when other recreational species, i.e., fluke, bluefish, weakfish, and scup, are not available and therefore, the party-boat fleets and related industries depend primarily on silver hake for their major source of revenue. The recreational catch averages about 3 000 tons in the MA—SNE area compared with a U.S. commercial catch of approximately 10 000 tons. During the peak period of distant water fleet activity, catches in this area exceeded 66 000 tons.
Allocation Conflicts
Presently, there are no recreational-commercial conflicts relative to silver hake in either the GOM or GB areas since recreational fishermen do not actively pursue the species. However, the impact of commercial silver hake smallmesh fisheries on young cod and haddock is an interactive factor that affects both the recreational and commercial fishermen who desire those species. At present levels of domestic harvest, there appear to be no conflicts among U.S. fishermen in the MA—SNE area. With expanding recreational fishing pressure, it is not unreasonable to expect, during some time in the foreseeable future, that silver hake will support as important a recreational fishery in the GOM as it does presently in the MA—SNE area.
In the past, the greatest conflict associated with this fishery has not been among U.S. fishermen, but with the distant water fleets, who took as by-catch appreciable amounts of scup and summer flounder, while directly pursuing silver hake. At present, this large by-catch has been greatly reduced with the restrictions placed on foreign fishing.
Red Hake
Background
Distribution: Entire length of the continental shelf from southern Nova Scotia to North Carolina with some as far north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence; most abundant between southwest part of GB and New Jersey (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Leim and Scott 1966; Musick 1974). Movements and Migrations: Generally found both inshore and offshore during fall; however, in the winter and early spring they aggregate in deeper offshore areas. The exception to this pattern is the large numbers of red hake which are found inshore during winter off New York and New Jersey in the MA—SNE area; these fish progressively move offshore with the advent of spring warming. In the late spring, mature fish migrate to the inshore waters of the GOM and MA—SNE areas. Reproduction: Spawning begins in May and lasts to early June in the GOM, with a peak in that area occurring about mid-July. Spawning continues into midsummer or early autumn in Canadian waters (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Leim and Scott 1966; Fairbanks et al. 1971). Management Units: Based on morphometric and meristic studies, Rikhter (1970) identified two discrete stocks, the first inhabiting the southern and southwestern parts of GB and the second extending southwesterly from Cape Cod. Anderson (1974) found evidence based on bottom trawl survey data for three stocks, one inhabiting the northern portion of GB and the GOM, one inhabiting the southern and southwestern parts of GB, and a third extending from Cape Cod southwest to Hudson Canyon. However, he concluded that in the absence of more definitive evidence, three stocks should be delineated for stock assessment purposes: GOM, GB, and MA—SNE.
Fisheries
Commercial—Prior to 1963, there was no directed fishery for red hake on GB. Occasionally, red hake were taken by U.S. vessels as bycatches; however, these were minimal. During the peak period of distant water fleet fishing, in the late 1960's and early 1970's, the catches of red hake became significant, reaching peaks of over 50 000 tons. With the institution of extended jurisdiction by the U.S. and Canada on GB, the fishery dropped back to a minimal bycatch level. There is no recreational fishery on this stock (Almeida et al. 1979). In the MA—SNE area there has long been a U.S. mixed trawl fishery, primarily for industrial purposes, of which red hake has been a major component. The peak of this fishery reached almost 33 000 tons during the 1970's. In the 1960's and early 1970's, the distant water fleets raised the total catch in this area above 50 000 tons. Since the advent of extended jurisdiction, the distant water fleet fishery essentially ceased to exist. The U.S. fishery continues to operate taking a little over 4 000 tons as part of a mixed trawl fishery. Recreational—The fishery in the MA—SNE area has been estimated to be approximately 500 tons per year (Anderson and Almeida, 1978). However, these small catches do not mean that red hake is not a desired species. In the winter-early spring silver hake fishery in the MA—SNE area, red hake are a desired ancillary catch and fishermen consider themselves lucky to include several of this species amongst their larger expected catch of silver hake.
Allocation Conflicts
To date, the present magnitude of U.S. commercial and recreational catches is such that no conflicts exist; however, during the time of peak catches by the distant water fleets considerably conflict existed between the U.S. fishermen fishing inshore and the distant water fleets which harvested fish offshore prior to their migration to inshore grounds.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Hopefully, this review document clearly illustrates that several of the major fishery resources found off the northeastern coast of the U.S. are shared by a variety of diversified user groups. These include commercial fishermen who compete with each other through the use of different gear or vessel types, or by fishing during different seasons of the year or in different areas. Also among this group of users is an ever increasing multitude of recreational fishermen consisting of shore based anglers as well as those who fish from small rowed or outboard powered boats, large party-boats, which often carry 50–100 people, or more modest mid-sized vessels, which are either chartered or privately owned.
To date, allocation decisions have tended to follow certain compromise lines, generally weighted towards the views of the smaller but more numerous harvesters, be they recreational or commercial. In straight recreational-commercial conflicts, such as for space in nearshore areas where the greatest number of recreational fishermen are found, recreational interests have usually been considered paramount. During recent years, resource assessment methods have produced annual estimates of surplus production for many stocks which, in conjunction with information relative to mortality rates, have enabled the establishment of maximum catch levels for management purposes. Managers have then proceeded to allocate these resources to recreational components as well as to differing commercial interests. This procedure tends to be objectionable to recreational fishermen, who, for the most part, believe a larger stock size will directly affect their individual and collective catch-per-unit-effort. To date, research has not documented this relationship nor have the socio-economic studies been completed to consider the relative impact of management based on a stock size necessary to sustain a particular catch-per-unit-effort. There is also the question of individual fish size; commercial fishing has often been directed to smaller sizes, which, at least in theory, maximizes yield in the market place. This is often a size at which maximum yield can be obtained; however, some recreationists as well as hook and line commercial fishermen object based on their preference for larger size fish. Finally, there is the controversy over the role of forage species, some of which are desired by certain domestic and foreign commercial fishermen, while other commercial and recreational interests prefer to have reduced harvest based on their role as prey for what they feel are more desirable species. Information at this level is very imprecise. It is obvious that species such as squids are important components of the diet of many large predators; however, squid also prey on larval and juvenile fish and in reality extremely large abundance levels of these species might be counter-productive. At the present state of our knowledge concerning predator-prey relationships, the most advisable criteria would be to maintain these resources well within historic bounds. Extremely low abundance levels would tend to move towards a more unpredictable situation. Fishing effort could be shifted moderately, without greatly changing the observed historic situations, prior to the obtaining of more adequate scientific information.
In the immediate future, certain politically or biologically motivated allocation decisions will have to be made. These decisions should be made utilizing the best information available in terms of what is actually happening in the fisheries and the ensuing effect on the resources, so that allocation judgments, which are made to achieve desired social goals within biological constraints, will have the greatest chance of success with a minimal amount of disruptions. As the most obvious conflicts over space or immediate gear competition occur, gear-area restrictions might be a logical consideration for resolving conflicts, as long as general restrictions prohibit excessive increases in total mortality. However, it must be realized that present allocations of areas, where implemented, have often been severely restrictive. Therefore, such regulations need to be robust with a view towards present use patterns and continual monitoring of the effects. That is, essentially a response-surface-fitting approach is suggested, with regulations only deviating modestly from present conditions, effects being closely monitored and regulations correspondingly adjusted to demonstrate their effectiveness to user groups on a real-time basis. The greatest problem in establishing allocations along these lines is gaining the mutual acceptance of directly or indirectly competing user groups. Therefore, short-term effects of small management changes need to be continually estimated, not only from an impact standpoint, but also to establish public acceptance of their effectiveness and underlying principles.
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