Annex I
SUMMARY REPORT OF THE MISSION'S VISIT TO COUNTRIES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION (Contd.)

T U N I S I A

The study of the marine aquaculture potential in Tunisia was carried out 6–12 February 1979 by D. Charbonnier, H. Cook, M. Girin, J. Glude and M. Zei.

1. SUPPLY AND DEMAND

1.1 Supply of fisheries products

The Tunisian fishing industry has expanded rapidly over the last 20 years and annual catches at present are more than four times those registered in the mid-fifties. The catch of small pelagic species has increased greatly, while the catch of demersal species has remained nearly stable. All the production is utilized for human consumption and most of it is consumed fresh on the local market.

According to FAO statistics, the total catches in 1977 were 38 441 t. Imports, consisting almost entirely of frozen tuna, amounted to 1 300 t and were valued at U.S.$ 1.41 million in 1974. In the same year, exports of fish and edible products were 3 200 t, valued at U.S.$ 5.13 million.

1.2 Supply of species with aquaculture potential

Landings in 1977 included 136 t of eels, 220 t of sole, 193 t of gilthead sea bream, 288 t of sea bass, 1 312 t of mullet, 855 t of shrimp, 20 t of oysters and 100 t of mussels. The landing of these species (3 124 t) was about 8 percent of the total fisheries landings in Tunisia. Landing of cultivable species has remained relatively stable during the last decade.

1.3 Estimated demand

The fishing industry has been making an increasingly important contribution to the Tunisian economy. Fish production has expanded at a much more rapid rate than agricultural output and with the population increasing at 2.7 percent/year fisheries now play a vital role in providing animal protein in the Tunisian diet. Fish consumption per caput has increased from less than 4 kg in 1970 to over 7 kg in 1974. Given the wide-spread consumer acceptance of fish and the currently low level of animal protein intake, prospects for further increase in general demand for fishery products are good.

As the supply of cultivable fish is small in relation to the total supply of fishery products, prospects for an increase in demand for these species appear to be good. As income increases, there may be a tendency for people to turn to the more highly-prized fish, if they are available. An additional factor affecting demand is that generally, the majority of the population prefer marine to freshwater species.

Current demand for oysters is reported to be about 15 000 dozen, or about 15–20 tons. Domestic production, mostly from aquaculture, satisfies this demand and the potential for expansion of domestic demand appears limited. Export of oysters has been hampered by the lack of marketing agreements with potential buyers in France and Spain.

The demand for mussels is estimated at 100 t; prices vary between T.Din. 0.25 and T.Din. 0.30/kg.¹ Domestic production, mostly from aquaculture, satisfies the current demand, but potential for expansion of the domestic market is limited. There is a high demand for mussels in Italy in November, but the Lake Bizerte mussels are not in a marketable condition at that time of the year.

The entire clam (Tapes decussatus) production is through extraction, but data on total production are not available. Domestic demand for this species is high, as clams are the only molluscs consumed by a large selection of the population. The export market in France and Italy is excellent, and about 150–160 t produced in Lake Bizerte are exported to France at a price of T.Din. 0.55–0.65/kg.

According to Mr. Zaouali, Director of Office National des Pêches (ONP), there is a large unsatisfied demand for fish raised in aquaculture systems, which sell at relatively high prices and, in addition, there is no danger of over-production during the next decade as the export market for such products is quite favourable in Europe. This evaluation also applies to clams, as there is a good domestic market and an excellent export demand. While the present oyster and mussel production can satisfy the domestic demand, the development of export markets for these molluscs will depend on commercial arrangements with French companies.

¹ T.Din. 0.4 = approx. U.S.$ 1.00

2. STATE OF AQUACULTURE

2.1 Commercial ventures

There are four lagoons in Tunisia where weirs (bordigues or lavorieri) are used to retain fish in the lagoons and trap them when they attempt to migrate to the sea. The bordigues are barriers of wire mesh screen, with one or more traps, and so designed to allow the entry of small fish into the lagoons and to direct large fish, which usually swim against the current, into small chambers with narrow entrances. The entrance is at the centre of the chamber so that the fish, trapped within the chamber and trying to escape by swimming along the walls, will not find the entrance. Fish are collected from the chamber by hand nets at intervals. In Tunisia, the bordigues are designed to trap fish during both ebb and flood tides.

The following four lagoons have “bordigue” installations: Lake Ischkeul (12 000 ha), Lake Tunis (5 000 ha), Lake Biban (30 000 ha), and Lake Monastir (38 ha). The bordigues are operated by ONP, which permits fishermen to fish in the larger lagoons for a fee.

Average production in lagoons, based on landings made in 1970, 1972, 1974, 1975 and 1978, and average prices, as reported by ONP for 1978, are as follows:

Lake Bizerte (15 000 ha) is used almost exclusively by ONP for the culture of oysters and mussels. The industry is based on growing the Pacific or Japanese oyster (Crassostrea gigas) and the mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), using methods similar to those at Etang de Thau in southern France. Juvenile oysters, 18 months old and about 5 cm in diameter, are purchased from Arcachon, France at a cost of T.Din. 0.65/kg. They are raised for nine months to about 10 cm in size and are then sold in the home market. Mussels are grown from spat obtained in Lake Bizerte. ONP estimates that production of oysters could be increased by a factor of ten if there were a market.

2.2 Current research and development activities

The Institut National Scientifique et Technique d'Oceanographie et de Pêche (INSTOP) has the responsibility for conducting research aimed at aquaculture development.

At Gahr el Mehl, INSTOP operates an experimental hatchery for sea bass, sea bream, sole and shrimp (Penaeus kerathurus). The hatchery is simple, but practical, and the culture experiments conducted so far have been fairly successful. In 1978, the facility produced 8 000 sea bream and 50 000 sea bass juveniles, and 25 000 post-larval shrimp. (Pumped sea water is supplied to three existing earthen ponds).

INSTOP is also conducting research in four earthen ponds at El Akharit, which is located near Gabes. The ponds, each 80 m × 80 m, are supplied with water at a temperature of 27°C and salinity of 8–11 ppt from an artesian well with a flow rate of 15–20 1/s. This well is one of a large number drilled in this part of Tunisia, for irrigation purposes, but abandoned because of the high salt content of the water. Some of these wells are reported to have flow rates of over 115 1/s.

In one experiment conducted at El Akharit, 3 000 five-month old mullet and seabass were placed in one pond and grown for 16 months. The mullet were fed starter feed for chickens, costing T.Din. 0.06/kg. The sea bass were thought to grow on a wild population of Cyprinodonts, which were established in the pond. At the end of the growing period, the sea bass attained an average weight of 420 g, considerably higher than that obtained in similar experiments at Gahr el Melh. In this experiment, Mugil labrosus grew from an average of 7 g to a maximum size of 1 200 g. M. cephalus grew to a maximum of 800 g and M. capito were slightly smaller. No data were available concerning total production or cost.

ONP is operating a research and development facility in Lake Monastir near Khenis. Four ponds, 2.5 m deep and 0.5 ha in area, have been built and there are plans for the construction of a further eight. The ponds have no water gates but due to the relatively large mesh screens installed, water flows into each freely. The ponds were dug with a dredge at a cost of about T.Din. 28 000 (U.S.$ 70 000)/0.5 ha pond.

The ponds are used to grow sea bass and mullet. The fish are fed kitchen wastes from a local school in the winter, and offal from sardine plants in the summer. One of the ponds was stocked with 80 000 mullet of five species at a size of 70 g. The large stocking size is considered necessary because there is no predator control, and mortality is very high if smaller fish are stocked. In one year, the mullet grew to an average size of 300 g; Mugil labrosus was the fastest growing species. In another pond, where 30 000 one-year old sea bass were stocked, fish grew to a size of 300–400 g in one year and a total of 2 400 kg was harvested. No information is available on the profitability of the operation.

2.3 Institutional factors

ONP has control of all fisheries activities in the coastal lagoons. There are provisions for joint ventures between ONP and private companies, as well as for private fish farms. Private fish farmers, however, might have difficulty in obtaining sites with suitable land and water. ONP has plans for increasing fish production through aquaculture, the legal authority to do so, and the funds required. There is a high probability that the results of research carried out by INSTOP would be applied rapidly by ONP.

It appears that private aquaculture could commence by applying the results of the INSTOP experiments using warm brackish water from artesian wells. The area to be utilized for this purpose would not include coastal waters which are under the control of ONP. Such a line of action would probably require re-establishment of the Government loan programme, which was terminated some time ago pending development of aquaculture technology to a point where profitability could be demonstrated. Tunisia has three feed plants and two fish meal factories which could probably produce feeds required for aquaculture.

3. POTENTIAL FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Crustaceans

At present, there is a good potential for growing shrimp in polyculture with mullet. There is also a good longer-term potential for growing shrimp in intensive, controlled environment systems, but this is dependent on the development and testing of new technology and should receive a low priority for the time being.

3.2 Molluscs

Technically, there is a good potential for increasing production of oysters and mussels, but the demand in Tunisia is limited. Any increase in production, therefore, would depend on the development of the domestic market or better arrangements for export to Europe. In contrast, there is a good demand for clams, both in the home market and for export. Methods for culture of clams are being developed in various parts of the world. It will be possible in the future to increase production by planting small clams grown in hatcheries. Developments in clam culture in France and Spain may have particular significance for Tunisia over the next few years.

3.3 Fish

There are a number of ways that fish culture methods now in use could be improved, particularly in lagoons. The present system, which entails more trapping than culture, could be upgraded by growing the small fish that enter the lagoons to a larger size before harvesting. This could be accomplished by applying the “valli” culture techniques that have been developed in Italy. A second approach would be to follow the recommendations proposed by Sivalingham (1976) that the mesh size of the screens on the lagoon side of the traps of the bordigues be increased to allow small-sized fish to return to the lagoons.

There is a very good potential in Tunisia for the culture of sea bass, mullet, sea bream, sole and eel in pond systems. The principal needs are for a dependable supply of both seed stock and feed.

4. PROGRAMMES NEEDED TO EXPAND AQUACULTURE

4.1 Limiting factors

The main limiting factors for fish and shrimp culture are: (i) a lack of seed for stocking; (ii) pond and intensive (controlled environment) methods of culture to replace the low yielding lagoon culture; and (iii) feed.

The limited demand for oysters and mussels in Tunisia will restrict the expansion of shellfish culture in Lake Bizerte. The high cost of young oysters imported from France for growing in Lake Bizerte also limits the profitability of oyster culture.

4.2 General programme requirements

To ensure adequate supplies of fry required for an expanded programme of aquaculture, it will be necessary to undertake the collection of small fish from the wild; this is especially true for mullet because the technology for mullet hatcheries is not well developed and systematic surveys should be conducted to determine the best locations for collection, as well as the times of peak abundance of the various species of mullet. Fishermen must be trained in collection methods. A nursery or holding facility must be also established to acclimatize and retain captured fish until time of shipment to the farms. The second requirement is to expand seed production in hatcheries. This can be accomplished by integrating advanced technology, developed elsewhere, into the procedure used at present at the INSTOP experimental hatchery and, at a later stage, to build one or more production-scale hatcheries.

Another major problem is the lack of grow-out technology applicable to ponds in Tunisia. Development in this line will involve improving the existing facilities at El Akharit and Lake Monastir. Improved culture methods developed in other countries should also be tested and applied. These will require appropriate feeds, and local mills should be encouraged to produce rations using diet formulations developed elsewhere. An evaluation of the economics of various systems is needed to determine profitability or to indicate areas where more research is required. All pilot or commercial-scale tests of culture systems should be planned jointly with an economist and adequate records kept to permit economic analysis.

To increase profitability of oyster culture, research and development is needed to test the use of small C. gigas seed oysters instead of larger-sized ones now imported from France. If 3–10 mm diameter spat, attached to scallop shells or synthetic materials can be grown successfully, the economics of oyster culture in Lake Bizerte could be improved. Also, a market development programme to increase sales of oysters and mussels is desirable.

4.3 Recommended projects or actions

4.3.1 Development of the hatchery at Gahr el Melh

The INSTOP experimental hatchery should be expanded and upgraded to incorporate recent advances in technology made in other countries. In addition to larval culture facilities, additional holding facilities for broodstock and nursery tanks are needed. The hatchery should be designed to produce 500 000 sea bass fry, 2 million post-larval shrimp and 100 000 sea bream fry per year. This project should provide design criteria for production-scale hatcheries needed to expand pond culture of various species.

4.3.2 Expansion of INSTOP experimental fish culture in ponds at El Akharit

This facility should be expanded to provide earthen raceways for the intensive culture of sea bass. Such a system of culture should make maximum use of the high water temperature of the artesian wells during the cold winter months.

Ponds for the semi-intensive culture of mullet should be enlarged to 2–4 ha and a “progression” system should be tried. In this type of culture, small fish are stocked at high density and then transferred to larger ponds as they increase in size. Shrimps should be stocked in polyculture with the mullet.

4.3.3 Expansion of pond culture experiments at Lake Monastir

Alternate systems of water management should be tried to control entry of predators into the ponds. Development of simpler ponds is essential if construction costs are to be lowered to a point where fish culture would be profitable. Additional ponds should be constructed using different types of construction to determine costs. Nursery facilities are also needed. The cost-effectiveness of the present diet, using locally available wastes, should be compared with that of standard pellet rations.

4.3.4 Arrangements for a feasibility study of aquaculture at the Bay of Bou Grara

Tests should be conducted to determine the most appropriate type of grow-out facility for fish culture in this bay.

4.3.5 Development of local sources of fish feed

A consultant (nutritionist) should work with Tunisian feed millers to develop fish feed using local ingredients.

4.3.6 Improvement of economics of oyster culture in Lake Bizerte

1. Experiments should be conducted to test growth and survival of small seed oysters from France or from the Trieste area of Italy.

2. Collection of seed of C. gigas and Ostrea edulis, which reportedly reproduce in Lake Bizerte.

Appendix 1

PERSONS INTERVIEWED

Appendix 2

REFERENCES

Edwards, L., 1976 The feasibility of hatchery production of oysters and expansion of oyster farming in Tunisia. A report prepared for the Fishery Survey and Development Project. Rome, FAO, FI: DP TUN/70/533/1:34 p.

FAO, 1976 Fishery country profile: Tunisia. Rome, FAO, FID/CP/TUN. Rev.1:4 p.

FAO, 1978 Yearbook of fishery statistics. Catches and landings, 1977. Yearb.Fish.Stat., (44):328 p.

Pillay, T.V.R., 1971 Report of travel to Tunisia for a rapid survey of lagoon fisheries and aquaculture. FAO Fish.Travel Rep.Aide Mem., (565): 6 p.(mimeo)

Sivalingham, S., 1976 On the possibilities of operating the bordigues during March and April in some Tunisian lagoons and lakes. 10 p.(mimeo)

Sivalingham, S., 1976a Possibilities of increasing fish production from Lake Ischkeul (Tunisia), 16 p.(mimeo)

M A L T A

The study of the marine aquaculture potential in Malta was carried out 21–24 January 1979 by D. Charbonnier, H. Cook and M. Zei.

1. SUPPLY AND DEMAND

1.1 Supply of fisheries products

Approximately 1 200–1 500 t of fish are landed annually in Malta, valued at £M 772 456 (1978).¹ All fresh fish landed is sold by auction, except swordfish, for which the price is regulated at about 95 cents/kg.

Fishery products, valued at £M 1.1 million, are imported annually. In 1975, imports included 156 488 kg of canned, prepared and preserved fish and crustaceans, and 526 142 kg of chilled or smoked fish. Live oysters in the shell on ice are also imported for domestic marketing. Canned mussels are imported from Europe.

The main fishery in Malta is for large pelagic species, such as swordfish and tuna, using longlines. Reportedly, large fish which can be made into steaks with few bones are preferred in Malta. This is a seasonal fishery with greatest production in the early summer months.

1.2 Supply of species with aquaculture potential

Landings of species that might have aquaculture potential include 29.8 t of stone bass (Dicentrarchus punctatus), 3.7 t of common sea bream (Pagrus pagrus), 3.5 t of sargi bream (Diplodus spp.), 3.7 t of mullet and 2.0 t of shrimp. Total landings of these species, 42.7 t, represented about 4 percent of the total landings of fish, 1 064.2 t, for 1978.

1.3 Estimated demand

In general, fish seems to be in short supply in Malta, partially because of the low fishing effort, and additional quantities could certainly be absorbed. Per caput consumption of fresh fish was only 5 kg in 1976. A brief analysis of the market for several species that might have aquaculture potential is as follows:

1.3.1 Stone bass

The wholesale price is mainly affected by landings and shows an elastic demand. That is, if the price drops by a small amount, demand will increase by a proportionately greater amount. This means that increased production can probably be absorbed by the market with only a relatively small drop in prices. Although not grown in aquaculture systems at present, this species is closely related to the sea bass, D. labrax.

¹ £M 0.369 = approx. U.S.$ 1.00

1.3.2 Sargi bream and common sea bream

The price is not significantly affected by landings. The high price is due to the high quality and a resultant high demand by the higher income groups. Price fluctuations must be caused by competition with some other food items (swordfish, beef, rabbit, etc.). The extremely high price of common sea bream would seem to ensure marketability of increased production. Although closely related to gilthead bream (Sparus auratus), these species have not been grown in aquaculture systems.

1.3.3 Mullet

Landings do not significantly affect price. Price variation is probably due to the availability of other low-priced fish or substitute foods. Increased production would have only a small effect on price.

Landings of stone bass and sargi bream are higher from March to May; landings of common bream from January to March. Cultured bass and bream would command premium prices if marketed at other times of the year.

Shrimp landings are erratic and it is not possible to obtain much information about price and demand from the landing statistics. However, it is usually assumed that shrimp is a commodity that commands a high price and can find a ready market.

The Government is attempting the development of a demersal fishery to supply fish in the winter. A company has been formed as a joint venture between Libya and Malta with an investment of £M 3.5 million; it will have 16 trawlers which will fish in both Maltese and Libyan waters. There is no way to determine, at this time, the effect of this venture on future fish landings or prices. Nevertheless, the Government reports that it has already received enquiries from foreign companies concerning the possibility of marketing future fish catches by the new vessels.

2. STATE OF AQUACULTURE

2.1 Commercial ventures

Mussel culture was tried on a small scale at Mistra Bay off St. Paul's Bay from 1974 to 1976. The farm had a surface area of 100 m² and used the hanging method of culture. The mussels had good shell growth, but poor meat. Mussels, transferred to the main harbour near Sliema, fattened rapidly and reached a marketable condition within three weeks. An application to relocate the farm to Sliema and to depurate the product before marketing was rejected by the Department of Health because the water was contaminated by domestic wastes and heavy metals. The Department of Health was concerned that depuration would not clean the mussels sufficiently as there was some evidence of metal, especially copper accumulation in shellfish from that area. There was also concern that the mussels might spawn and start a natural propulation, attracting consumers with the possibility of causing sickness in the community. A big problem of the farm in Mistra Bay was pilferage. At the farm, the mussels reportedly spawned and spat were found but did not establish a self-sustaining population.

There are two small ponds at Marsaskala which are used to grow grey mullet. The ponds are stocked in September with juveniles captured from the wild. Fish to a size of 1 kg are harvested from the ponds in March by the use of a gill net. No information was available on production per unit area or profitability.

2.2 Current research and development activities

Research on aquaculture is not carried out by the Fisheries Department.

Aquaculture research is carried out primarily by the Old University at the Fort Saint Lucian Marine Station. This station has electricity, fresh water and an adequate seawater supply with a constant salinity of 37.5 ppt. The station has adequate space for laboraties, hatcheries, holding tanks and even for small intensive culture units. Research is limited due to manpower shortage; the University has only two professors, whose main duties are teaching, one part-time research assistant, and two research technicians.

The main thrust of research by the University has been on oyster (Ostrea edulis and Crassostrea gigas) culture. No commercial species of oysters occur naturally in Malta and spat for the growing trials comes from Great Britain. Oysters were grown at three sites: St. Paul's Bay, Grand Harbour and Marsoxlokk Bay. The oysters were held in suspended cages 3 m and 8 m from the bottom and grew best at 3 m from the bottom at Marsoxlokk Bay. However, after 18–19 months, only five percent of the oysters reached marketable size. This research is scheduled to continue for at least another year. The Old University also has a small project to conduct research on nutrition of grey mullet (Mugil cephalus).

From 1968 to 1973, the Development Corporation of Malta conducted mussel and oyster culture in Rinella Harbour in a 30 m × 9 m test area managed by an Italian consultant with seed imported from Italy. The activities were suspended after the loss of culture facilities as a result of rough seas.

The brine shrimp (Artemia salina) grows in salt pans at Salina, but reportedly bear live young instead of producing cysts.

2.3 Institutional factors

The Government encourages aquaculture, as evidenced by the activities of the Development Corporation. A company wanting to start a new aquaculture business can obtain various types of assistance, such as grants, low-interest loans and “tax holidays”.

3. POTENTIAL FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Crustaceans

There is potential for the culture of penaeid shrimp in intensive systems. There are sufficient low-lying, level areas to conduct intensive, off-shore culture, whether in earthen ponds or raceways, using pumped water. Suitable sites were observed near St. Thomas Bay, Marsaskala Bay, Salina Bay and along several stretches between St. George's Bay and Salina Bay. Climatic conditions are favourable for growth most of the year.

3.2 Molluscs

The sea around Malta is low in primary productivity and consequently shellfish culture has been unsuccessful except in a few places where pollution is high, but the Department of Health withholds permission, on sanitary grounds, to grow shellfish in these areas.

There are a few protected bays, but these are subject to competing uses, including urbanization, industrial development and tourism. Boat traffic and swimmers pose a major hazard to development of aquaculture in sheltered waters. In fact, the commercial mussel farm at St. Paul's Bay reportedly suffered extensive losses due to poaching. It is recommended, therefore, that development efforts be shifted from mollusc culture to intensive culture of either fish or penaeid shrimp.

3.3 Fish

There is a limited potential for mullet culture using wild fry to improve utilization of the salt pans at Salina. There is a good potential for growing fish, such as the sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus auratus) in ponds.

4. PROGRAMMES NEEDED TO EXPAND AQUACULTURE

4.1 Limiting factors

As discussed in the previous section, suitable sites for many types of aquaculture are limited. A major impediment to the development of mariculture is the lack of technical experts who could train potential fish and shrimp farmers.

4.2 General programme requirements

If a decision is made to develop aquaculture in Malta, additional technicians will be needed to support the scientists at the Old University.

4.3 Recommended projects or actions

4.3.1 Mullet

The development of mullet culture is restricted by a lack of suitable sites and the relatively low price of mullet. It should be possible, however, to grow mullet in the salt pans at Salina at a minimum cost. The salt pans are operated for salt production only from April through early September. It is suggested, therefore, that undersized mullet be cultured to marketable size in the salt pans from September through March, as is done at Marsaskala; this would require flooding the pans to a depth of 60 cm to 1 m. An engineering consultant would be needed to specify required modifications to the pond system and a fish culturist to determine the most appropriate management techniques.

4.3.2 Pond culture of sea bass, sea bream and shrimp

This is the type of culture that has the greatest potential for development in Malta. A two-thrust approach is advisable: commercial development and university research. Although the Mission did not see the plans, there is a proposal to develop aquaculture in the two outer ponds of the salt pans at Salina and this appears to have merit. The feasibility of growing imported seed to market size under Maltese conditions could be ascertained if this proposal is implemented.

Research at Fort Saint Lucian Laboratory should be strengthened and investigations carried out to adapt the advanced aquaculture technology that exists in other Mediterranean countries to the environment of Malta.

The following activities would support the future development of shrimp culture at Salina and also lead to possible future investments in fish culture:

1. maturation and spawning of brood stock shrimp, sea bass and sea bream in captivity;
2. hatchery technology for shrimp, sea bass and sea bream; and

3. grow-out of sea bream and sea bass in flow-through ponds or raceways.

Appendix 1

PERSONS INTERVIEWED

L I B Y A

The study of the marine aquaculture potential in Libya was carried out 17–21 January 1979 by D. Charbonnier, H. Cook and M. Zei.

1. SUPPLY AND DEMAND

1.1 Supply of fisheries products

As a result of the growth in population, its greater concentration in coastal cities and the greatly increased purchasing power as a consequence of the oil industry, demand for fish has expanded immensely. Prices are controlled by the Government and have remained relatively stable.

The annual catch in Libya has decreased in recent years. The domestic catch from 1968 to 1971 was above 5 000 tons. In 1976, it was only 3 067 t, in spite of the fact that Libyan nationals have become boat owners with their vessels manned by foreign crews. In an effort to increase production, Libya is entering into a joint venture with Malta to form a company using 16 trawlers.

Domestically-produced supplies of fish are supplemented by imports, mostly canned sardines and tuna, varying between 1 000 and 2 000 t (round weight) per year.

1.2 Estimated demand for species with aquaculture potential

In general, fish are scarce, in high demand and the price is high. Sea bass are valued at L.Din. 2–3 to the fishermen, sea bream L.Din 1.50, and mullet L.Din 1.00.¹

¹ L.Din. 0.296 = approx. U.S.$ 1.00

2. STATE OF AQUACULTURE

2.1 Commercial ventures

There is no mariculture in Libya at the present time.

2.2 Current research and development activities

There is no aquaculture research in Libya. Aquaculture development is the responsibility of the Council for Food Affairs and Marine Wealth, which deals with marine fishing. Within the Council there is an officer, with two assistants, responsible for Aquaculture Development. His main activities have been planning, and foreign consultants were employed to formulate development plans for aquaculture.

Carp and tilapia have been stocked in two freshwater lakes (150 and 300 ha), and a Unesco consultant was employed to advise on a problem with cestode parasites in the stocked fish. The Government would like to establish a freshwater fish hatchery to restock the lakes periodically.

A French consulting firm, Aquaservice, prepared a plan to develop a large brackishwater spring located at Ain el Zaiana near Benghazi. The aquaculture portion of the plan is part of a larger scheme to prevent salt water penetration into the fresh groundwater which supplies Benghazi with drinking water. The plan calls for a dike to be built around a small existing lagoon, 1–3 m deep, and a large spring with water of 16 ppt salinity and 22°C. The diked area would be 70 ha and the depth would be increased by 3.5 m. The pond would then be used for extensive culture of fish. Adjacent to the pond would be a series of ponds for intensive and semi-intensive culture of mullet and possibly other species. There would also be a hatchery. Effluent from sewage treatment in Benghazi would be channelled to the ponds. No action has yet been taken to implement this plan.

The Whitefish Authority of the United Kingdom, under contract with the Government of Libya, will make a one-year study of seven possible aquaculture sites and then recommend a plan for development. The study will include a survey to determine the abundance of wild fry of aquaculture species.

3. POTENTIAL FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The Mission visited three sites: (i) the Gulf of Faroua near Zouara, which appeared favourable for the cage culture of marine fish which the Government hopes to develop; (ii) the spring at Ain el Zaiana, which has potential for many types of culture; and (iii) the old harbour in Benghazi. The limited water circulation and rich growth of phytoplankton in the harbour indicated that there might be problems of low dissolved oxygen at times. Any pre-development study should include an analysis of water exchange and circulation within the bay, as well as the seasonal primary productivity to evaluate the possibility of eutrophication.

From the few sites visited, the Mission concluded that there is potential for development of a significant aquaculture industry in the coastal waters of the country.

4. PROGRAMMES NEEDED TO EXPAND AQUACULTURE

4.1 Limiting factors

The main factors limiting development of aquaculture are a lack of trained persons to implement development activities, and a lack of research capability to test the adaption to Libyan conditions of technology developed elsewhere.

4.2 General programme requirements

Planning, based on detailed investigations, is a sound policy. Pilot-scale experiments are needed to ascertain the feasibility of mariculture techniques under Libyan conditions before starting large-scale developments.

A major need is to train personnel to staff projects which are scheduled to begin within two or three years. The Government should initiate the training of four or five aquaculture biologists, as there are only three people assigned to aquaculture work in the whole country at the present time, and this small staff could not assume responsibility for such training. Instruction in practical fish culture technology could be undertaken later through the Mediterranean Regional Aquaculture Project.

There is also a need for a small research unit which could conduct pilot tests of technology developed elsewhere and also act as a training/extension centre.

4.3 Recommended projects or actions

1. Development of a National Action Plan for culture of marine species and detailed plans for specific projects in coordination with consultant firms now assisting the country in aquaculture planning.

2. Training of four or five Libyan students in aquaculture sciences.

3. Constructing and staffing a facility to adapt aquaculture technology developed elsewhere to Libyan conditions and to provide training in practical fish culture.

4. Conducting feasibility studies of fish culture using water from the spring at Ain el Zaiana, including tests with sea bass and sea bream in floating cages to determine survival and growth.

Appendix 1

PERSONS INTERVIEWED

THE ARAB REPUBLIC OF
E G Y P T

The study of the marine aquaculture potential in The Arab Republic of Egypt was carried out 24–30 October 1978 by H. Cook, M. Girin, J. Glude and M. Zei.

1. SUPPLY AND DEMAND

1.1 Supply of fisheries products

The total Egyptian fishery production from the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent lagoons was about 7 000 t in 1977. Annual consumption, including imports, is about 3.8 kg per caput.

1.2 Supply of species with aquaculture potential

Total landings include about 100 t of gilthead bream, 1 600 t of mullet, 50 t of sea bass, 1 600 t of shrimp, and 200 t of eels. Production from aquaculture is estimated to be about 100 t of gilthead bream, 1 000 t of mullet, 20 t of sea bass, and 200 t of eels.

1.3 Estimated demand

Studies of food production perspectives indicate that the demand for fish in Egypt may double before 1985 because of the anticipated rapid growth in population and a moderate increase in per caput consumption. The demand varies among species and locations; there is a good demand for sea bass and sea bream, eel and shrimp in certain coastal areas and in inland population centres, and this could expand considerably if these species were available consistently.¹ The demand for mullet is high over a wide geographical area, but the supply is limited. It appears that the market could absorb a considerably larger production of mullet without a serious decrease in price. In contrast, the demand for molluscs is low.

In general, fish supplies are not meeting the present demand and this situation will become worse as the population expands. Increased production of mullet, sea bass and sea bream by aquaculture would help to alleviate this shortage. Neal (1977) states that nearly 1 600 ha of fish ponds must be developed each year to meet the rising demand for fish in Egypt.

¹ The manager of the Northern Fish Company estimated that the demand for fish in Port Said exceeded 50 t/day, but the supply is only about 30 t/day.

2. STATE OF AQUACULTURE

2.1 Commercial ventures

Fish culture in fresh, brackish or salt water areas occupies about 2 500 ha, producing mullet, sea bass, sea bream, sole, eel, carp, tilapia, catfish and other species. Traditional culture methods include fenced enclosures (howash) in coastal lagoons and lakes, and seepage water ponds and village farms, using small bodies of water near irrigation canals. Modern pond culture of mullet, tilapia and carp will be demonstrated in the new fish farms being established near El Zawyia and Abbassa. There is little or no private pond culture of marine fish at present.

2.2 Current research and development activities

The Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, Cairo, established in 1971, is the body responsible for science and technology in the country. Within the Academy, the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries undertakes research on the conservation of fishery resources and their development, as well as the establishment of fish farms under governmental or private auspices. The Mediterranean Sea Branch at Alexandria and the Inland-Waters Fisheries and Fish Culture Branch at Cairo are concerned with aquaculture.

The Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries also operates the El Mex facility for collecting mullet fry and proposes to develop extension services for fish farmers. The Institute is also designing a brackishwater fish farm near Port Said and may also build a mullet hatchery at Lake Manzala.

The Ministry of Agriculture (through its sub-Ministry of Aquatic Resources) has a joint project with USAID to build and operate a “National Aquaculture Research and Demonstration Centre” at Abbassa, including a mullet hatchery and training facilities at a cost of U.S.$ 35–45 million. The purpose of this Centre is to train individuals who can start their own fish farms with technical and financial assistance from the Government. The Institute will be responsible for research to be carried out under the Abbassa project.

Under a project sponsored by the Ministry, FAO is assisting in the establishment of a 450 ha pilot fish farm in El Zawyia in an area unsuitable for aquaculture due to saline soil. Mullet, carp and tilapia will be cultured in the farm to obtain essential technical and economic data for a large investment project under consideration by the World Bank.

2.3 Institutional factors

The sub-Ministry of Aquatic Resources of the Ministry of Agriculture is the principal government agency for policy and coordination of fisheries and aquaculture, and it attaches a high priority to aquaculture as a means of increasing fish production.

Aquaculture research, extension and training, are also responsibilities of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries. The professional qualifications of the staff members are high, but the Institute is understaffed. Its present staff, budget and facilities are inadequate to cope with the increased demands for research and extension activities required to accelerate fish farming.

3. POTENTIAL FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Crustaceans

Although nine species of shrimp reportedly occur in the eastern part of the Mediterranean, the commercial culture of the major species of Penaeus and Metapenaeus has not yet been tried. Apparently there are few areas suitable for shrimp culture in Egypt. The Mission, therefore, felt that there was little opportunity for aquaculture of shrimp at the present time, although this situation could change with advances in intensive culture technology.

3.2 Molluscs

There is limited demand for molluscs in Egypt and also limited potential for that culture. Most of the shallow bays along the Nile Delta are unsatisfactory for large-scale production of oysters, clams or mussels because of the low salinity and shallow water.

3.3 Fish

The present study included only those species that live in sea water for part or all of their lives; the major species included the sea bream (Sparus), sea bass (Dicentrarchus), and the mullet (Mugil).

3.3.1 Sea bream

The technology for rearing sea bream has not reached the stage where commercial farming, based on hatchery-reared fry, can be recommended. Therefore, the Mission felt that the opportunity for aquaculture of sea bream in the country is less than that for mullet or for fresh water species (such as tilapia or carp) at the present time. With improvements in the technology for rearing larvae of sea bream however, commercial farming of this species may become possible.

3.3.2 Sea bass

There is a good demand for sea bass in certain coastal areas and in the larger cities. The technology for artificial propagation of sea bass, while more advanced than for sea bream, is still not sufficiently developed for large-scale application. The Mission, therefore, felt that aquaculture of sea bass should receive only low priority consideration at the present time.

3.3.3 Mullet

The demand for mullet is high and the supply moderate. It appears that the market could accept a considerably larger production. Methods for rearing mullet from fry to market size are well-known, but hatchery techniques for rearing the larvae have not been perfected. However, there is a good opportunity to collect fry from the wild at El Mex and elsewhere and to supply these to private fish farmers.

It appears that the aquaculture of mullet could expand immediately and could supply significant amounts of high-quality fish for domestic consumption. At least 40 million fry are already being collected and stocked in lagoons or ponds, producing over 1 000 t of mullet per year. Therefore, the Mission placed a high priority on the expansion of mullet culture in the country.

4. PROGRAMMES NEEDED TO EXPAND AQUACULTURE

4.1 Limiting factors

1. Availability of trained fish farmers seems to be the major limiting factor in expanding the aquaculture of mullet in Egypt. The USAID/Egypt Fish Farm Project at Abbassa and the FAO/Egypt Fish Farm Project at El Zawyia have the training of fish farmers as a major objective and when these projects are completed, it is expected that an adequate number of farmers will have received the necessary training.

2. Seed supply will become a limiting factor as mullet farming expands. It is important therefore to make better use of wild fry and eventually to produce mullet fry in hatcheries.

3. There is a general need for biological knowledge of those species now reared in aquaculture systems and even greater need for other species which have aquaculture potential for the future.

4.2 Recommended projects or actions

During a brief survey, the Mission identified several activities that would help the expansion of aquaculture in the country and lead eventually to a sound scientific and practical basis for transfer of technology to fish farmers in other countries bordering the Mediterranean. These are:

4.2.1 Improvement of mullet fry collection from El Mex canal and other locations. There appear to be good opportunities for installing traps which would reduce the stress on the fry during capture.

4.2.2 Improvement of the survival of fry by holding them for one or two days in tanks or raceways at collection sites. During this period, they could be acclimatized to the salinity of the grow-out ponds operated by private fish farmers.

4.2.3 Growing some of the mullet fry to fingerling size (about 400–500/kg) in nursery ponds in Government fish farms, for sale to private fish farmers.

4.2.4 If mullet farming expands as expected: establishment of hatchery production of mullet fry. The USAID/Egypt project has plans for mullet hatcheries.

4.2.5 When methods for propagation of mullet larvae have been developed: use of hatchery facilities for demonstration and for training fish culture specialists from other Mediterranean countries.

4.2.6 Conduct tests to determine the applicability in the country of methods developed elsewhere for hatching and rearing sea bass, sea bream and later, shrimp. These studies might be conducted at the new mullet hatchery proposed for construction west of Port Said at the entrance to Bahra el Manzala or added to the programme of the National Aquaculture Centre to be built at Abbassa.

Appendix 1

PERSONS INTERVIEWED

Appendix 2

REFERENCES

Arab Republic of Egypt, 1976 The Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, Cairo, December 1976, 149 p.

Eisawy, A. and A. El-Bolock, 1975 Status of aquaculture in the Arab Republic of Egypt. CIFA Tech. Pap., (4) Suppl. 1:5–15

Neal, R., et al., 1977 Egyptian aquaculture feasibility report. Prepared for the USAID Mission, Cairo, 5 December 1977. 78 p.(Unpubl.)

Tang, Y.A. 1977 Report of the Aquaculture Mission in Egypt, 20 October–28 November 1976. Rome, FAO, 48 p.(Unpubl.)

I S R A E L

The study of the marine aquaculture potential in Israel was carried out 26–31 January 1979 by D. Charbonnier, M. Girin and M. Zei.

1. SUPPLY AND DEMAND

The total catch of the Israeli fisheries in 1976 was 23 900 tons. The annual per caput consumption, including imports, was approximately 9.5 kg. Pond-cultured fish amounted to more than 50 percent of the total domestic supply.

1.1 Supply of fisheries products

Marine fisheries mainly consist of trawl fishing for pelagic and inshore fishes, and deep-sea fisheries in distant waters. The yearly catch varied from 7 875 t to 11 643 t during the five-year period, 1972–76. Of this amount, 30–40 percent was caught in the Mediterranean area, while the rest came from the Atlantic as deep-sea fishery landings. The most important fish are the clupeids (1 800– 3 700 t), sea bream (540–1 320 t), grey mullet (700–800 t) and, to a lesser extent, the red mullet, horse mackerel, mackerel and the lizard fish. Imports of fish and fishery products have continued to increase moderately. The main harbours for fresh sea fish are Acco, Haifa, Jaffa, Ashdod and Eilat. Frozen fish is mostly landed in the port of Haifa.

1.2 Supply of species with aquaculture potential

Freshwater fisheries include fisheries at Lake Kinneret and fish culture in ponds. Annual production on Lake Kinneret from 1972 to 1976 varied between 1 500 and 2 100 tons. The main fish are the bleak (Alburnus alburnus 950–1 250 t), and species of tilapia (200–450 t). After a few years of continuous decline up until 1974, the lake catches began to rise. The Fisheries Department stocks the lake with tilapia fingerlings (1–2 g size), particularly T. galilaea, which is highly priced on the market, as well as with silver carp and various mugilid species. This fishery is now more or less stable, showing a slight increase.

Fish culture in ponds is well organized wherever there is fresh or brackish water available for this purpose. Production has not varied much during the last few years, 13 000–14 000 t, 1972–76; and about 15 000 t in 1977. The main fish cultured are various species of carp (60–80%, 8 000–12 000 t), followed by tilapia (7–15%, 1 100–2 000 t), and grey mullet (2–4%, 400–500 t). Prices are Isr. £ 25 for carp, Isr. £ 35 for tilapia, and Isr. £ 40–50 for grey mullet.¹

¹ Isr. £ 19 = approx. U.S.$ 1.00

1.3 Estimated demand

All fish produced in the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and Lake Kinneret, as well as tilapia and grey mullet grown in ponds, are marketed fresh, packed on ice; nearly all carp grown in ponds are marketed “alive”, and transported in large water-filled containers. Catches of Atlantic deep-sea fisheries are quick frozen aboard; the greatest part of the distant water catch consists of hake.

Live fish are sold to retailers at fixed, government-controlled prices; fresh fish are sold to the retail traders by auction, while frozen fish are sold at fixed prices, determined by the fishing companies.

The demand for sea fish exceeds production and the price for species, such as sea bream, sea bass, grouper and red mullet, has increased three-fold during the last five years.

2. STATE OF AQUACULTURE

2.1 Commercial ventures

Fish culture, in semi-intensive polyculture systems, is almost entirely confined to fresh and inland slightly brackishwater ponds and is carried out collectively by the kibbutzim (98 percent). This intensive system is based on three main principles: (i) aeration by various methods as an alternative to water circulation; (ii) high stocking density under careful control; and (iii) feeding with controlled automatic feeders.

The number of fish farms has remained at about 80 for several years, although the total area of fishponds has been reduced from 5 000 ha to about 3 500 ha. This reduction is in accordance with a national policy of intensifying pond production in order to release land and water for other agricultural activity. In addition, there is a tendency to utilize both fresh and slightly brackish water from big fishponds during the summer for irrigation of cotton fields.

Breeding and rearing of the introduced freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) are carried out, on an experimental basis, in several places, such as the hot spring pools connected with the hatchery at Mevo Hama, as well as the breeding and rearing laboratory at the Department of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

At present, marine fish culture is still in the experimental stage. It would be highly desirable however, to commercialize sea water fish cultivation as freshwater fish culture shows several limiting factors: shortage of land for pond construction, fresh water, and a market saturated with carps and tilapias.

Special attention has been given to siganids and sea bream for salt water ponds and cage fish culture. They were successfully hatched from eggs, but the culture of sea bream proved to be of much higher interest with great potential for mariculture. In the Eilat Mariculture Laboratory in the Red Sea, Sparus auratus was successfully reared from egg to commercial size. Applied research at this laboratory concerns induced spawning, food, feeding and diseases. With induced spawning, the breeding season has been successfully extended to five months, instead of six weeks as occurs under natural conditions. Rearing of bream was carried out in tanks, ponds and floating cages. Commercial size (300 g) could be reached in 18 months from hatching when reared in densities up to 70 kg/m³ (220 fish) in cages and the food conversion rate was 3.5:1.

Successful trials were carried out to combine the rearing of bream with oysters (Crassostrea gigas) utilizing the outflow water of the fish ponds rich in organic matter.

An attempt has been made to rear Penaeus semisulcatus in ponds at the Maagan Michael Kibbutz from post-larvae produced by the Tel Aviv University.

2.2 Current research and development activities

Some research on prawns and freshwater fish culture is carried out at kibbutz research stations. However, the most important research is being conducted at the laboratories at the Department of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the Fish and Aquaculture Research Station at Dor, the Institute of Oceanographic and Limnological Research, and the Mariculture Laboratory at Eilat. The last institution is the one that is mainly concerned with coastal aquaculture.

At The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the Medical School, Department of Microbiologic Chemistry, gives special attention to fish mortality in relation to parasites of the genus Prymnesium, blooms of benthic cyanophyceae, cyanophages, marine bdellostomatidae and other agents which might be harmful in intensified fish breeding. The Department of Zoology of The Hebrew University studies the culture of ciliates, nematodes and copepods for use as larval fish food in order to replace the classical rotifers and artemia. In collaboration with the Mariculture Laboratory at Eilat, diseases of marine fishes in nature and in mariculture systems have been studied.

In the Department of Agriculture, intensive research has been undertaken on the biology of M. rosenbergii and its breeding from egg to adult stage. At the Eilat Mariculture Laboratory, special endocrinological and technological research on induced spawning of the gilthead sea bream (S. auratus) have also been successfully carried out, and some investigations on problems in cultivation of this species, including mortality, feeding, foods and cage-culture, have been undertaken.

2.3 Institutional factors

The freshwater fish culture industry is well organized and controlled by the Department of Fisheries and Fish Breeders Association. Production is based on a quota allocated to each farm. Marketing is well organized by a marketing cooperative that distributes fish throughout the country. It is estimated that 98 percent of all available fresh and slightly brackish water is under exploitation by kibbutzim. Fish culture research is the responsibility of the Fish and Aquaculture Research Station at Dor, and the Laboratory for Research on Fish Diseases at Nir David, administered by the Fisheries Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and supported by the Fish Breeders Association. Mariculture research is carried out in the Mariculture Laboratory at Eilat, administered by Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research Ltd. at Haifa in cooperation with The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and one kibbutz near Eilat.

3. POTENTIAL FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Crustaceans

In addition to the freshwater prawn (M. rosenbergii), there are some possibilities of rearing shrimps (P. semisulcatus) in warm brackish ponds at the Maagan Michael Kibbutz.

3.2 Molluscs

Oyster culture is being tried in the Mariculture Laboratory at Eilat. Oysters are successfully reared in the fertile out-flow waters from fish ponds for Sparus auratus. The Mediterranean area is unsuitable for breeding oysters and mussels as there is no shelter and the salinity and temperature are too high.

3.3 Fish

There is some potential for rearing marine fishes on the Mediterranean coast in floating net pens or cages. There is also a possibility of rearing sea bass, sea bream and sole in ponds built along the coast, particularly in the Eilat area. With successful hatcheries there would be good potential for growing grey mullet in fresh, brackish and marine waters.

4. PROGRAMMES NEEDED TO EXPAND AQUACULTURE

4.1 Limiting factors

Marine fish culture in the country is limited by availability of fry and the rather unsheltered coast. However, an attempt has been made to build special floating cages which can be submerged during storms.

4.2 General programme requirements

More research on marine fish diseases and engineering research concerning the design and construction of submersible cages appears to be urgently needed.

5. TECHNOLOGY APPLICABLE IN OTHER MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES

Aquaculture in the country, though mainly of freshwater species, provides examples of high production, mechanized handling of fish and good collaboration between different organizations, such as kibbutzim, the Fish Breeders Association, the Department of Fisheries and the scientific research stations and laboratories.

The technique used for the identification of different species of mullet fry collected from the wild, by the Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research Ltd. in Haifa, can be adopted in other Mediterranean countries.

The Mariculture Laboratory in Eilat and The Hebrew University of Jerusalem have acquired research competence in the study of marine fish pathology, induced breeding of Sparus auratus and they could assist in future work in these fields in the Mediterranean region. The training courses of extension workers in kibbutzim, organized on an annual basis, could also be of interest to other Mediterranean countries.

Appendix 1

PERSONS INTERVIEWED